History of banking

2221: 3534: 2279:) functions. Financing took the form of a crop loan at the beginning of the growing season, which allowed a farmer to cultivate his annual crop, with the associated expenses of seeding, growing, weeding, and harvesting. Underwriting in the form of crop, or commodity, insurance guaranteed the delivery of the crop to its buyer, typically a merchant wholesaler. In addition, traders performed the merchant function by making arrangements to supply the buyer with the crop through alternative sources—grain stores or alternate markets, for instance—in the event of crop failure. He could also keep the farmer (or other commodity producer) in business during a drought or other 3911:(OCC) to encourage banks to explore other financial instruments, diversifying banks' business as well as improving banking economic health. Hence, as the distinct financial instruments are being explored and adopted by both the banking and non-banking industries, the distinction between different financial institutions is gradually vanishing. For example, in 2020, the OCC muddled the distinction between traditional banking and the cryptocurrency ecosystem when it published a number of interpretive letters clarifying national banks' ability to custody cryptocurrency and provide banking services to cryptocurrency companies, as well as use blockchain innovations like 3721: 2370:'s decree that allowed the success of the Templar. This decree freed the Templar from paying tithe to the church and also granted them the ability to collect tithe for their own profit. The Templars' rich land holdings across Europe also emerged during 1100–1300 as the beginning of Europe-wide banking. They took in local currency and issued demand notes redeemable at any of their castles across Europe, allowing movement of money without the usual risk of robbery while traveling. It is unclear if the Templar Knights used any hidden codes or encryptions to protect the notes given from any possible fraud. 2793: 1992: 2337: 1177: 1293: 2639: 2264:, lending at interest, which was also condemned in the Islamic world, but with less strictness. The Jewish newcomers, on the other hand, could make high-risk loans to farmers against crops in the field without direct jurisdiction by the Church. They then began to advance payment against the future delivery of grain shipped to distant ports. In both cases they made a profit from the present discount against the future price. This two-handed trade was time-consuming and soon there arose a class of merchants who were trading grain 2454: 41: 3665:. Government guarantees and Federal Reserve banking regulations to prevent such panics were ineffective or not used. Bank failures led to the loss of billions of dollars in assets. Outstanding debts became heavier, because prices and incomes fell by 20–50% but the debts remained at the same dollar amount. After the panic of 1929, and during the first 10 months of 1930, 744 US banks failed. By April 1933, around $ 7 billion in deposits had been frozen in failed banks or those left unlicensed after the 3317: 1913:(260–268 CE), there was a temporary breakdown of the Roman banking system after the banks rejected the flakes of copper produced by his mints. With the ascent of Christianity, banking became subject to additional restrictions, as the charging of interest was seen as immoral. With the decrease in economic activity after the fall of Rome and Islamic invasions, banking likely temporarily ended in Europe and was not revived until Mediterranean trade commenced again in the 12th century. 4285: 892: 3928: 3646: 2691: 912: 2906: 3673: 3817: 902: 4901: 2410: 1519:(321–185 BCE), an instrument called adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person, which corresponds to the definition of a bill of exchange as we understand it today. During the Buddhist period, there was considerable use of these instruments. Merchants in large towns gave letters of credit to one another. 9586: 2512: 5099: 8252:

Bailments (1832, p. 66) and "Money, when paid into a bank, ceases altogether to be the money of the principal (see Parker v. Marchant, 1 Phillips 360); it is then the money of the banker, who is bound to return an equivalent by paying a similar sum to that deposited with him when he is asked for it." Lord Chancellor Cottenham, Foley v Hill (1848) 2 HLC 28.

3661:, margin requirements were only 10%. Brokerage firms, in other words, would lend $ 9 for every $ 1 an investor had deposited. When the market fell, brokers called in these loans, which could not be paid back. Banks began to fail as debtors defaulted on debt and depositors attempted to withdraw their deposits en masse, triggering multiple 3736: 3796:(ATM) or cash machines were developed and first machines started to appear by the end of the decade. Banks started to become heavy investors in computer technology to automate much of the manual processing, which began a shift by banks from large clerical staffs to new automated systems. By the 1970s the first 2393:, contributed to the growth of banking in a curious way: moneychangers issued documents redeemable at other fairs, in exchange for hard currency. These documents could be cashed at another fair in a different country or at a future fair in the same location. If redeemable at a future date, they would often be 1925:. These societies regarded inanimate matter as alive, like plants, animals and people, and capable of reproducing itself. Hence if you lent 'food money', or monetary tokens of any kind, it was legitimate to charge interest. Food money in the shape of olives, dates, seeds or animals was lent out as early as 8543:

Its foundation in 1694 arose out the difficulties of the Government of the day in securing subscriptions to State loans. Its primary purpose was to raise and lend money to the State and in consideration of this service it received under its Charter and various Act of Parliament, certain privileges of

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Under Ottoman rule, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Jews continued to thrive, becoming part of the commercial and political ruling class. Like Christians, the Jews could engage in necessary commercial activities, such as moneylending and banking, that were proscribed for Moslems under

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A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament: In which the Words and Phrases ... are Distinctly Explained, and the Meanings Assigned to Each Authorized by References to Passages of Scripture, and Frequently ... Confirmed by Citations from the Old Testament and from the Greek Writers. To this Work

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banking house of Mendes, which moved to Istanbul in 1552, under the protection of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. When Alvaro Mendes arrived in Istanbul in 1588, he is reported to have brought with him 85,000 gold ducats. The Mendes family soon acquired a dominating position in the state finances of

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in the 12th century, did not formally create a public bank until 1587. However in the 13th and 14th centuries its Grain Office did a banking business that included both deposits and lending. The Republic's system of transferable public debt has also been identified as an important contribution to the

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criticize interest-taking, but interpretations of the Biblical prohibition vary. One common understanding is that Jews are forbidden to charge interest upon loans made to other Jews, but obliged to charge interest on transactions with non-Jews. However, the Hebrew Bible itself gives numerous examples

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A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greeks and Romans; Together with an Account of Coins, Weights, and

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Similar institutions were created in a number of different countries in Europe, North America, and Japan. One example was in 1881 the Dutch government created the Rijkspostspaarbank (State post savings bank), a postal savings system to encourage workers to start saving. Four decades later they added

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strictly prohibits lending money on Interest."Believers! Have fear of Allah and give up all outstanding interest if you do truly believe. But if you fail to do so then be warned of war from Allah and His Messenger. If you repent even now you have the right of the return of your capital; neither will

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of 2000 BCE, people depositing gold were required to pay amounts as much as one sixtieth of the total deposited. Both the palaces and temple are known to have provided lending and issuing from the wealth they held—the palaces to a lesser extent. Such loans typically involved issuing seed-grain,

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Financial services continued to grow through the 1980s and 1990s as a result of a great increase in demand from companies, governments, and financial institutions, but also because financial market conditions were buoyant and, on the whole, bullish. Interest rates in the United States declined from

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from the House of Mendes) fleeing from Iberia introduced the techniques of European capitalism, banking and even the mercantilist concept of state economy to the Ottoman Empire. In the 16th century, the leading financiers in Istanbul were Greeks and Jews. Many of the Jewish financiers were Marranos

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The interpretation that interest could be charged to non-Israelites would be used in the 14th century for Jews living within Christian societies in Europe to justify lending money for profit. This conveniently side stepped the rules against usury in both Judaism and Christianity, as Christians were

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Thus by the 19th century we find "n ordinary cases of deposits of money with banking corporations, or bankers, the transaction amounts to a mere loan or mutuum, and the bank is to restore, not the same money, but an equivalent sum, whenever it is demanded." Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Law of

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had the goal of overtaking London to make Paris the premier financial center of the world, but the war in 1870 reduced the range of Parisian financial influence. Paris had emerged as an international center of finance in the mid-19th century second only to London. It had a strong national bank and

3364:. His four brothers helped co-ordinate activities across the continent, and the family developed a network of agents, shippers and couriers to transport gold—and information—across Europe. This private intelligence service enabled Nathan to receive in London the news of Wellington's victory at the 2830:

New banking practices promoted commercial and industrial growth by providing a safe and convenient means of payment and a money supply more responsive to commercial needs, as well as by "discounting" business debt. By the end of the 17th century, banking was also becoming important for the funding

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The dominance of U.S. financial markets was disappearing and there was an increasing interest in foreign stocks. The extraordinary growth of foreign financial markets results from both large increases in the pool of savings in foreign countries, such as Japan, and, especially, the deregulation of

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in the 16th century weakened Rome's influence, and its dictates against usury became irrelevant in some areas, freeing up the development of banking in Northern Europe. In the late 18th century, Protestant merchant families began to move into banking to an increasing degree, especially in trading

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in September that same year led to a credit crunch and global banking crises. In response governments around the world bailed-out, nationalised or arranged fire sales for a large number of major banks. Starting with the Irish government on 29 September 2008, governments around the world provided

2679:, negotiating loans, master of the mint, creating new sources for revenue, floating debentures, devising new taxes, and supplying the military. In addition, the court Jews acted as personal bankers for the nobility: They raised money to cover the noble's personal diplomacy and his extravagances. 1754:

Many loans are recorded in writings from the classical age, although a very small proportion were provided by banks. Provision of these were likely an occurrence of Athens, with loans known to have been provided at some time at an annual interest of 12%. Within the boundaries of Athens, bankers'

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Court Jews were skilled administrators and businessmen who received privileges in return for their services. They were most commonly found in Germany, Holland, and Austria, but also in Denmark, England, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Portugal, and Spain. According to Dimont, virtually every

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Some scholars suggest that the Egyptian grain-banking system became so well-developed that it was comparable to major modern banks, both in terms of its number of branches and employees, and in terms of the total volume of transactions. During the rule of the Greek Ptolemies, the granaries were

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The new Larned History for ready reference, reading and research: the actual words of the world's best historians, biographers and specialists; a complete system of history for all uses, extending to all countries and subjects and representing the better and newer literature of history, Volume

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normally served this purpose. Acceptance also required that the holders of debt be able to legally enforce an unconditional right to payment; it required that the notes (as well as drafts) be negotiable instruments. The concept of negotiability had emerged in fits and starts in European money

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The Quran states that taking interest and making money through unethical means was prohibited for Muslims and in other communities in earlier times as well: "Because of the wrongdoing of the Jews We forbade them good things which were (before) made lawful unto them, and because of their much

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the setting of the stage for the later development of capitalism in northern Europe. In this view, elements of Calvinism represented a revolt against the medieval condemnation of usury and, implicitly, of profit in general. Such a connection was advanced in influential works by R. H. Tawney

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also emerged at that time, as financial institutions chartered by government, without capital stock, and owned by their members who subscribe to common funds. The institution most frequently identified as the first modern savings bank was the "Savings and Friendly Society" organized by the

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transformed into a network of banks centered in Alexandria, where the main accounts from all of the Egyptian regional grain-banks were recorded. This became the site of one of the earliest known government central banks, and may have reached its peak with the assistance of Greek bankers.

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R Rollinger, C Ulf, K Schnegg – Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction : Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, Held in Innsbruck, Austria, 3–8 October 2002

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were common at the time. Problems with collapses of banks during downturns, however, led to wider support for central banks in those nations which did not as yet possess them, for example in Australia. In the United States, the role of a central bank had been ended in the so-called

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issuing bank notes. The corporation commenced, with an assured life of twelve years after which the Government had the right to annul its Charter on giving one year's notice. Subsequent extensions of this period coincided generally with the grant of additional loans to the State.

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By the later Middle Ages, Christian merchants who lent money with interest gained ecclesiastical sanction, and Jews lost their privileged position as money-lenders. Italian bankers would take their place, and by 1327, Avignon had 43 branches of Italian banking houses. In 1347,

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and construction slowed or completely ceased. In the face of bad loans and worsening future prospects, the surviving banks became even more conservative in their lending. Banks built up their capital reserves and made fewer loans, which intensified deflationary pressures. A

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In general, it was seen as advantageous to avoid debt at all, to avoid being bound to someone else. Debt was to be avoided and not used to finance consumption, except when in need. However, laws against usury were among many the prophets condemned the people for breaking.

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foreign financial markets, which enabled them to expand their activities. Thus, American corporations and banks started seeking investment opportunities abroad, prompting the development in the U.S. of mutual funds specializing in trading in foreign stock markets.

3464:(CNEP) was established during the financial crisis and the republican revolution of 1848. Its innovations included both private and public sources in funding large projects, and the creation of a network of local offices to reach a much larger pool of depositors. 2286:

Merchant banking progressed from financing trade on one's own behalf to settling trades for others, and then to holding deposits for settlement of "billette" or notes written by the people who were still brokering the actual grain. And so the merchant's "benches"

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were commissioned to provide services to those who had security to provide, in exchange for money from the public treasury. Another source (J. Andreau) has the shops of banking of Ancient Rome firstly opening in the public forums during the period 318 to 310 BCE.

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produced a government and culture sufficiently organized for the birth of a private citizenship and therefore an embryonic capitalist society, allowing for the separation of wealth from exclusive state ownership to the possibility of ownership by the individual.

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markets, but it was well developed by the 17th century. Nevertheless, an Act of Parliament was required in the early 18th century (1704) to overrule court decisions holding that the goldsmiths' notes, despite the "customs of merchants", were not negotiable.

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was the largest depository of Asia. A pot hoard dated to 600 BCE was found in excavations by The British Museum during 1904. During the time of the cessation of the first Mithridatic war, the entire debt being held at the time was annulled by the council.

1227:, written on a clay tablet around 1700 BCE, describes the regulation of banking activity within the civilization (Armstrong); although still rudimentary, banking was well enough developed to justify laws governing banking operations. Later during the 3906:

The process of financial innovation also advanced enormously in the first few decades of the 21st century, increasing the importance and profitability of nonbank finance. Such profitability priorly restricted to the non-banking industry, has prompted the

3832:' in London allowing banks to access capital markets in new ways, which led to significant changes to the way banks operated and accessed capital. It also started a trend where retail banks started to acquire investment banks and stock brokers creating 3609:, who saw it as a cheap way to finance the public debt. At the time, banks were mainly in the cities and largely catered to wealthy customers. Rural citizens and the poor had no choice but to keep their funds at home or on their persons. The original 1084:

in the 17th century, and in London since the 18th century. During the 20th century, developments in telecommunications and computing caused major changes to banks' operations and let banks dramatically increase in size and geographic spread. The

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pioneered international finance in the early 19th century. The family provided loans to the Bank of England and purchased government bonds in the stock markets. Their wealth has been estimated to possibly be the most in modern history. In 1804,

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Xenophon's Minor Works: Comprising the Agesilaus, Hiero, Oeconomicus, Banquet, Apology of Socrates, The Treatises on the Lacedaemonian and Athenian Governments, On Revenues of Athens, On Horsemanship, On the Duties of a Cavalry Officer, and On

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was created around 1823 in Pingyao. Some large draft banks had branches in Russia, Mongolia and Japan to facilitate international trade. Throughout the 19th century, the central Shanxi region became the de facto financial centre of Qing China.

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to get around the ban on Christian usury; for example, one method of effecting a loan with interest was to offer money without interest, but also require that the loan be insured against possible loss or injury, and/or delays in repayment (see

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that had been regulated and controlled by the monarchy. This development required the acceptance in trade of the goldsmiths' promissory notes, payable on demand. Acceptance in turn required a general belief that coin would be available; and a

3741: 2450:, and reduced the importance of the Jews to European monarchs. Later in the Middle Ages, a distinction evolved between consumable necessities such as food and fuel versus durable goods, with usury permitted on loans that involved the latter. 2138:

you do wrong nor will you be wronged."(2:278-279) "O you who have believed, do not consume usury, doubled and multiplied, but fear Allah that you may be successful" (3:130) "and Allah has permitted trade and has forbidden interest" (2:275).

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government attempted to formulate a functioning banking system, which continued until some time during 1881. They emulated French models. The Imperial mint began using imported machines from Britain in the early years of the Meiji period.

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developed with the introduction of standardized coins that allowed easier trade across China, and led to development of letters of credit. These letters were issued by merchants who acted in ways that today we would understand as banks.

3304:, which had been established during British colonial rule as a private company, was nationalized in 1949 following India's independence. By the early 21st century, most of the world's countries had a national central bank set up as a 3737: 1986:

23:20 Unto a foreigner thou mayest lend upon interest; but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon interest; that the LORD thy God may bless thee in all that thou puttest thy hand unto, in the land whither thou goest in to possess

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model where no interest is charged but banks would still operate for profit. This was done through charging for loans in alternative ways such as through fees and using different methods of risk sharing and ownership models such as

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hindering from Allah's way, And of their taking usury when they were forbidden it, and of their devouring people's wealth by false pretenses, We have prepared for those of them who disbelieve a painful doom." (Al Quran – 4:160–161)

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This period saw a significant internationalization of financial markets. The increase of U.S. Foreign investments from Japan not only provided the funds to corporations in the U.S., but also helped finance the federal government.

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had been used since the 1600s in England and banks settled payments by direct courier to the issuing bank. Around 1770, they began meeting in a central location, and by the 1800s a dedicated space was established, known as a

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on loans and paying interest on deposits became more highly developed and competitive. The development of Roman banks was limited, however, by the Roman preference for cash transactions. During the reign of the Roman emperor

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Banks sometimes made loans available confidentially, which is, they provided funds without being publicly and openly known to have done so. In addition, they kept depositors' names confidential as well. This intermediation

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in 1800, in order to stabilize and develop the French economy and to improve the financing of his wars. The Bank of France remained the most important Continental European central bank throughout the 19th century. The

2957:. The method used by the London clearing house involved each bank paying cash to an inspector and then being paid cash by the inspector at the end of each day. The first overdraft facility was set up in 1728 by the 8780: 7842:

A general history of the most prominent banks in Europe:particularly the banks of England and France; the rise and progress of the Bank of North America; a full history of the late and present Bank of the United

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Such growing internationalization and opportunity in financial services changed the competitive landscape, as now many banks would demonstrate a preference for the "universal banking" model prevalent in Europe.

2401:, which could be redeemed at any office of the issuing banker. These bills made it possible to transfer large sums of money without the complications of hauling large chests of gold protected by armed guards. 3739: 9769:(Princeton University Press; 2010) 384 pages. Considers how crises, bailouts, mergers, and regulations have shaped the history of banking in Western Europe, the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia. 2044:. However over time the charging of interest became acceptable due to the changing nature of money, and the term 'usury' came to be used for charging interest above the rate allowed by law. The notion of " 1247:, were formed around a central temple. In the fifth millennium, people began to build and live in the civilization of cities, providing a structure for the construction of institutions and establishments. 2248:

plains cereal crops, many displaced Jews fleeing Spanish persecution were attracted to the trade. They brought with them ancient practices from the Middle and Far East which had financed the trans-Asian

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2004), and economic activities similar to modern deposit banking. Another interpretation is that the family's activities are better described as entrepreneurship rather than banking (Wunsch 2007). The

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are free to engage in all forms of financial services, make investments in client companies, and function as much as possible as a "one-stop" supplier of both retail and wholesale financial services.

3154:, was an outlier from the general pattern of early national central banks in that it was directly owned by the Imperial Russian government, rather than private individual shareholders. In the nascent 3487:—a town which was undergoing rapid economic and physical expansion driven by a multiplicity of small metalworking firms, whose many highly skilled and prosperous owners readily invested in property. 2968:

and the growing international trade, especially in London. At the same time, new types of financial activities broadened the scope of banking. The merchant-banking families dealt in everything from

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Pompeius Occo (1483–1537) came from a northern German family and grew up in Augsburg. In 1511 he settled in Amsterdam as a representative of the Fugger banking house and business firm of Augsburg.

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These deposited funds were intended to be held for the settlement of grain trades, but often were used for the bench's own trades in the meantime. The term bankrupt is a corruption of the Italian

2762:. Thanks to the free coinage, the Bank of Amsterdam, and the heightened trade and commerce, the Netherlands attracted even more coin and bullion to be deposited in their banks. The concepts of 3253:

and other leading policymakers and economists of the time, took an active role to promote the independence of central bank, a key component of the economic orthodoxy the EFO fostered at the

1880:" show rental monies to be collected from persons using land belonging to a temple and given to the temple treasurer, as decreed by Mettius Modestus, governor of Lycia and Pamphylia. A law, 1221:

symbols were in use by members of temples and palaces to record stocks of produce. Types of records accounting for trade exchanges of payments were first being made about 3200 BCE. The

3498:, which had become the focus for a network of clubs and societies for co-operation and the exchange of ideas among Birmingham's highly active citizenry as part of the movement known as the 2260:

and halls of Lombardy, alongside local traders, and set up their benches to trade in crops. They had one great advantage over the locals: Christians were strictly forbidden from the sin of

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and the Church distrust against exchange activities (as opposed to production activities), a number of operations of a banking or financial nature are in evidence in the activities of the

2717:. They came to control much of the European economy and to dominate international high finance in the 16th century. The Fuggers built the first German social housing area for the poor in 8530: 5879: 5795: 1123:, starting sometime after 12,000 BCE, resulted in increased stability of economic relations. Such changes in socio-economic conditions began approximately 10,000 years ago in the 3452:

arrived in Paris from Frankfurt, and set up the bank "De Rothschild Frères". This bank funded Napoleon's return from Elba and became one of the leading banks in European finance. The

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was repealed in 1999 (during the Clinton Administration), this saw US retail banks embark on big rounds of mergers and acquisitions and also engage in investment banking activities.

3773:. Encouraged by these institutions, commercial banks started to lend to sovereign states in the third world. This was at the same time as inflation started to rise in the west. The 9510:"OCC Chief Counsel's Interpretation on National Bank and Federal Savings Association Authority to Use Independent Node Verification Networks and Stablecoins for Payment Activities" 1160:

was one of the four main sites for sourcing the material deposits of obsidian within the Mediterranean; trade using obsidian was replaced during the 3rd millennium BCE by trade of

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During the reign of the Ptolemies, state depositories replaced temples as the location of security-deposits. Records exist to show this having occurred by the end of the reign of

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The first decade of the 21st century saw the culmination of the technical innovation in banking over the previous 30 years and saw a major shift away from traditional banking to

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To provide depositors who did not have access to banks a safe, convenient method to save money and to promote saving among the poor, the postal savings system was introduced in

5763: 3872:. Large corporate players were beginning to find their way into the financial service community, offering competition to established banks. The main services offered included 3844:

about 15% for two-year U.S. Treasury notes to about 5% during the 20-year period, and financial assets grew then at a rate approximately twice the rate of the world economy.

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According to Muir (2009) there were two types of banks operating within Egypt: royal and private. Documents made to show the banking of taxes were known as peptoken-records.

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is recorded to have stolen from the deposits on occasion. The temple served as a depository for Aristotle, Caesar, Dio Chrysostomus, Plautus, Plutarch, Strabo and Xenophon.

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The Roman empire at some time formalized the administrative aspect of banking and instituted greater regulation of financial institutions and financial practices. Charging

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forbade ownership of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates by US citizens beyond a certain amount, effectively ending the convertibility of US dollars into gold.

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was limited to deposits of £30 a year with a maximum balance of £150. Interest was paid at the rate of two and one-half percent per year on whole pounds in the account.

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certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a bailee; these receipts could not be assigned, only the original depositor could collect the stored goods.

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developed, in theory giving depositors an interest (part ownership) in the trades performed with their money. Similar methods had long been employed in Islamic banking.

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Members of Ketley's society paid a monthly subscription to a central pool of funds which was used to finance the building of houses for members, which in turn acted as

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is the oldest bank in Germany and the world's second oldest, established in 1590 by Dutch brothers Hans and Paul Berenberg in Hamburg. The bank is still owned by the

2933:. By 1745, standardized printed notes ranging from £20 to £1,000 were being issued. Fully printed notes that did not require the name of the payee and the cashier's 2990:

A great impetus to country banking came in 1797 when, with England threatened by war, the Bank of England suspended cash payments. A handful of Frenchmen landed in

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They thrived in Baghdad during the 18th and 19th centuries under Ottoman rule, performing critical commercial functions such as moneylending and banking. Like the

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caused significant stress on banks around the world. The failure of a large number of major banks resulted in government bail-outs. The collapse and fire sale of

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temple, though during the time of the Empire, public deposits gradually ceased to be held in temples, and instead were held in private depositories. Still, the

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As the need for new buildings to house operations increased, construction of these places within the cities began around the courtyards of the agora (markets).

8844: 8372: 6879: 3055:, established in 1401, is the first example of municipal, mostly public banks which pioneered central banking on a limited scale. It was soon emulated by the 1135:

Ancient types of money known as grain-money and food cattle-money were used from around 9000 BCE as two of the earliest commodities used for purposes of

9378: 9265:"Margin Requirements, Margin Loans, and Margin Rates: Practice and Principles – analysis of history of margin credit regulations – Statistical Data Included" 2220: 1289:

Banking as an archaic activity (or quasi-banking) is thought to have begun as early as the latter part of the 4th millennium BCE, to the 3rd millennia BCE.

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on loans. Later there was the bankruptcy of the Bardi (1343) and Peruzzi (1346). The accompanying growth of Italian banking in France was the start of the

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the concepts of cooperative banking spread through northern Europe and onto the US at the turn of the 20th century under a wide range of different names.

6707: 6531: 1127:, about 9,500 years ago in northern China, about 5,500 years ago in Mexico, and approximately 4,500 years ago in the eastern parts of the United States. 4662: 7786: 1807:

to deal with debt in the impoverished lower classes. Another source shows banking practices during 325 BCE when, on account of being in debt, the

2630:. Some of these families brought great fortunes with them. The most notable of the Jewish banking families in the 16th-century Ottoman Empire was the 1493:

The temple to Apollo in Didyma was constructed sometime in the 6th century. A large sum of gold was deposited within the treasury at the time by king

7766: 1634: 1630:(ΘΗΣΑΥΡΌΣ) which were made similar in form to the construction of a bee-hive, and were found for example in the Mycenae tombs of 1550–1500 BCE. 9641: 5051: 3680:

Bank failures snowballed as desperate bankers called in loans that borrowers did not have time or money to repay. With future profits looking poor,

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The Rothschild family were instrumental in supporting railway systems across the world and in complex government financing for projects such as the

8262: 6555: 4913: 4387:, when Christ drove the money changers out of the temple in Jerusalem, he overturned their tables. Matthew 21.12. In Greece, bankers were known as 1982:

23:19 Thou shalt not lend upon interest to thy brother: interest of money, interest of victuals, interest of any thing that is lent upon interest.

9614: 2994:, causing a panic. Shortly after this incident, Parliament authorised the Bank of England and country bankers to issue notes of low denomination. 2929:

in 1661. Initially, these were hand-written and issued on deposit or as a loan, and promised to pay the bearer the value of the note on demand in

2650:, the Jews could engage in necessary commercial activities, such as moneylending and banking, that were proscribed for Muslims under Islamic law. 2092:). At the same time, new types of financial activities broadened the scope of banking far beyond its origins. One school of thought attributes to 9173:

Peterson, Christopher L. (July 2003). "Truth, Understanding, and High-Cost Consumer Credit: The Historical Context of the Truth in Lending Act".

6129: 5849: 4933: 4515: 3808:

payment network was established in 1973 and domestic payment systems were developed around the world by banks working together with governments.

2979:. These new "merchant banks" facilitated trade growth, profiting from England's emerging dominance in seaborne shipping. Two immigrant families, 1788:

Roman banking activities were a crucial presence within temples. For instance the minting of coins occurred within temples, most importantly the

6570: 5658: 1444:

of Babylonia describe the family's financial activities as having occurred sometime after 1000 BCE and ending sometime during the reign of

8337: 7770: 7762: 6393:

secondary – The journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 1894 " ...great treasury tombs probably range from this time to 1200..."

8514: 6674: 6895: 5816: 5792: 3079:. Notable municipal central banks were established in the early 17th century in leading northwestern European commercial centers, namely the 8985: 3300:

twenty years later. After gaining independence, numerous African and Asian countries also established central banks or monetary unions. The

2835:. The success of the new banking techniques and practices in Amsterdam and London helped spread the concepts and ideas elsewhere in Europe. 2780:

In the City of London there were no banking houses operating in a manner recognized as so today until the 17th century, although the London

5048: 4482: 4010: 9285: 8948: 6603: 4164:

overcame the resistance to central banking that lead to the expiration of the First Bank of the United States' charter five years earlier.

2869:, who possessed private vaults and charged a fee for their service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued 8634: 6920: 4953: 4873: 4034:

1656 – The first European bank to use banknotes opened in Sweden for private clients, in 1668 the institution converted to a public bank.

3777:

was eventually abandoned in 1971 and a number of the banks were caught out and became bankrupt due to third world country debt defaults.

1961: 1724:

became a prominent banking center. During the 2nd century, there were for certain three banks and one temple depository within the city.

1588:

is credited to have made the first suggestion of the creation of an organisation known in the modern definition as a joint-stock bank in

9916: 8712: 8598: 6983: 6770: 5996: 5977: 5085: 5054: 3122:. The bank was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue 9876:

Neal, Larry. "How it all began: the monetary and financial architecture of Europe during the first global capital markets, 1648–1815."

9835:

Komai, Alejandro, and Gary Richardson. "A history of financial regulation in the USA from the beginning until today: 1789 to 2011." in

8673: 8461: 6854: 5496: 3892:. Indeed, by the end of 2001 the market capitalisation of the world's 15 largest financial services providers included four non-banks. 2500:

moneychangers in Europe, who moved from city to city along the busy pilgrim routes important for trade. Key cities in this period were

9325:, Essays in International Finance 192 (Princeton: International Finance Section, Department of Economics, Princeton University, 1994)" 8183: 7819: 5760: 5517: 1618:

were the first to trade using money, during the 5th century BCE, as opposed to earlier trade which occurred using forms of pre-money.

1312:

and the temple located at the centre of economic activity therein; trade at the time for citizens external to the city was forbidden.

9549: 4247:

which canceled the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold by foreign nations. This essentially ended the existing

3908: 9599: 9570: 8459:"An Economic Explanation of the Early Bank of Amsterdam, Debasement, Bills of Exchange, and the Emergence of the First Central Bank" 3320:

The Frankfurt terminus of the Taunus railroad, financed by the Rothschilds. Opened in 1840, it was one of Germany's first railroads.

3186:. Simultaneously, a quasi-central banking role was played by a small group of powerful family-run banking networks, typified by the 3018:, with western-style modern banks flourishing. Today, the financial centres in China are Hong Kong, Beijing, Shanghai and Shenzhen. 7086: 6899: 3461: 3349: 2887:

These practices created a new kind of "money" that was actually debt, that is, goldsmiths' debt rather than silver or gold coin, a

2733: 2698: 9129: 7482:, Isaiah 50:1. Prophetic condemnation of usury: Ezekiel 22:12, Nehemiah 5:7 and 12:13. Cautions regarding debt: Prov 22:7, passim. 6319: 4840: 4590: 4258:(deregulation of London financial markets) served as a catalyst to reaffirm London's position as a global centre of world banking. 1863:

did not so much invest money as merely convert the foreign currency into the only legal tender in Rome—that of the Imperial Mint.

9487: 9356: 8887: 8498: 7502: 6012: 5924: 5369: 5230: 4334: 2745: 2119:

propounds the theory that Christian rationality is the primary driver behind the success of capitalism and the Rise of the West.

1081: 1076:, and in the 15th and 16th century to northern Europe. This was followed by a number of important innovations that took place in 7864: 7799: 2987:, established merchant banking firms in London in the late 18th century and came to dominate world banking in the next century. 2169:

Despite the prohibition of charging interest, during the 20th century a number of developments took place that would lead to an

9466: 9320: 7459: 6096: 5944: 5892: 3868:

The early 2000s were marked by consolidation of existing banks and entrance into the market of other financial intermediaries:

1320:

with re-payment from the harvest. These basic social agreements were documented in clay tablets, with an agreement on interest

7259: 6964: 5123: 5045: 9727: 9092: 8321: 8120: 8086: 8052: 7383: 7324: 7214: 6626: 6506: 6240: 2027: 1529: 1214: 1061:, Italy, which has been operating continuously since 1472. Until the end of 2002, the oldest bank still in operation was the 532: 398: 8868: 6373: 5024: 1687:

Before the destruction by Persians during the 480 invasion, the Athenian Acropolis temple dedicated to Athena stored money;

8235: 7140: 3107: 2980: 2844: 1734:

Of the settlements of the Greco-Roman world of the 1st century CE, three were of pronounced wealth and centres of banking:

1417:

from a contract of bailment if the notary denied the existence of the contract. Law 124 stipulated that a depositor with a

5625: 5065: 3931: 9553: 7713: 5867: 4480: 3956: 3746: 3453: 1153: 6459: 6425: 6403: 6361: 6336: 5680:

Archaeology at the North-east Anatolian Frontier, I.: An Historical Geography and a Field Survey of the Bayburt Province

2048:" refers to banking and financial activities that came into existence several centuries ago. Despite the prohibition of 9937: 7980: 7243: 7031: 6864: 6790: 6469: 6049: 5826: 5679: 4815: 4792: 4638: 4600: 3697: 3686: 7749: 7059: 5401: 5262: 5003: 4714: 2328:, or broken bench, the symbolic ruin of an insolvent trader. The expression of "being broke" has a similar etymology. 1890:

advocated the establishment of a state bank, funded by the sale of all the properties owned at the time by the state.

9232: 9199: 9157: 9060: 9036: 8738: 8706: 8667: 8628: 8524: 8435: 8421: 8404: 8013: 7953: 7926: 7899: 7564: 7423: 7157: 6948: 6929: 6278: 6157: 6076: 5964: 5737: 5422: 5283: 4540: 4492: 941: 8219: 7970: 7943: 7916: 7889: 7114: 6291: 2549:

imprisoned and then expelled Genoese bankers. In 1410, all Italian merchants were expelled from Paris. In 1407, the

6615: 5185: 4782: 4628: 4157: 3610: 3538: 3360:, and later to make subsidy payments to British allies when these organized new troops after Napoleon's disastrous 1448:. These records suggest a "lending house" (Silver 2002), a family engaging in "professional banking..." (Dandamaev 9386: 8576: 7452: 7238:. Papers And Monographs Of The American Academy In Rome. Vol. 33. University of Michigan Press. p. 226. 6147: 5700: 3903:

made it easier for third parties to access bank transaction data and introduced standard API and security models.

3027: 8469: 7013: 4150: 4129: 3560: 3556:. Rev. Duncan established the small bank in order to encourage his working class congregation to develop thrift. 3286: 3163: 2482: 2478: 1054: 1046: 105: 9264: 9102: 7865:

The history of modern Europe: from the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the war in the Crimea in 1857, Volume 2

7448: 3753:

in Sydney. People could only receive $ 25 at a time and the bank card was sent back to the user at a later date.

3379:, London. Major businesses directly founded by Rothschild family capital include Alliance Assurance (1824) (now 3337:

in financial instruments such as foreign bills and government securities. From 1809 Rothschild began to deal in

9809: 9418: 8144: 7827: 7807: 7723: 7554: 7334: 7307: 7297: 7283: 7267: 7231: 6972: 6907: 6827: 6798: 6778: 6757: 6749: 6736: 6715: 6684: 6650: 6633: 6623: 6580: 6496: 6435: 6411: 6381: 6344: 6303: 6250: 6106: 5952: 5902: 5687: 5666: 5633: 5613: 5593: 5569: 5549: 5504: 5484: 5458: 5152: 5131: 5073: 5032: 5011: 4961: 4941: 4921: 4850: 4823: 4758: 4724: 4672: 4262: 4084:

established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation (

3939: 3869: 3712:. This was to avoid more risky investment banking activities from ever again causing commercial bank failures. 2151: 1921:

Most early religious systems in the ancient Near East, and the secular codes arising from them, did not forbid

1086: 689: 440: 8828: 6728: 5645: 5168: 4265:

including a credit crunch that led to the failure and bail-out of a large number of the world's biggest banks.

9777: 8284: 7580: 6817: 5815:

is Professor of the New Testament at the Ecole Biblique et Archeologique Francaise, Jerusalem (2008) (2008).

5181: 5145:

The History of Greece from Its Commencement to the Close of the Independence of the Greek Nation, Vol. 4 of 4

4481:

R Marks was Richard and Billie Deihl Professor of History at Whittier College during 2000 (7 December 2006).

4329: 4204: 3258: 2807:

By the end of the 16th century and during the 17th, the traditional banking functions of accepting deposits,

2775: 2667:

were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European

1957: 1324:. The habit of depositing and storing of wealth in temples continued at least until 209 BCE, as evidenced by 1192: 1106: 843: 786: 8813:

Miklos Sebok, "President Wilson and the International Origins of the Federal Reserve System—A Reappraisal."

6222: 5780: 4218:, the central banking system of the United States, and granted it the legal authority to issue legal tender. 3441:

numerous aggressive private banks that financed projects all across Europe and the expanding French Empire.

3090:

The first national (as opposed to municipal) central bank was the Swedish central bank, known since 1866 as

1120: 9531: 9509: 7359: 5585: 5572: 5473: 4255: 4153:

charter. Vice President George Clinton broke the tie and voted against renewal, and the bank was dissolved.

4111: 3829: 3564: 3503: 2553:, the first state bank of deposit, was founded in Genoa and was to dominate business in the Mediterranean. 813: 190: 6923: 5541: 5447: 3460:, founded in 1796 helped resolve the financial crisis of 1848 and emerged as a powerful central bank. The 2831:

requirements of the combative European states. This would lead on to government regulations and the first

2158:). Islamic jurists discuss two types of riba: an increase in capital with no services provided, which the 1308:(2335–2280 BCE) the occurrence of trade was limited to the internal boundaries of each city-state of 9932: 5418: 5279: 4576: 3915:

as settlement infrastructure. In addition, in 2021, the OCC granted its first federal banking charter to

3766: 3720: 3606: 3052: 2603: 1540: 1506: 1413:

before depositing the articles with a banker, and Law 123 stipulated that a banker was discharged of any

634: 9085:

Industrial Enlightenment: Science, technology and culture in Birmingham and the West Midlands, 1760–1820

8516:

Committee of Finance and Industry 1931 (Macmillan Report) description of the founding of Bank of England

8394: 5542:

Sons and Descendants: A Social History of Kin Groups and Family Names in the Early Neo-Babylonian Period

4900:

Ur, Jason A. 2007 Early Mesopotamian urbanism: a new view from the North. Antiquity 81(313): 585–600. –

3173:

Central banks were established in many European countries during the 19th century. Napoleon created the

9618: 8376: 7023: 6295: 4748: 4454: 3729: 3254: 2954: 2854: 2763: 594: 522: 354: 80: 6337:

Epilegomena to the Study of Greek Religions and Themis a Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion

2925:

became one of the first banks to issue banknotes, the first being the short-lived banknotes issued by

2186:

The roots of modern banking are traceable to medieval and early Renaissance Europe, including Italy's

2064:

attached directly to the Vatican (money loans, guarantees, issuance of securities, investments, etc.)

7144:(Director of Studies at the School of Higher study of the Social Sciences, Paris) (14 October 1999). 5812: 4383:

The word "bank" reflects the origins of banking in temples. According to the famous passage from the

4222: 3801: 3361: 3111: 3002:

During the Qing dynasty, the private nationwide financial system in China was first developed by the

2940:

In the 18th century, services offered by banks increased. Clearing facilities, security investments,

2672: 2599: 2473:

families, which established branches in many other parts of Europe. Probably the most famous was the

497: 332: 8351: 7089:

published by the Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 2011 | 24(37) | 105-115

2040:, was banned by Christian churches. This included charging a fee for the use of money, such as at a 8483:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, Volume 3. Banking: Middle Ages and Early Modern Period

4207:

was passed provided for the redemption of United States paper currency, in gold, beginning in 1879.

4038: 4028: 4021: 4017: 3793: 3750: 3580: 3342: 3167: 3147: 2602:, established in the city the first replication of the Venetian model of exchange and deposit, the 2394: 1210: 905: 447: 366: 5727: 5144: 4990: 4563: 3087:

in 1619. These institutions offered a public infrastructure for cashless international payments.

2671:, primarily in the 17th and 18th centuries. Court Jews were precursors to the modern financier or 1145: 1037:

families dominated banking in 14th century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of

9798: 9289: 8982: 7847: 7745: 6195: 5373: 5234: 4339: 4168: 3836:

that offered a wide range of banking services. The trend also spread to the US after much of the

3689:

developed and the downward spiral accelerated. In all, over 9,000 banks failed during the 1930s.

3602: 3549: 3533: 3330: 3278: 3266: 3231: 2861:, emerged in the 17th century. At the time, wealthy merchants began to store their gold with the 2824: 2781: 2106: 1999: 1775: 1615: 1284: 995: 694: 337: 125: 9674: 8945: 6926: 4975: 3517:

to attract further funding to the society, enabling further construction. The first outside the

2728:

Dutch bankers played a central role in establishing banking in the northern German city states.

2272: 1576: 1474:

From the fourth millennium previously agricultural settlements began administrative activities.

1231:(after 646 BCE), further evidence is found of banking practices in the Mesopotamia region. 9582: 8136: 8078: 8072: 5324: 4215: 3837: 3701: 3499: 3449: 3380: 3297: 3227: 3183: 2958: 1414: 9189: 9046: 8618: 8005: 7349:

Trade and Politics in Ancient Greece By Johannes Hasebroek (page 156) – Retrieved 14 July 2012

3182:

was founded in 1812, soon after Finland had been taken over from Sweden by Russia to become a

2792: 1991: 8696: 7411: 7110: 6185: 6066: 6039: 5981: 4233: 4122: 3666: 3592: 3476: 3384: 3334: 3301: 2965: 2820: 2490: 2398: 2102: 1789: 1325: 1196: 934: 868: 629: 567: 527: 386: 165: 155: 8977:

Alain Plessis, "The history of banks in France." in Pohl, Manfred, and Sabine Freitag, eds.

8657: 8458: 7475: 7373: 5124:

The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances And Financial Administration Of The Seleukid Empire

2453: 2283:, through the issuance of crop (or commodity) insurance against the hazard of crop failure. 9488:"Re: Authority of a National Bank to Provide Cryptocurrency Custody Services for Customers" 8194: 5781:

Dio Chrysostom Orations: 7, 12 and 36 (Edited by: D. A. Russell, St John's College, Oxford)

5605: 4420: 4248: 4229: 4071: 4067: 3991: 3762: 3693: 3514: 3345: 3143: 3131: 3056: 2884:(which evolved into banknotes) were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. 2550: 2336: 1110: 1050: 791: 766: 644: 604: 599: 467: 256: 205: 135: 115: 9557: 8830:

Central Banking in Central and Eastern Europe: Lessons From the Interwar Years' Experience

7479: 3285:. Similar ideas were emulated in other newly independent European countries, e.g. for the 2709:

In the southern German realm, two great banking families emerged in the 15th century, the

1637:, performed financial transactions. (Gilbart p. 3) The temples were the places where 1176: 966:

to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities. This was around 2000 BCE in

8: 9751: 9705:

Banking in the Early Stages of Industrialization: A Study in Comparative Economic History

8849: 8597:

Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "A History of Central Banking in the United States"

8427: 6666: 6332: 6242:

Europe, America and the Wider World: Essays on the Economic History of Western Capitalism

4211: 4115: 4006: 3621:

services allowing working families to make payments via post offices in the Netherlands.

3568: 3544: 3480: 3341:, and developed this as a cornerstone of his business. From 1811 on, in negotiation with 3292:

By 1935, the only significant independent nation that did not possess a central bank was

3151: 3034: 2930: 2755: 2694: 2542: 2363: 2355: 1292: 858: 684: 674: 624: 562: 271: 140: 85: 8298: 7840: 7606: 7260:

Ancient Roman Statutes: A Translation With Introduction, Commentary, Glossary, and Index

6189: 5353: 5214: 3414:

The Japanese government approached the London and Paris families for funding during the

2397:

by an amount comparable to a rate of interest. Eventually, these documents evolved into

1755:

loans are recorded as having been issued on eleven occasions altogether (Bogaert 1968).

1213:, dated to a period beginning 8000 BCE and ending 1500 BCE, as records of the 9883: 9741: 9133: 8331: 7556:

The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success

7535: 6549: 6123: 6094: 5843: 4624: 4509: 4349: 4344: 4319: 4197: 4185: 4160:

was chartered for 20 years. Difficulties financing the government during and after the

4100: 3709: 3705: 3579:

because of very small, seasonal flows of cash and very limited human resources. In the

3415: 3365: 3159: 3068: 2910: 2893: 2638: 2622: 2538: 2443: 2418: 2340: 1728: 833: 704: 699: 587: 572: 547: 512: 300: 120: 25: 9784:

Hudson, Peter James. "On the History and Historiography of Banking in the Caribbean."

8494: 7748:(Professor of Economics Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology – 2006) 7019:

The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times

6016: 5868:

The Roman History, from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth, Volume 3

4693: 4691: 3126:. In the early 18th century, a major experiment in national central banking failed in 9819: 9805: 9723: 9238: 9228: 9195: 9153: 9088: 9056: 9032: 8702: 8663: 8624: 8520: 8431: 8400: 8317: 8278: 8140: 8116: 8082: 8048: 8009: 7998: 7976: 7949: 7922: 7895: 7823: 7803: 7719: 7560: 7539: 7521: 7419: 7379: 7330: 7303: 7279: 7263: 7239: 7210: 7153: 7146: 7027: 6968: 6944: 6903: 6860: 6823: 6794: 6774: 6753: 6732: 6711: 6680: 6646: 6629: 6619: 6576: 6502: 6465: 6431: 6407: 6377: 6340: 6299: 6246: 6218: 6153: 6102: 6072: 6045: 5948: 5898: 5822: 5733: 5683: 5662: 5629: 5609: 5589: 5565: 5545: 5500: 5480: 5454: 5148: 5127: 5069: 5028: 5007: 4957: 4937: 4917: 4846: 4819: 4788: 4754: 4720: 4668: 4634: 4596: 4536: 4488: 4269: 4136: 4042: 3916: 3445: 3408: 3325: 3246: 3191: 3187: 3091: 3080: 3060: 2877: 2797: 2684: 2571: 2493: 2225: 2166:

prohibits. Trade in promissory notes (e.g. fiat money and derivatives) is forbidden.

2061: 2045: 2031: 1677: 1646: 1478: 1398: 1340: 1297: 1228: 1223: 1073: 911: 746: 741: 582: 552: 487: 200: 9893: 9331: 7503:"Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism" 7456: 2725:. It still exists, but not the original Fugger Bank which lasted from 1487 to 1657. 2537:

After 1400, the political turned somewhat against the Italian bankers. In 1401 King

2531: 2481:

in 1397 and continuing until 1494. The oldest banking firm in current operation is

1669:. These consisted of deposits, currency exchange, validation of coinage, and loans. 1553: 9441: 8899: 7525: 7517: 7065: 6900:

Power in Weakness: Conflict and Rhetoric in Paul's Second Letter to the Corinthians

5365: 5314: 5226: 4688: 4314: 4309: 4225:, 9,000 banks close, wiping out one third of the money supply in the United States. 4143: 4107: 4103:

failure caused a European financial crisis and forced many bankers out of business.

4096: 4081: 4060: 3896: 3885: 3792:, which led to the first automated reader-sorter machines. In the 1960s, the first 3758: 3658: 3518: 3472: 3457: 3195: 3174: 3119: 3099: 3003: 2926: 2848: 2801: 2759: 2567: 2367: 2312: 2081: 2041: 1808: 1434: 1422: 1382: 1268: 1124: 999: 991: 927: 895: 823: 801: 781: 756: 619: 609: 517: 435: 9767:

Unsettled Account: The Evolution of Banking in the Industrialized World Since 1800

9571:

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Royal Statistical Society (Great Britain)

8918: 7838: 6256: 2429:

In the middle of the 13th century, groups of Christians, particularly the Italian

9802: 9413: 9222: 9050: 8989: 8952: 8784: 8605: 8556: 8502: 8465: 8239: 7463: 7047: 7026:, The Kauffman Foundation Series on Innovation and Entrepreneurship. p. 16. 6990: 5931: 5863: 5799: 5767: 5328: 4530: 4459: 4304: 4189: 4053: 3977: 3960: 3951: 3797: 3483:. The origins of the building society as an institution lie in late-18th century 3388: 3282: 3179: 3103: 3076: 2922: 2881: 2627: 2566:

Between 1527 and 1572 a number of important banking family groups arose from the

2516: 2497: 2359: 2304: 2170: 2053: 1627: 1426: 1402: 1386: 1305: 1116: 1094: 1062: 987: 863: 848: 838: 761: 751: 664: 614: 557: 537: 507: 482: 457: 371: 261: 251: 100: 75: 8232: 8000:

Banking on Baghdad: inside Iraq's 7,000-year history of war, profit and conflict

3425:

From 1919 to 2004 the Rothschilds' Bank in London played a role as place of the

2766:

and payment systems were further developed and spread to England and elsewhere.

1666: 393: 9746: 9364: 8903: 7005: 6670: 6315: 5319: 5164: 4354: 4299: 3947: 3857: 3833: 3824:

Global banking and capital market services proliferated during the 1980s after

3781: 3618: 3598: 3353: 3316: 3274: 3270: 3250: 3223: 3214: 3084: 3064: 2972: 2812: 2729: 2583: 2575: 2438: 2430: 2422: 2187: 2057: 1875: 1803:) was formed, with the passing of a consular directive to form a commission of 1516: 1453: 1441: 1371: 1333: 979: 915: 828: 796: 736: 669: 654: 649: 577: 376: 359: 342: 246: 211: 195: 180: 95: 40: 8883: 7436: 5086:

image and information of a clay tablet showing practice from an earlier period

4934:

Temples, Tithes, and Taxes: The Temple and the Economic Life of Ancient Israel

4532:

A Concise Economic History of the World: From Paleolithic Times to the Present

3014:

With the fall of the Qing dynasty, the financial centers gradually shifted to

2758:, Japan and other locales were being imported into Europe, with corresponding 1180:

Detailed account of raw materials and workdays for a basketry workshop. Clay,

1093:, including some of the world's largest banks, and provoked much debate about 9926: 9700: 9473: 8655: 8190: 7631: 6943:. Cassell & The European Province of the Society of Saint Francis. 1992. 5894:

The Western Shores Of Turkey: Discovering The Aegean And Mediterranean Coasts

5713: 4391:, a name derived from the tables where they sat. Similarly, the English word 4384: 4244: 4178: 4089: 3774: 3630: 3305: 3206: 3202: 3155: 3139: 3135: 3115: 2991: 2350:

In the 12th century, the need to transfer large sums of money to finance the

2344: 2244:

merchants and bankers grew in wealth and credit based on the strength of the

2233: 2215: 2085: 2068: 1843:. They would set up their stalls in the middle of enclosed courtyards called 1763:

was known as dia tes trapazēs, translated from Latin as "God will trap you".

1714: 1375: 1156:

of it was occurring during the 9th millennium BCE (Cauvin; Chataigner 1989).

873: 853: 776: 731: 502: 492: 472: 349: 160: 150: 130: 65: 55: 9242: 9191:

British Clubs and Societies 1580–1800: The Origins of an Associational World

8966:

London and Paris as International Financial Centres in the Twentieth Century

1766:

A loan was made by a Temple of Athens to the state during 433–427 BCE.

1218: 9825: 9772: 7141: 5409: 5270: 4359: 4290: 4193: 3964: 3943: 3900: 3877: 3825: 3725: 3572: 3437: 3404: 3338: 3296:, which subsequently developed a precursor thereto in 1945 and the present 3210: 3046: 3007: 2984: 2969: 2914: 2832: 2808: 2523: 2466: 2280: 2253:. They applied these methods to finance grain production and distribution. 2116: 1971: 1820: 1793: 1603: 1512: 1202: 1149: 1090: 1030: 983: 659: 462: 327: 266: 223: 185: 170: 90: 70: 9718:

Cassis, Youssef; Grossman, Richard S.; Schenk, Catherine R., eds. (2016).

8946:"Takahasi Korekiyo, the Rothschilds and the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1907" 7491:

J. Le Goff, Marchands et banquiers au Moyen Âge, Puf Quadrige, 2011, p. 75

1584:

contain numerous references to the issuing of credit (Millett p. 5).

1321: 1014: 9871: 9529: 9507: 9485: 8137:

The Fuggers of Augsburg: Pursuing Wealth and Honor in Renaissance Germany

4842:

Ancient Mesopotamia :Materials and Industries The Archaeological Evidence

4484:

The Origins of the Modern World: Fate and Fortune in the Rise of the West

4240: 4161: 3984: 3575:

movement. The traditional banks had viewed poor and rural communities as

3559:

Another precursor to the modern savings bank originated in Germany, with

3495: 3426: 3238: 2676: 2611: 2579: 2383: 2237: 1983: 1979: 1941: 1933: 1887: 1731:

cities had private banks during the 2nd century (Roberts – p. 130).

1581: 1536: 1487: 1042: 818: 709: 679: 290: 175: 110: 60: 9442:"Chairman Cox Announces End of Consolidated Supervised Entities Program" 7877:

La Vanguardia - El Banco de Barcelona financia el segundo viaje de Colón

6645:

The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity By James Albert Harrill

2787: 2586:, although perhaps less influential, and the Pinelli and the Lomellini. 2413:

A 14th century manuscript depicting bankers in an Italian counting house

2303:) in the great grain markets became centres for holding money against a 9868:

Other People's Money: How Banking Worked in the Early American Republic

8570: 8423:

Banking in Japan: The evolution of Japanese banking, 1868-1952 (p. xvi)

8040: 7180: 4874:

The Great Divide: History and Human Nature in the Old World and the New

4324: 4085: 4078: 3995: 3912: 3881: 3784:. In 1959, banks agreed on a standard for machine readable characters ( 3770: 3715: 3681: 3484: 3372: 3357: 2462: 2300: 2110: 1469: 1256: 1165: 1161: 295: 6529: 3927: 3645: 3201:

The 19th and early 20th centuries central banks in most of Europe and

2876:

Gradually the goldsmiths began to lend the money out on behalf of the

2690: 2446:). The Christians utilizing these legal loopholes became known as the 2194:

in the 13th century and in particular the rich Italian cities such as

1633:

Private and civic entities within ancient Grecian society, especially

9408: 7918:

Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: a historical encyclopedia

7530: 5397: 5349: 5310: 5258: 5210: 4564:

Religion in the Emergence of Civilization: Çatalhöyük as a Case Study

3999: 3994:, the English Crown's policy of coin debasement during the reigns of 3873: 3095: 3006:, with the creation of so-called "draft banks". The first draft bank 2945: 2934: 2888: 2862: 2751: 2664: 2659: 2647: 2595: 2461:

The most powerful banking families came from Florence, including the

2434: 2276: 2250: 2191: 2159: 2098: 2093: 2077: 1945: 1910: 1894: 1699: 1692: 1355: 1344: 1316: 1248: 1136: 1077: 408: 230: 6191:

The history and principles of banking: The laws of the currency, etc

5499:

Cambridge University Press, 11 November 2004 Retrieved 10 July 2012

5068:

Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 13 February 1995 Retrieved 14 July 2012

2905: 2162:

prohibits, and commodity exchanges in unequal quantities, which the

9778:

Banks and Politics in America, from the Revolution to the Civil War

9310:"Friedman and Schwartz, Monetary History of the United States", 352 8139:

University of Virginia Press, 12 March 2012 Retrieved 14 July 2012

7302:(reprint, revised ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 514. 7299:

The Law of Obligations: Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition

7015:

Entrepreneurs: From the Near Eastern Takeoff to the Roman Collapse

6277:

R W Bulliet, P K Crossley, D R Headrick, S W Hirsch, L L Johnson –

4046: 3889: 3662: 3650: 3634: 3576: 3553: 3444:

One key development was setting up one of the main branches of the

3419: 3400: 3219: 3123: 3015: 2858: 2722: 2718: 2668: 2546: 2366:

Christian knights acted as Henry's bankers in the Holy Land. It is

2358:

levied the first of a series of taxes to support the crusades. The

2354:

stimulated the re-emergence of banking in western Europe. In 1162,

2351: 2343:

in chain mail carrying the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the

2245: 2241: 2195: 2014:

not involved in the lending but were still free to take the loans.

1937: 1905: 1688: 1638: 1585: 1445: 1418: 1406: 1379: 1367: 1329: 1157: 1142: 1018: 452: 285: 7181:"bank | Origin and meaning of bank by Online Etymology Dictionary" 3980:

run earliest European wide/Mideast banking until the 14th century.

1152:

was being distributed from as early as about 12,500 BCE, and

9912:

eabh (The European Association for Banking and Financial History)

9532:"OCC Conditionally Approves Conversion of Anchorage Digital Bank" 7802:

Cambridge University Press, 21 April 1994 Retrieved 14 July 2012

7262:

The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 1 October 2003 Retrieved 9 July 2012

6773:

Oxford University Press, 31 December 2009 Retrieved 17 July 2012

6064: 5414: 5275: 4750:

Ancient Near Eastern Cylinder Seals from the Marcopoli Collection

4566:

Cambridge University Press, 30 August 2010 Retrieved 25 June 2012

3789: 3376: 3308:

institution, albeit with widely varying degrees of independence.

3262: 2870: 2815:, and transferring funds were combined with the issuance of bank 2710: 2631: 2618: 2527: 2470: 2390: 2256:

Barred from owning land in Italy, Jews entered the great trading

2175: 2073: 1739: 1681: 1650: 1494: 1482: 1309: 1217:

of agricultural produce. Commencing in the late fourth millennia

1072:

Development of banking spread from northern Italy throughout the

1034: 1010: 967: 771: 542: 145: 9760:

The House of Rothschild: Volume 2: The World's Banker: 1849-1999

9015:

The House of Rothschild: Volume 2: The World's Banker: 1849-1999

8933:

The House of Rothschild: Volume 2: The World's Banker: 1849–1999

8698:

The Emergence of Modern Business Enterprise in France, 1800–1930

8265:. Invest and Income. Archived from the original on 8 August 2011 7457:

The Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article 8, Of the Church

6095:

J Huerta de Soto – 1998 (translated by M.A.Stroup 2012) (2006).

4272:

collapses, the largest bank failure in history up to that point.

3804:

for both international and domestic payments. The international

3672: 1780: 9858:

British Banking: Continuity and Change from 1694 to the Present

7945:

An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914

7839:

Thomas H. Goddard; Alexander Hamilton; George McDuffie (1831).

7435:

The Hebrew Bible in English according to the JPS 1917 Edition.

6965:

The Invention of Coinage and the Monetization of Ancient Greece

5097: 4697: 3816: 3491: 3407:

on his expeditions in Africa and the creation of the colony of

3396: 3392: 3293: 3127: 3072: 2949: 2941: 2866: 2714: 2505: 2501: 2474: 2316: 2257: 2199: 2163: 1743: 1735: 1673: 1662: 1642: 1457: 1410: 1394: 1363: 1066: 1038: 1022: 322: 9793:

Capital of Capital: Money, Banking, and Power in New York City

9609: 9607: 8772:

Gabriele Teichmann, "Sal. Oppenheim jr. & Cie., Cologne."

8761:

The House of Rothschild: Volume 1: Money's Prophets: 1798–1848

8659:

Central Banks at a Crossroads: What Can We Learn from History?

8575:. London: Henry S. King and Co. (etext by Project Gutenberg). 7258:

A Chester Johnson, P Robinson Coleman-Norton, F Card Bourne –

5978:"Evolution of Payment Systems in India =Reserve Bank of India" 4660: 3138:

in 1720-1721. A comparatively more successful attempt was the

2382:, directly paying money for the use of money, the practice of 1720:

During the late 3rd and 2nd century BCE, the Aegean island of

9530:

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (13 January 2021).

9382: 7761: 7607:"Templar Banking: How to go from Donated Rags to Vast Riches" 5701:

Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective

5562:

The Library of Original Sources: Volume I (The Ancient World)

4149:

1811 – The Senate tied on a vote to renew the charter of the

3955:

wholesale guarantees to underwriting banks to avoid panic of

3805: 3522: 3375:. The family bought up a large proportion of the property in 2976: 2626:

who had fled from Iberia during the period leading up to the

2545:

prohibited them from taking profits in his kingdom. In 1409,

2511: 2379: 2261: 2203: 2134: 2049: 2037: 2023: 1967: 1922: 1898: 1721: 1658: 1430: 1244: 1240: 1058: 1026: 975: 971: 430: 381: 9911: 9508:

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (4 January 2021).

7053: 6771:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1

6292:

The Culture And Social Institutions Of Ancient Iran (p. 216)

6068:

Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt: Historical Studies

3987:

of Florence is established in Italy and operates until 1494.

3959:

to the whole banking system. These events spawned the term '

3063:, first established in 1407, and significantly later by the 2880:, which led to the development of modern banking practices; 1626:

The earliest forms of storage utilized were the rudimentary

9830:

History and Financial Crisis: Lessons from the 20th Century

9604: 9590:

C.A. Nichols Publishing Company, 1923 Retrieved 15 May 2012

6886:

Society of Biblical Literature, 2000 Retrieved 14 June 2012

6811: 6809: 6807: 5509: 3785: 2816: 2582:

families, who were especially influential and wealthy, the

2409: 2265: 2155: 2146: 2128: 1884:, obliged a bank to pay its clients debts under guarantee. 1708: 1654: 1390: 1359: 1252: 1003: 963: 959: 639: 477: 403: 32: 9861: 9573:

Statistical Society of London 1874 . Retrieved 15 May 2012

9486:

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (22 July 2020).

9047:"Commerce and Creativity in Eighteenth-Century Birmingham" 8656:

Michael D. Bordo; Marc Flandreau; Jan F. Qvigstad (2016).

6967:

University of Michigan Press, 2004 Retrieved 17 July 2012

6616:

Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Global History, Enhanced

4243:

was a series of economic measures taken by U.S. President

3368:

a full day ahead of the government's official messengers.

3190:, with branches in major cities across Europe, as well as 1676:

temple was built before the end of the 7th century BCE. A

7447:

The references cited in the Passionary for this woodcut:

5659:

The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000–323 Bce)

5385:

122. If anyone entrusts to ... have committed an offence.

5295:§100. ...he shall write down ... returns to his merchant. 5200:

shows is "... Hamadān, Iran ..." – Retrieved 10 June 2012

4784:

Building Type Basics for Banks and Financial Institutions

4132:

was chartered by the United States Congress for 20 years.

3970: 3828:

of financial markets in a number of countries. The 1986 '

3422:

would total £11.5 million (at 1907 currency rates).

1866:

Operations of banking within Roman society were known as

1796:

inherited the mercantile practices from Greece (Parker).

8572:

Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market (1873)

8222:

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6804: 6180: 6178: 6176: 5965:

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4441:

Banks, Places and Entrepreneurs in Renaissance Florence,

3780:

This was also a time of increasing use of technology in

3162:, as Secretary of the Treasury in the 1790s, set up the 2271:

The Jewish trader performed both financing (credit) and

1827:

and at a later time (from the 2nd century CE onward) as

1799:

During 352 BCE a rudimentary public bank (known as

1645:. The three temples thought the most important were the 9087:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 65. 7691: 7689: 7687: 7685: 7683: 7087:

Mensarii, bankers acting for public and private benefit

6404:

Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion

6071:. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 82. 5413:. Translated by Harper, Robert Francis (2nd ed.). 5274:. Translated by Harper, Robert Francis (2nd ed.). 4174:

1818 – The first savings bank of Paris was established.

3456:

funded France's major wars and colonial expansion. The

3118:

was granted on 27 July 1694 through the passage of the

2750:

In the 16th and 17th century, precious metals from the

1511:

In ancient India there are evidences of loans from the

1009:

Many scholars trace the historical roots of the modern

986:, lenders based in temples gave loans, while accepting 8173:

Price Waterhouse Coopers Financial Year Book FYB, 2009

6941:

Celebrating Common Prayer (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

6902:

Continuum International Publishing Group, 1 June 2000

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6058: 5805: 5783:

Cambridge University Press 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2012

5725: 3788:) that was patented in the United States for use with 3676:

Senator Carter Glass and Rep. Henry B. Steagall (1933)

3037:

was a formative figure of a later banking initiative.

1870:. Statutes (125/126 CE) of the Empire described " 962:, that is, the merchants of the world, who gave grain 9752:

The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World

8694: 7326:

The Social & Economic History of the Roman Empire

6815: 6279:

The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume 1

6173: 5945:

Financial Markets Institutions And Financial Services

4416: 4414: 2788:

17th–19th centuries – The emergence of modern banking

1916: 1859:

are derived. As a money changer, the merchant at the

9720:

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9717: 9256: 8796:

Bray Hammond, "Jackson's Fight with the 'Money Power

8430:

1999, 255 pages, Routledge library of modern Japan.

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An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire

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Transaction Publishers, 2004 Retrieved 14 July 2012

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Merchants' magazine and commercial review, Volume 40

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The Evolution of Central Banking: Theory and History

6665: 6417: 5586:

Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft, Part 3, Volume 7

5515: 5246:

100. Anyone borrowing money shall ... his contract .

5172:

Harper & Brothers, 1855 – Retrieved 10 June 2012

4280: 3716:

World Bank and the development of payment technology

3692:

In response, many countries significantly increased

2421:, sometimes mistakenly credited with establishing a 1691:

rebuilt a depository afterward contained within the

8938: 8413: 7236:

Obligations in Roman Law: Past, Present, and Future

6661: 6659: 6498:

Athenian Economy and Society: A Banking Perspective

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4435: 4433: 3502:. The first building society to be established was 3490:Many of the early building societies were based in 1948:, interest was legal and often fixed by the state. 1328:having ransacked or pillaged the temple of Aine in 9842:Lane, Nicholas. "The Fathers of English Banking." 9052:Markets and Manufacture in Early Industrial Europe 8419: 7997: 7820:A History of Credit and Power in the Western World 7145: 6533:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) 6501:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1992. 6490: 6488: 5453:Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004 Retrieved 10 July 2012 4411: 2617:Halil Inalcik suggests that, in the 16th century, 2556: 2105:was a force behind an unplanned and uncoordinated 1811:were required to borrow money, so newly appointed 9889:History of Money and Banking in the United States 9837:Handbook of Financial Data and Risk Information I 9633: 9357:"How the ATM Revolutionized the Banking Business" 8845:"Rothschild: history of a London banking dynasty" 8826: 7362:Walton & Maberly, 1857 Retrieved 14 July 2012 7360:Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography, Volume 2 6848: 6846: 5703:PUQ, 2009 ISBN 2760515885 Retrieved 25 June 2012 5390: 5342: 5251: 5203: 5186:Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography, Volume 2 4740: 3811: 3649:Crowd at New York's American Union Bank during a 3506:, founded by Richard Ketley, the landlord of the 3040: 9924: 9194:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 129, 9132:. Building Societies Association. Archived from 8388: 8386: 8255: 7604: 7494: 7093:(please see also the same source linked in full 6884:The tyranny of resolution: I Corinthians 7:17–24 6656: 5967:Rex Bookstore, Inc., 2005 Retrieved 11 July 2012 4834: 4832: 4528: 4430: 4056:was founded to supply money to the English King. 3963:' and resulted in a lot of discussion about the 3728:to a customer, informing on the introduction of 2635:the Ottoman Empire and in commerce with Europe. 7941: 7152:. Cambridge University Press, 14 October 1999. 6822:. Cambridge University Press, 1 February 2000. 6494: 6485: 6427:The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity 6141: 6139: 4716:The Ancient Near East, C. 3000–330 BC, Volume 1 4617: 3102:. A generation later, the establishment of the 2589: 2311:, a note, a letter of formal exchange, later a 2236:" that Italian grain merchants invented in the 2036:Originally, the charging of interest, known as 9660: 9658: 9550:"Bank Guarantee Scheme & Recapitalisation" 8616: 7789:34 L. Q. Rev. 11 (1918) Retrieved 14 June 2012 7329:. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. p. 542. 7209:. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 144. 6843: 6234: 6232: 5648:Paternoster Press, 1973 Retrieved 10 July 2012 5066:International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D 4973: 4879: 4588: 4188:, the federal government under U.S. President 4059:1695 – The Parliament of Scotland created the 2209: 1239:By the 5th millennium BCE, the settlements of 1069:, Italy, which had been operating since 1463. 8981:(Edward Elgar Publishing, 1994) pp: 185–296. 8620:Banking and Finance: Theory, Law and Practice 8383: 7914: 7707: 7705: 7703: 6708:The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans 6627:Art Through The Ages: The Western Perspective 6568: 6523: 6245:. Cambridge University Press, 26 April 1991. 5897:. Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 4 September 2004. 5126:Cambridge University Press, 23 December 2004 4838: 4829: 4630:Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction 4582: 4487:. Rowman & Littlefield, 7 December 2006. 4345:History of Virtual Cryptobanking with Bitcoin 4024:for dealings in its printed stocks and bonds. 3922: 3919:, a digital asset platform for institutions. 3765:in 1944, two organizations were created: the 3629:The first decade of the 20th century saw the 2323: 2293: 1784:Gold coin produced by the Roman Imperial Mint 1680:of the temple was constructed by the city of 935: 16:Detailed history of the formation of the bank 9639: 9439: 8898:(Online ed.). Oxford University Press. 8869:"10 of the Wealthiest Families in the World" 8833:, Washington DC: International Monetary Fund 8392: 7116:The theory and practice of banking, Volume 1 6554:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6136: 6065:Willy Clarysse; Dorothy J. Thompson (2006). 5305: 5303: 4654: 4577:A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire 4011:Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands 3432: 3418:. The London consortium's issue of Japanese 3399:). The Rothschilds financed the founding of 3257:. The EFO thus directed the creation of the 1996:Christ drives the Usurers out of the Temple, 1515:(beginning 1750 BCE). Later during the 1262: 1193:History of accounting § Ancient history 9655: 9280: 9278: 8066: 8064: 7948:. Cambridge University Press. p. 212. 7915:Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007). 7894:. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. 7711: 7437:http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0523.htm 7418:(New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987) 7322: 7136: 7134: 7109: 7105: 7103: 6856:The Origins of Business, Money, and Markets 6530:W Smith, LLD, W Wayte, G. E. Marindin, Ed. 6423: 6238: 6229: 6184: 6128:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6041:Life and Letters in the Ancient Greek World 5884: 5848:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4980:. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1996. 4661:H J Nissen; P Damerow; R K Englund (1993). 4633:. Oxford University Press, 1 October 2009. 4514:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2683:duchy, principality, and palatinate in the 1962:Jewish views of poverty, wealth and charity 1425:, and Law 125 stipulated that a banker was 8882:Gray, Victor; Aspey, Melanie (May 2006) . 8336:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 8035: 8033: 8031: 8029: 7700: 7295: 6710:Oxford University Press, 14 February 2008 6152:. Cambridge University Press, 9 May 2002. 6090: 6088: 5970: 5947:Prentice-Hall 2008 Retrieved 11 July 2012 5661:Oxford University Press, 5 September 2011 5434:§122. If a man give ... it from the thief. 4885: 4780: 4774: 4746: 4623: 4535:. Oxford University Press, 11 March 1993. 3277:, as well as comprehensive reforms of the 2675:. Their jobs included raising revenues by 2373: 1621: 1285:Mesopotamia § Economy and agriculture 942: 928: 9853:(2 vol. U of Chicago Press, 2010) on U.S. 9664:Kindleberger – p. 12 (see : Sources) 9263:Fortune, Peter (September–October 2000). 8979:Handbook on the history of European banks 8881: 8457:Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2006), 8314:Encyclopedia of American business history 8074:Jews and Money: The Myths and the Reality 7942:Inalcik, Halil; Quataert, Donald (1994). 7715:Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 7529: 7402:, 2 vols. (trans. Leiden 1965), i.104–566 7232:"Gender and the Roman Law of Obligations" 7223: 6852: 6816:J Braithwaite; P Drahos (February 2000). 6793:Cambridge University Press, 16 July 1981 6731:Oxford University Press, 28 October 1999 6406:Cambridge University Press, 24 June 2010 6376:Oxford University Press, 6 February 1997 6145: 6037: 6031: 5818:St. Paul's Ephesus: Texts and Archaeology 5396: 5348: 5309: 5300: 5257: 5209: 5170:Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 5091: 4993:universalis.fr Accessed 15 September 2018 4698:M Liverani; Z Bahrani; M Van de Mieroop. 3909:Office of the Comptroller of the Currency 2964:The number of banks increased during the 2796:The old town hall in Amsterdam where the 2389:Medieval trade fairs, such as the one in 2190:in the 12th and 13th centuries, France's 1893:In the 4th century monopolies existed in 1278: 272:Transaction (checking / current) 9275: 9172: 9147: 9026: 8964:Youssef Cassis and Éric Bussière, eds., 8820: 8104: 8061: 7968: 7665: 7650: 7632:"The warrior monks who invented banking" 7500: 7323:Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch (1926). 7204: 7131: 7100: 5890: 4753:. University of California Press, 1984. 4455:"Modern dilemma for world's oldest bank" 3926: 3899:. Starting in 2015 developments such as 3815: 3761:period and with the introduction of the 3734: 3719: 3671: 3644: 3601:in 1861. It was vigorously supported by 3586: 3532: 3348:, he undertook to transfer money to pay 3315: 2904: 2845:History of Goldsmiths University, London 2791: 2689: 2637: 2510: 2504:, the birthplace of Pope John XXII, and 2452: 2408: 2335: 2219: 1990: 1779: 1709:Geographical focus of banking activities 1573:is the first source documenting banking 1354:–1750 BCE. Law 100 stipulated that 1291: 1175: 9585:, Donald Eugene Smith, Charles Seymour 9468:Investment banking – Is there a future? 9262: 8895:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 8889:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 8568: 8485:, Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 223 8110: 8026: 7887: 7867:John Murray, 1861 Retrieved 14 May 2012 7671: 7656: 7371: 7148:Banking and Business in the Roman World 6562: 6457: 6374:A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World 6226:H.G. Bohn, 1857 – Retrieved 9 June 2012 6149:Lending and Borrowing in Ancient Athens 6098:Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles 6085: 5370:Records of the Past Exploration Society 5323:. Translated by King, Leonard William. 5231:Records of the Past Exploration Society 4787:. John Wiley & Sons, 5 April 2010. 4712: 4335:History of banking in the United States 3657:During the Crash of 1929 preceding the 3637:and became known as the bankers panic. 3098:in 1664 from the remains of the failed 2838: 2746:Financial history of the Dutch Republic 2378:To circumvent the moral prohibition on 2291:is derived from the Italian for bench, 1401:must present all articles and a signed 1041:. The most famous Italian bank was the 9925: 9816:American commercial banking: A history 9791:Jaffe, Steven H., and Jessica Lautin. 9227:. London: Elek Books. pp. 11–12. 9220: 9152:. London: Franey & Co. p. 2. 9031:. London: Franey & Co. p. 4. 8884:"Rothschild, Nathan Mayer (1777–1836)" 8396:Japanese Banking: A History, 1859-1959 8311: 8070: 8039: 7091:Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric 7011: 5588:C.H.Beck, 1984 Retrieved 10 July 2012 5564:The Minerva Group, Inc., 30 June 2004 5544:ProQuest, 2008 Retrieved 10 July 2012 5479:Routledge 2007 Retrieved 10 July 2012 4888:World prehistory: a brief introduction 4522: 4452: 4031:(Amsterdam Exchange Bank) was founded. 3971:Major events in the history of banking 3800:started to develop that would lead to 3528: 3391:(1873); Société Le Nickel (1880) (now 2072:countries such as the United Kingdom ( 1017:, particularly the affluent cities of 9803:A Financial History of Western Europe 9722:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9421:from the original on 15 November 2006 9288:. Living History Farm. Archived from 9187: 9100: 9082: 7995: 7750:A Financial History of Western Europe 7552: 7398:Johnson cites Fritz E. Heichelcheim: 7229: 6451: 6323:J Davis 1898 – Retrieved 16 June 2012 5994: 5098:Orsingher, R Translated by D.S.Ault. 4706: 4667:. University of Chicago Press, 1993. 4614:(p. 76 – "record-keeping & bulla" 4427:, New York, Dodd, Mead & Company. 4142:1800 – Napoleon Bonaparte founds the 3467: 3462:Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris 2228:bankers in Europe in the 13th century 2101:(1864–1920). According to Weber, the 2028:Christian views on poverty and wealth 9738:Europe the World's Banker, 1870–1914 9044: 7972:Historic cities of the Islamic world 6614:F S Kleiner, H Gardner, C J Mamiya, 6321:is Prefixed, a ... Greek Grammar ... 6290:MA Dandamaev, VG Lukonin, PL Kohl – 5495:MA Dandamaev, VG Lukonin, PL Kohl – 5402:"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon" 5354:"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon" 5315:"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon" 5263:"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon" 5215:"Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon" 4474: 4251:of international financial exchange. 3108:Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax 3071:and by a network of institutions in 2541:had some of them expelled. In 1403, 1602:The city-states of Greece after the 1423:redeem the entirety of their deposit 1100: 901: 9894:Full text (510 pages) in pdf format 9554:National Treasury Management Agency 9323:The Bretton Woods Debates: A Memoir 9130:"The History of Building Societies" 9127: 8569:Bagehot, Walter (5 November 2010). 8233:A History of English Clearing Banks 8220:Slavery and the Building of Britain 7605:Medievalists.net (22 August 2021). 6495:Edward E. Cohen (7 November 2011). 3749:news report on the introduction of 3640: 3454:Rothschild banking family of France 3243:Economic and Financial Organization 3021: 2853:Modern banking practice, including 2109:that influenced the development of 2004:Passionary of Christ and Antichrist 1835:. The banking-houses were known as 1610:According to one source (Dandamaev 1554:Egypt § Government and economy 1013:system to medieval and Renaissance 13: 9781:(Princeton University Press, 1957) 9687: 9617:. Tufts University. Archived from 9440:Chairman Cox (26 September 2008). 9055:. London: Routledge. p. 194. 8557:The Financial Revolution 1660–1760 8047:. 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Clarke- 4914:The Kingdom of Armenia: A History 4045:to issue permanently circulating 3820:Bishopsgate in the City of London 3633:in the US, which led to numerous 3537:A customer's deposit book, for a 2800:was founded in 1609, painting by 1975:where this provision was evaded. 1171: 9851:A History of the Federal Reserve 9667: 9593: 9576: 9564: 9542: 9523: 9501: 9479: 9460: 9433: 9401: 9371: 9349: 9313: 9304: 9214: 9181: 9166: 9121: 9101:Chinn, Carl (15 November 2008). 9076: 9020: 9007: 8994: 8971: 8958: 8925: 8875: 8861: 8837: 8807: 8790: 8766: 8753: 8727: 8715:from the original on 1 July 2023 8688: 8676:from the original on 1 July 2023 8649: 8637:from the original on 1 July 2023 8610: 8591: 8562: 8549: 8533:from the original on 1 July 2023 8507: 8488: 8475: 8451: 8365: 8344: 8305: 8299:"A History of British Banknotes" 8291: 8263:"Banking Origin and Development" 8245: 8231:British Banking History Society 8225: 8212: 8176: 8167: 8158: 8149: 8129: 8095: 8077:. Ticknor & Fields. p. 7989: 7962: 7935: 7908: 7881: 7870: 7857: 7812: 7792: 7779: 7739: 7624: 7598: 7573: 7546: 7522:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01367.x 7485: 7468: 7441: 7429: 7405: 7392: 7375:Free Banking and Monetary Reform 7365: 7352: 7343: 7316: 7289: 7272: 7252: 7198: 7173: 7079: 6996: 6977: 6957: 6933: 6913: 6889: 6873: 6339:Kessinger Publishing, 1Jan 2003 5699:secondary – Luc-Normand Tellier 4845:. Eisenbrauns, 1 November 1999. 4818:University of Texas Press, 1992 4453:Boland, Vincent (12 June 2009). 4283: 4158:Second Bank of the United States 3226:. In 1913, the U.S. created the 2819:that served as a substitute for 1547: 1300:recorded interest-bearing loans. 910: 900: 891: 890: 39: 9712:International Banking 1870–1914 8804:(June 1956) 7#4: 9–11, 100–103. 8662:. Cambridge UP. pp. 1–17. 8579:from the original on 9 May 2012 8470:Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta 8375:. eccount money. Archived from 8373:"A short history of overdrafts" 8004:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 7846:. H. C. Sleight, 1831. p. 7672:Macleod, Henry Dunning (1856). 7012:Hudson, M. (26 February 2012). 6783: 6763: 6742: 6721: 6700: 6639: 6608: 6596: 6396: 6387: 6366: 6350: 6326: 6309: 6284: 6271: 6212: 6005: 5988: 5957: 5937: 5918: 5873: 5856: 5786: 5773: 5753: 5726:Walter Augustus Hawley (1918). 5719: 5706: 5693: 5678:A. G. Sagona, Claudia Sagona – 5672: 5651: 5638: 5618: 5598: 5578: 5554: 5534: 5516:WI Davisson; JE Harper (1972). 5489: 5463: 5439: 5191: 5175: 5158: 5137: 5116: 5078: 5058: 5038: 5017: 4996: 4984: 4967: 4946: 4926: 4906: 4894: 4866: 4808: 4151:First Bank of the United States 4130:First Bank of the United States 3863: 3624: 3561:Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch 3287:National Bank of Czechoslovakia 3164:First Bank of the United States 3110:, following a 1691 proposal by 2570:in northern Italy, such as the 2557:15th–17th centuries – Expansion 2483:Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena 2224:Map showing the penetration of 2017: 1932:BCE, if not earlier. Among the 1580:– p. 41). The speeches of 1055:Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena 958:began with the first prototype 9695:History of the Bank of England 9109:. Birmingham Post and Mail Ltd 8695:Michael Stephen Smith (2006). 8399:. Cambridge University Press. 8352:"A brief history of banknotes" 8218:James Walvin 17 February 2011 8113:The Jews and Modern Capitalism 7852:Venice bank subscription fund. 7378:. Cambridge University Press. 6791:A Shorter History of Greek Art 6750:Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt 6575:. Taylor & Francis, 1985. 6101:. Ludwig von Mises Institute. 6013:"History of Money and Banking" 5522:. Appleton-Century-Crofts 1972 4595:. 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Walker and Company New York 5027:iUniverse, 13 September 2004 5006:James Clarke & Co., 1996 4956:Transaction Publishers, 2005 4747:B Teissier (1 January 1984). 4366: 4330:Early Canadian banking system 4221:1930–33 – In the wake of the 4205:Specie Payment Resumption Act 4169:New York Stock Exchange Board 3653:early in the Great Depression 3259:Oesterreichische Nationalbank 3249:, influenced by the ideas of 3075:that later consolidated into 2948:protections were introduced. 2776:Banking in the United Kingdom 2610:, considered to be the first 1958:Loans and interest in Judaism 1926: 1593: 1463: 1348: 1296:Among many other things, the 1234: 1181: 1115:The shift from a reliance on 1107:Economic history of the world 844:Sustainable development goals 9693:Andreades, Andreas Michael. 9615:"Walter B. Wriston Archives" 9128:Rex, Simon (20 April 2010). 8919:UK public library membership 8495:History of Sveriges Riksbank 7818:SB MacDonald, AL Gastmann – 6306:. Retrieved 7 September 2012 5998:Chinese currency and banking 4405: 4371: 3565:Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen 2653: 2628:expulsion of Jews from Spain 2590:Spain and the Ottoman Empire 2479:Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici 1831:(Andreau 1999 p. 2) or 1429:for replacement of deposits 1385:. Law 122 stipulated that a 1339:More information comes from 7: 9269:New England Economic Review 9002:Who's who in Jewish History 8420:William M. Tsutsui (1999). 8312:Geisst, Charles R. (2005). 7400:An Ancient Economic History 6752:Profile Books, 26 May 2011 6679:. Walter de Gruyter, 1977. 5419:University of Chicago Press 5280:University of Chicago Press 4954:Risk: A Sociological Theory 4781:H Williams (5 April 2010). 4276: 4088:) and putting Britain on a 3767:International Monetary Fund 3696:. The U.S. established the 3607:Chancellor of the Exchequer 3539:Post Office Savings Account 3053:Taula de canvi de Barcelona 2604:Taula de canvi de Barcelona 2594:In 1401 the magistrates of 2331: 2210:Emergence of merchant banks 2060:(appeared in 1462) and the 1530:History of banking in China 1507:History of banking in India 1130: 10: 9954: 9860:(Oxford UP, 2016) 334 pp. 9150:The Building Society Story 9148:Ashworth, Herbert (1980). 9029:The Building Society Story 9027:Ashworth, Herbert (1980). 8827:Marcello De Cecco (1994), 8701:. Harvard UP. p. 59. 7800:A Concise History of Italy 7559:. New York: Random House. 7024:Princeton University Press 6819:Global Business Regulation 6572:Atlas of Classical History 6296:Cambridge University Press 5821:. Liturgical Press, 2008. 5657:S R Steadman, G McMahon – 5573:translated by – TG Pinches 5147:Macmillan & Co 1898 – 4263:2007–2008 financial crisis 4013:, was chartered in London. 3940:2007–2008 financial crisis 3923:2007–2008 financial crisis 3802:electronic payment systems 3730:electronic data processing 3590: 3571:models that led on to the 3479:owned by their members as 3395:); and Imétal (1962) (now 3352:'s troops, on campaign in 3255:Brussels Conference (1920) 3222:of the 1830s by President 3044: 2915:Francis Baring and Company 2855:fractional reserve banking 2842: 2773: 2769: 2764:fractional-reserve banking 2743: 2704: 2657: 2598:, then the capital of the 2213: 2126: 2021: 1970:and later sections of the 1955: 1951: 1773: 1672:The first treasury to the 1551: 1504: 1467: 1282: 1266: 1190: 1104: 1087:2007–2008 financial crisis 595:Fractional-reserve banking 523:Enterprise risk management 9938:Economic history of Italy 9846:(Mar 1953) 3#3 pp 190–199 9824:Kobrak, Christopher, and 9049:. In Berg, Maxine (ed.). 8783:29 September 2018 at the 8604:29 September 2018 at the 8283:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 7921:. ABC-CLIO. p. 185. 7785:2nd – Holdsworth, W. S. - 7657:Ugolini, Stefano (2017). 7205:Matyszak, Philip (2007). 6464:. John Wiley & Sons. 6458:J Rüpke (25 March 2011). 6194:. G. Bell, 1866. p. 5963:A Chavez Irapta, Et Al – 5682:Peeters Publishers, 2004 5646:The Bible and archaeology 5519:European Economic History 4529:Rondo E. Cameron (1993). 4232:signed by U.S. President 4223:Wall Street Crash of 1929 4181:in which 70 UK banks fail 4112:Ketley's Building Society 3794:automated teller machines 3504:Ketley's Building Society 3433:Napoleonic wars and Paris 3150:, established in 1769 by 2784:was established in 1565. 2699:Berenberg banking dynasty 2673:Secretary of the Treasury 2600:Principality of Catalonia 2232:The original banks were " 1847:on a long bench called a 1565: 1440:Cuneiform records of the 1263:Earliest forms of banking 498:Diversification (finance) 9878:Financial History Review 9799:Kindleberger, Charles P. 9083:Jones, Peter M. (2009). 8951:16 February 2007 at the 8774:Financial History Review 8316:. New York. p. 39. 8111:Sombart, Werner (1913). 7787:Early History of Banking 6146:P Millett (9 May 2002). 5995:Wagel, Srinivas (1915). 5469:Gwendolyn Leick (ed.) – 4425:Banking Through the Ages 4039:Massachusetts Bay Colony 4029:Amsterdamsche Wisselbank 4022:Dutch East India Company 4018:Amsterdam Stock Exchange 3700:in 1933, and passed the 3611:Post Office Savings Bank 3581:history of credit unions 3168:Jeffersonian Republicans 3148:Russian Assignation Bank 2937:first appeared in 1855. 2561: 2426:development of banking. 2122: 1749: 1684:during the 6th century. 1522: 1500: 448:Automated teller machine 9880:(2000) 7#2 pp: 117–140. 8617:Clifford Gomez (2011). 8472:, Working Paper 2006–13 8242:Retrieved 19 April 2012 8238:9 November 2016 at the 8071:Kreftz, Gerald (1984). 7888:Inalcik, Halil (1997). 7746:Charles P. Kindleberger 7119:. Longmans, Green, 1855 6769:M Gagarin, E Fantham – 5930:18 October 2015 at the 5798:5 February 2015 at the 5766:4 November 2012 at the 5198:Encyclopædia Britannica 5044:secondary references – 4399:, for bench or counter. 4395:comes from the Italian 4340:Global financial system 4020:was established by the 3603:William Ewart Gladstone 3381:Royal & SunAlliance 3331:Nathan Mayer Rothschild 3279:Bulgarian National Bank 3267:Hungarian National Bank 3232:The Federal Reserve Act 3230:through the passing of 2975:to originating foreign 2955:bankers' clearing house 2913:of 1803 was handled by 2374:Discounting of interest 2084:) and the Netherlands ( 2000:Lucas Cranach the Elder 1851:, from which the words 1776:Banking in ancient Rome 1769: 1622:Specific focus of funds 1273: 1002:also show evidences of 695:Stress test (financial) 9814:Klebaner, Benjamin J. 9788:18.1 43 (2014): 22–37. 9710:Cameron, Rondo et al. 9583:Josephus Nelson Larned 9446:press release 2008-230 9321:"Raymond F. Mikesell, 9221:Cleary, E. J. (1965). 8988:3 October 2018 at the 8904:10.1093/ref:odnb/24162 8559:(1991, Longman), p. 34 8481:Collins, Christopher. 8045:Jews, God, and History 7975:. BRILL. p. 207. 7553:Stark, Rodney (2005). 7085:Piotr Niczyporuk – 6910:Retrieved 14 June 2012 6801:Retrieved 18 June 2012 6653:Retrieved 18 June 2012 6636:Retrieved 15 June 2012 6605:Retrieved 15 June 2012 6569:R J A Talbert (1985). 6414:Retrieved 16 June 2012 6384:Retrieved 16 June 2012 6363:Retrieved 16 June 2012 6347:Retrieved 16 June 2012 5934:Retrieved 16 June 2012 5716:Retrieved 25 June 2012 5712:Catholic Encyclopedia 5690:Retrieved 25 June 2012 5669:Retrieved 25 June 2012 5575:Retrieved 10 July 2012 5155:Retrieved 10 June 2012 5134:Retrieved 10 June 2012 5088:Retrieved 9 April 2012 4991:naissance de la banque 4974:Davies, R; Davies, G. 4890:. Prentice Hall, 2002. 4839:Moorey, P R S (1999). 4814:D Schmandt-Besserat – 4216:Federal Reserve System 4184:1862 – To finance the 3935: 3821: 3754: 3732: 3677: 3654: 3552:in 1810, in Ruthwell, 3541: 3500:Midlands Enlightenment 3477:financial institutions 3450:James Mayer Rothschild 3321: 3298:Central Bank of Brazil 3228:Federal Reserve System 2959:Royal Bank of Scotland 2918: 2804: 2701: 2643: 2534: 2458: 2414: 2347: 2324: 2294: 2229: 2006: 1989: 1785: 1336:) of gold and silver. 1304:Prior to the reign of 1301: 1279:Mesopotamia and Persia 1188: 1148:as a raw material for 1121:agricultural practices 9765:Grossman, Richard S. 9471:, 18 September 2008, 9409:"In Depth – Big Bang" 9188:Clark, Peter (2002), 9045:Berg, Maxine (1991). 9004:(2001) pp 305–14, 455 8817:10.4 (2011): 424–447. 8393:Norio Tamaki (2005). 7996:Black, Edwin (2004). 7752:Retrieved 17 May 2012 7501:McKinnon, AM (2010). 7416:A History of the Jews 6993:Retrieved 29 May 2012 6760:Retrieved 9 June 2012 6739:Retrieved 9 June 2012 6718:Retrieved 9 June 2012 6298:, 11 November 2004, 5802:Retrieved 3 June 2012 5770:Retrieved 3 June 2012 5606:History of the Weksel 5035:Retrieved 8 June 2012 5014:Retrieved 8 June 2012 4936:Baker Academic, 2006 4903:Retrieved 1 July 2012 4826:Retrieved 8 June 2012 4816:Counting to Cuneiform 4325:History of the cheque 4234:Franklin D. Roosevelt 4196:paper money, called " 4123:Bank of North America 4114:, was established in 4077:1717 – Master of the 4041:was the first of the 3930: 3819: 3744: 3723: 3675: 3648: 3593:Postal savings system 3587:Postal savings system 3550:Reverend Henry Duncan 3536: 3385:Chemin de Fer du Nord 3335:London stock exchange 3333:began to deal on the 3319: 3302:Reserve Bank of India 2966:Industrial Revolution 2908: 2795: 2774:Further information: 2744:Further information: 2693: 2641: 2514: 2491:Edward III of England 2456: 2412: 2339: 2223: 2103:Protestant work ethic 1994: 1977: 1783: 1717:treasury during 454. 1552:Further information: 1468:Further information: 1295: 1283:Further information: 1211:Near East excavations 1197:History of accounting 1191:Further information: 1179: 1117:hunting and gathering 1105:Further information: 869:Too connected to fail 630:Investment management 528:Environmental finance 387:Correspondent account 81:Community development 9866:Murphy, Sharon Ann. 9679:The Washington Times 8623:. PHI. p. 100. 8519:. Arno Press. 1979. 8428:Taylor & Francis 8200:on 28 September 2011 7712:C Kleinhenz (2004). 7585:www.historyworld.net 7581:"HISTORY OF BANKING" 7462:15 July 2010 at the 7066:Koninklijke Brill NV 6989:11 July 2012 at the 6424:J A Harrill (1998). 5880:(p. 126) K Roberts → 5471:The Babylonian world 5084:the British Museum - 4700:Uruk: the first city 4261:2007 – Start of the 4249:Bretton Woods system 4230:Executive Order 6102 3992:The Great Debasement 3763:Bretton Woods system 3694:financial regulation 3545:Mutual savings banks 3481:mutual organizations 3475:were established as 3346:John Charles Herries 3057:Bank of Saint George 2839:Goldsmiths of London 2551:Bank of Saint George 2090:Gülcher & Mulder 1813:quinqueviri mensarii 1713:Athens received the 1539:(221–206 BCE), 1111:History of economics 767:Exchange traded fund 645:Mathematical finance 605:Fundamental analysis 600:Full-reserve banking 206:Bank holding company 116:Export credit agency 24:Part of a series on 9919:at Encyclopedia.com 9917:Banking and Bankers 9884:Rothbard, Murray N. 9417:. 29 October 2006. 9389:on 26 December 2012 9292:on 19 February 2009 8850:The Daily Telegraph 8815:White House Studies 8776:1.1 (1994): 69–78, 8379:on 5 November 2013. 7718:. 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A. 4212:Federal Reserve Act 4116:Birmingham, England 4007:joint-stock company 3876:, pension, mutual, 3724:1967 letter by the 3617:the Postcheque and 3569:cooperative banking 3529:Mutual savings bank 3521:was established in 3194:in Switzerland and 3188:House of Rothschild 3152:Catherine the Great 3035:Masayoshi Matsukata 2695:Cornelius Berenberg 2543:Henry IV of England 2356:Henry II of England 2097:(1880–1962) and by 1897:and in the city of 1882:receptum argentarii 1868:officium argentarii 1837:Taberae Argentarioe 1460:(Moshenskyi 2008). 1057:, headquartered in 990:and performing the 859:Time value of money 685:Statistical finance 675:Sustainable finance 625:Investment advisory 267:Time deposit (Bond) 9933:History of banking 9856:Michie, Ranald C. 9849:Meltzer, Allan H. 9673:Hawkins, William, 9640:Banque de France. 9600:oxforddictionaries 9175:Florida Law Review 8944:Richard Smethurst, 8741:on 28 October 2014 8501:2008-05-04 at the 8464:3 May 2011 at the 7863:Thomas Henry Dyer 7230:Benke, N. (2012). 7185:www.etymonline.com 7002:S L Budin (p. 113) 6853:K Roberts (2011). 6372:D Sacks, O Murray 6356:secondary – Varro 6038:John Muir (2009). 5925:The British Museum 5813:J. Murphy-O'Connor 5793:The British Museum 5761:The British Museum 5101:Banks of the World 4350:List of recessions 4320:Branchless banking 4186:American Civil War 4101:Mississippi Scheme 3967:of these actions. 3936: 3838:Glass–Steagall Act 3822: 3755: 3733: 3710:commercial banking 3706:investment banking 3704:, which separated 3702:Glass–Steagall Act 3682:capital investment 3678: 3667:March Bank Holiday 3655: 3542: 3473:Building societies 3468:Building societies 3416:Russo-Japanese War 3366:Battle of Waterloo 3354:Portugal and Spain 3343:Commissary-General 3322: 3160:Alexander Hamilton 3069:Republic of Venice 2919: 2911:Louisiana Purchase 2894:fractional reserve 2805: 2702: 2644: 2539:Martin I of Aragon 2535: 2459: 2444:contractum trinius 2419:Republic of Venice 2415: 2348: 2341:Adhemar de Monteil 2315:and later still a 2268:instead of grain. 2230: 2007: 1786: 1641:was deposited for 1347:, king of Babylon 1302: 1189: 956:history of banking 834:Security (finance) 809:History of banking 705:Structured product 700:Structured finance 513:Economic expansion 26:financial services 9832:(Routledge, 2014) 9758:Ferguson, Niall. 9729:978-0-19-965862-6 9697:(Routledge, 2013) 9136:on 23 August 2013 9094:978-0-7190-7770-8 8917:(Subscription or 8802:American Heritage 8778:online in English 8323:978-0-8160-4350-7 8122:978-0-217-35289-5 8115:. pp. 53–7. 8088:978-0-89919-129-4 8054:978-0-451-52940-4 7638:. 30 January 2017 7474:Examples of debt: 7385:978-0-521-36175-0 7216:978-0-500-05147-4 6508:978-0-691-03609-0 5023:Beaudreau, B C – 5004:Before the Greeks 4916:Routledge, 2001 4270:Washington Mutual 4137:Rothschild family 4106:1775 – The first 4043:Thirteen Colonies 4005:1553 – The first 3917:Anchorage Digital 3742: 3446:Rothschild family 3326:Rothschild family 3247:League of Nations 3092:Sveriges Riksbank 3081:Bank of Amsterdam 3061:Republic of Genoa 2857:and the issue of 2798:Bank of Amsterdam 2734:Berenberg dynasty 2687:had a court Jew. 2685:Holy Roman Empire 2608:Table of Exchange 2524:the Ship of Fools 2399:bills of exchange 2062:Apostolic Chamber 2046:Christian finance 2032:Christian finance 1841:Mensoe Numularioe 1647:temple to Artemis 1479:temple of Artemis 1383:contractual terms 1306:Sargon I of Akkad 1298:Code of Hammurabi 1229:Achaemenid Empire 1224:Code of Hammurabi 1154:organized trading 1101:Ancient authority 1074:Holy Roman Empire 1065:headquartered in 1045:, established by 952: 951: 747:Corporate finance 742:Capital structure 717: 716: 488:Corporate finance 308: 307: 9945: 9898:Soyeda, Juichi. 9818:(Twayne, 1990). 9733: 9682: 9671: 9665: 9662: 9653: 9652: 9650: 9648: 9637: 9631: 9630: 9628: 9626: 9611: 9602: 9597: 9591: 9580: 9574: 9568: 9562: 9561: 9560:on 2 March 2009. 9546: 9540: 9539: 9527: 9521: 9520: 9514: 9505: 9499: 9498: 9492: 9483: 9477: 9464: 9458: 9457: 9455: 9453: 9437: 9431: 9430: 9428: 9426: 9405: 9399: 9398: 9396: 9394: 9385:. Archived from 9375: 9369: 9368: 9367:. 27 March 2013. 9353: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9342: 9336: 9330:. Archived from 9329: 9317: 9311: 9308: 9302: 9301: 9299: 9297: 9282: 9273: 9272: 9260: 9254: 9253: 9251: 9249: 9218: 9212: 9211: 9210: 9208: 9185: 9179: 9178: 9170: 9164: 9163: 9145: 9143: 9141: 9125: 9119: 9118: 9116: 9114: 9098: 9080: 9074: 9073: 9071: 9069: 9042: 9024: 9018: 9013:Niall Ferguson, 9011: 9005: 8998: 8992: 8975: 8969: 8962: 8956: 8942: 8936: 8931:Niall Ferguson, 8929: 8923: 8922: 8914: 8912: 8910: 8879: 8873: 8872: 8865: 8859: 8858: 8841: 8835: 8834: 8824: 8818: 8811: 8805: 8799: 8794: 8788: 8770: 8764: 8759:Niall Ferguson, 8757: 8751: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8731: 8725: 8724: 8722: 8720: 8692: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8681: 8653: 8647: 8646: 8644: 8642: 8614: 8608: 8595: 8589: 8588: 8586: 8584: 8566: 8560: 8553: 8547: 8546: 8540: 8538: 8511: 8505: 8492: 8486: 8479: 8473: 8455: 8449: 8448: 8446: 8444: 8417: 8411: 8410: 8390: 8381: 8380: 8369: 8363: 8362: 8360: 8358: 8348: 8342: 8341: 8335: 8327: 8309: 8303: 8302: 8295: 8289: 8288: 8282: 8274: 8272: 8270: 8259: 8253: 8249: 8243: 8229: 8223: 8216: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8205: 8199: 8188: 8180: 8174: 8171: 8165: 8162: 8156: 8153: 8147: 8133: 8127: 8126: 8108: 8102: 8099: 8093: 8092: 8068: 8059: 8058: 8037: 8024: 8023: 8003: 7993: 7987: 7986: 7966: 7960: 7959: 7939: 7933: 7932: 7912: 7906: 7905: 7885: 7879: 7874: 7868: 7861: 7855: 7854: 7836: 7830: 7816: 7810: 7796: 7790: 7783: 7777: 7776: 7775:. F. Hunt, 1859. 7759: 7753: 7743: 7737: 7736: 7734: 7732: 7709: 7698: 7693: 7678: 7677: 7669: 7663: 7662: 7654: 7648: 7647: 7645: 7643: 7628: 7622: 7621: 7619: 7617: 7611:Medievalists.net 7602: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7591: 7577: 7571: 7570: 7550: 7544: 7543: 7533: 7507: 7498: 7492: 7489: 7483: 7472: 7466: 7445: 7439: 7433: 7427: 7409: 7403: 7396: 7390: 7389: 7369: 7363: 7358:William Smith – 7356: 7350: 7347: 7341: 7340: 7320: 7314: 7313: 7293: 7287: 7276: 7270: 7256: 7250: 7249: 7227: 7221: 7220: 7202: 7196: 7195: 7193: 7191: 7177: 7171: 7170: 7168: 7166: 7151: 7138: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7124: 7107: 7098: 7083: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7072: 7058:(October 2006). 7051: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7040: 7009: 7003: 7000: 6994: 6981: 6975: 6961: 6955: 6954: 6937: 6931: 6917: 6911: 6893: 6887: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6850: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6836: 6813: 6802: 6787: 6781: 6767: 6761: 6746: 6740: 6725: 6719: 6704: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6693: 6663: 6654: 6643: 6637: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6566: 6560: 6559: 6553: 6545: 6543: 6541: 6527: 6521: 6520:(and prior date) 6519: 6517: 6515: 6492: 6483: 6482: 6480: 6478: 6455: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6444: 6430:. Mohr Siebeck. 6421: 6415: 6400: 6394: 6391: 6385: 6370: 6364: 6354: 6348: 6330: 6324: 6313: 6307: 6288: 6282: 6275: 6269: 6268: 6266: 6264: 6255:. Archived from 6236: 6227: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6207:Ancient banking. 6204: 6202: 6182: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6166: 6143: 6134: 6133: 6127: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6092: 6083: 6082: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6035: 6029: 6028: 6026: 6024: 6015:. Archived from 6009: 6003: 6002: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5980:. Archived from 5974: 5968: 5961: 5955: 5941: 5935: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5888: 5882: 5877: 5871: 5860: 5854: 5853: 5847: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5809: 5803: 5790: 5784: 5777: 5771: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5723: 5717: 5710: 5704: 5697: 5691: 5676: 5670: 5655: 5649: 5642: 5636: 5624:KR Nemet-Nejat – 5622: 5616: 5602: 5596: 5582: 5576: 5558: 5552: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5513: 5507: 5493: 5487: 5476:The Egibi Family 5467: 5461: 5443: 5437: 5436: 5431: 5429: 5406: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5380: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5307: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5290: 5267: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5243: 5241: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5189: 5179: 5173: 5162: 5156: 5141: 5135: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5095: 5089: 5082: 5076: 5062: 5056: 5042: 5036: 5021: 5015: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4971: 4965: 4950: 4944: 4930: 4924: 4910: 4904: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4886:Brian M. Fagan. 4883: 4877: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4836: 4827: 4812: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4769: 4767: 4744: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4733: 4713:A Kuhrt (1995). 4710: 4704: 4703: 4702:. Equinox, 2006. 4695: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4658: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4627:(5 April 2010). 4621: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4586: 4580: 4573: 4567: 4560: 4554: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4513: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4478: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4450: 4444: 4437: 4428: 4418: 4400: 4381: 4315:Banker (ancient) 4310:History of money 4293: 4288: 4287: 4286: 4171:was established. 4108:building society 4097:South Sea Bubble 4082:Sir Isaac Newton 4061:Bank of Scotland 3957:systemic failure 3897:internet banking 3759:Second World War 3757:During the post 3743: 3659:Great Depression 3641:Great Depression 3519:English Midlands 3458:Banque de France 3362:Russian campaign 3175:Banque de France 3144:King Charles III 3112:William Paterson 3100:Stockholms Banco 3083:in 1609 and the 3022:Japanese banking 3004:Shanxi merchants 2927:Stockholms Banco 2882:promissory notes 2849:Goldsmith banker 2802:Pieter Saenredam 2568:Genoese Republic 2520:Stultifera Navis 2477:bank, set up by 2368:Pope Innocent II 2327: 2313:bill of exchange 2297: 2150:is forbidden in 2056:(12th century), 2042:bureau de change 1931: 1928: 1667:temple to Apollo 1653:, and temple of 1598: 1595: 1541:Chinese currency 1421:was entitled to 1353: 1350: 1343:commissioned by 1269:Banker (ancient) 1186: 1183: 1125:Fertile Crescent 944: 937: 930: 914: 904: 903: 894: 893: 824:Personal finance 757:Equity (finance) 620:Impact investing 610:Growth investing 518:Enterprise value 425: 424: 236: 235: 191:Savings and loan 43: 21: 20: 9953: 9952: 9948: 9947: 9946: 9944: 9943: 9942: 9923: 9922: 9908: 9747:Ferguson, Niall 9736:Feis, Herbert. 9730: 9690: 9688:Further reading 9685: 9675:"Panic Control" 9672: 9668: 9663: 9656: 9646: 9644: 9638: 9634: 9624: 9622: 9613: 9612: 9605: 9598: 9594: 9581: 9577: 9569: 9565: 9548: 9547: 9543: 9528: 9524: 9512: 9506: 9502: 9490: 9484: 9480: 9465: 9461: 9451: 9449: 9438: 9434: 9424: 9422: 9414:Financial Times 9407: 9406: 9402: 9392: 9390: 9379:"SWIFT History" 9377: 9376: 9372: 9355: 9354: 9350: 9340: 9338: 9337:on 18 June 2017 9334: 9327: 9319: 9318: 9314: 9309: 9305: 9295: 9293: 9286:"Bank Failures" 9284: 9283: 9276: 9261: 9257: 9247: 9245: 9235: 9219: 9215: 9206: 9204: 9202: 9186: 9182: 9171: 9167: 9160: 9139: 9137: 9126: 9122: 9112: 9110: 9107:Birmingham Mail 9095: 9081: 9077: 9067: 9065: 9063: 9039: 9025: 9021: 9012: 9008: 8999: 8995: 8990:Wayback Machine 8976: 8972: 8963: 8959: 8953:Wayback Machine 8943: 8939: 8930: 8926: 8916: 8908: 8906: 8880: 8876: 8867: 8866: 8862: 8843: 8842: 8838: 8825: 8821: 8812: 8808: 8797: 8795: 8791: 8785:Wayback Machine 8771: 8767: 8758: 8754: 8744: 8742: 8733: 8732: 8728: 8718: 8716: 8709: 8693: 8689: 8679: 8677: 8670: 8654: 8650: 8640: 8638: 8631: 8615: 8611: 8606:Wayback Machine 8596: 8592: 8582: 8580: 8567: 8563: 8554: 8550: 8536: 8534: 8527: 8513: 8512: 8508: 8503:Wayback Machine 8493: 8489: 8480: 8476: 8466:Wayback Machine 8456: 8452: 8442: 8440: 8438: 8426:. published by 8418: 8414: 8407: 8391: 8384: 8371: 8370: 8366: 8356: 8354: 8350: 8349: 8345: 8329: 8328: 8324: 8310: 8306: 8297: 8296: 8292: 8276: 8275: 8268: 8266: 8261: 8260: 8256: 8250: 8246: 8240:Wayback Machine 8230: 8226: 8217: 8213: 8203: 8201: 8197: 8186: 8182: 8181: 8177: 8172: 8168: 8163: 8159: 8154: 8150: 8134: 8130: 8123: 8109: 8105: 8100: 8096: 8089: 8069: 8062: 8055: 8038: 8027: 8016: 7994: 7990: 7983: 7967: 7963: 7956: 7940: 7936: 7929: 7913: 7909: 7902: 7886: 7882: 7875: 7871: 7862: 7858: 7837: 7833: 7817: 7813: 7797: 7793: 7784: 7780: 7767:William B. Dana 7760: 7756: 7744: 7740: 7730: 7728: 7726: 7710: 7701: 7694: 7681: 7670: 7666: 7655: 7651: 7641: 7639: 7630: 7629: 7625: 7615: 7613: 7603: 7599: 7589: 7587: 7579: 7578: 7574: 7567: 7551: 7547: 7505: 7499: 7495: 7490: 7486: 7473: 7469: 7464:Wayback Machine 7446: 7442: 7434: 7430: 7410: 7406: 7397: 7393: 7386: 7370: 7366: 7357: 7353: 7348: 7344: 7337: 7321: 7317: 7310: 7294: 7290: 7277: 7273: 7257: 7253: 7246: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7203: 7199: 7189: 7187: 7179: 7178: 7174: 7164: 7162: 7160: 7139: 7132: 7122: 7120: 7108: 7101: 7084: 7080: 7070: 7068: 7056:Reference Works 7052: 7048: 7038: 7036: 7034: 7010: 7006: 7001: 6997: 6991:Wayback Machine 6982: 6978: 6962: 6958: 6951: 6939: 6938: 6934: 6918: 6914: 6894: 6890: 6878: 6874: 6867: 6851: 6844: 6834: 6832: 6830: 6814: 6805: 6788: 6784: 6768: 6764: 6747: 6743: 6726: 6722: 6706:W. V. Harris – 6705: 6701: 6691: 6689: 6687: 6664: 6657: 6644: 6640: 6613: 6609: 6601: 6597: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6567: 6563: 6547: 6546: 6539: 6537: 6528: 6524: 6513: 6511: 6509: 6493: 6486: 6476: 6474: 6472: 6456: 6452: 6442: 6440: 6438: 6422: 6418: 6402:J E Harrison – 6401: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6371: 6367: 6355: 6351: 6331: 6327: 6314: 6310: 6289: 6285: 6276: 6272: 6262: 6260: 6253: 6237: 6230: 6217: 6213: 6200: 6198: 6183: 6174: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6144: 6137: 6121: 6120: 6113: 6111: 6109: 6093: 6086: 6079: 6063: 6059: 6052: 6036: 6032: 6022: 6020: 6011: 6010: 6006: 5993: 5989: 5976: 5975: 5971: 5962: 5958: 5942: 5938: 5932:Wayback Machine 5923: 5919: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5889: 5885: 5878: 5874: 5861: 5857: 5841: 5840: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5810: 5806: 5800:Wayback Machine 5791: 5787: 5778: 5774: 5768:Wayback Machine 5758: 5754: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5732:. Elibron.com. 5724: 5720: 5711: 5707: 5698: 5694: 5677: 5673: 5656: 5652: 5643: 5639: 5623: 5619: 5604:S Moshenskyi – 5603: 5599: 5583: 5579: 5559: 5555: 5539: 5535: 5525: 5523: 5514: 5510: 5494: 5490: 5468: 5464: 5450:Modern Ancients 5444: 5440: 5427: 5425: 5404: 5395: 5391: 5378: 5376: 5347: 5343: 5333: 5331: 5329:Yale Law School 5308: 5301: 5288: 5286: 5265: 5256: 5252: 5239: 5237: 5208: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5180: 5176: 5163: 5159: 5142: 5138: 5122:G G Aperghis – 5121: 5117: 5107: 5105: 5096: 5092: 5083: 5079: 5063: 5059: 5043: 5039: 5022: 5018: 5001: 4997: 4989: 4985: 4972: 4968: 4951: 4947: 4931: 4927: 4911: 4907: 4899: 4895: 4884: 4880: 4871: 4867: 4857: 4855: 4853: 4837: 4830: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4779: 4775: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4745: 4741: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4711: 4707: 4696: 4689: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4659: 4655: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4622: 4618: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4587: 4583: 4575:MA Dandamaev – 4574: 4570: 4561: 4557: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4527: 4523: 4507: 4506: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4479: 4475: 4465: 4463: 4460:Financial Times 4451: 4447: 4438: 4431: 4419: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4305:Monetary reform 4289: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4190:Abraham Lincoln 4099:and John Law's 4072:Banque Générale 4054:Bank of England 3978:Knights Templar 3973: 3961:too big to fail 3952:Lehman Brothers 3925: 3866: 3858:Universal banks 3834:universal banks 3814: 3798:payment systems 3735: 3718: 3643: 3627: 3595: 3589: 3531: 3470: 3435: 3389:Rio Tinto Group 3314: 3283:Bank of Estonia 3215:currency boards 3180:Bank of Finland 3142:established by 3106:was devised by 3104:Bank of England 3077:Banco di Napoli 3049: 3043: 3024: 3000: 2998:Chinese banking 2923:Bank of England 2903: 2901:The modern bank 2851: 2841: 2790: 2778: 2772: 2760:price increases 2748: 2742: 2707: 2662: 2656: 2592: 2564: 2559: 2515:Of Usury, from 2485:S.p.A. (BMPS). 2439:legal loopholes 2407: 2405:Italian bankers 2376: 2334: 2218: 2212: 2184: 2182:Medieval Europe 2171:Islamic banking 2131: 2125: 2058:Mounts of Piety 2054:Knights Templar 2034: 2022:Main articles: 2020: 1964: 1956:Main articles: 1954: 1929: 1919: 1801:dēmosía trápeza 1778: 1772: 1752: 1715:Delian league's 1711: 1624: 1596: 1568: 1556: 1550: 1525: 1509: 1503: 1472: 1466: 1433:while in their 1370:was to be on a 1351: 1287: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1265: 1255:were two early 1237: 1199: 1184: 1174: 1150:Stone Age tools 1133: 1113: 1103: 1095:bank regulation 1063:Banco di Napoli 1047:Giovanni Medici 992:change of money 982:and during the 948: 883: 882: 864:Too big to fail 849:Systematic risk 762:Ethical banking 752:Cost of capital 727: 719: 718: 665:Private banking 635:Islamic banking 615:Hedge (finance) 538:Ethical banking 508:Economic bubble 483:Climate finance 458:Bank regulation 422: 414: 413: 372:Instant payment 318: 310: 309: 233: 216: 215: 51: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9951: 9941: 9940: 9935: 9921: 9920: 9914: 9907: 9906:External links 9904: 9903: 9902: 9896: 9881: 9874: 9864: 9854: 9847: 9840: 9833: 9822: 9812: 9796: 9789: 9782: 9770: 9763: 9756: 9744: 9734: 9728: 9715: 9708: 9701:Cameron, Rondo 9698: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9683: 9666: 9654: 9632: 9621:on 19 May 2012 9603: 9592: 9575: 9563: 9541: 9522: 9500: 9478: 9459: 9432: 9400: 9370: 9365:Bloomberg News 9348: 9312: 9303: 9274: 9255: 9233: 9213: 9200: 9180: 9177:(55): 839–840. 9165: 9158: 9120: 9093: 9075: 9061: 9037: 9019: 9006: 8993: 8970: 8957: 8937: 8924: 8874: 8860: 8836: 8819: 8806: 8789: 8765: 8752: 8726: 8707: 8687: 8668: 8648: 8629: 8609: 8590: 8561: 8555:H. Roseveare, 8548: 8525: 8506: 8487: 8474: 8450: 8436: 8412: 8405: 8382: 8364: 8343: 8322: 8304: 8290: 8254: 8244: 8224: 8211: 8175: 8166: 8157: 8148: 8135:M Häberlein – 8128: 8121: 8103: 8094: 8087: 8060: 8053: 8025: 8014: 7988: 7982:978-9004153882 7981: 7961: 7954: 7934: 7927: 7907: 7900: 7880: 7869: 7856: 7831: 7811: 7791: 7778: 7754: 7738: 7724: 7699: 7679: 7676:. Vol. 1. 7664: 7649: 7623: 7597: 7572: 7565: 7545: 7516:(1): 108–126. 7493: 7484: 7467: 7449:1 John 2:14–16 7440: 7428: 7404: 7391: 7384: 7364: 7351: 7342: 7335: 7315: 7308: 7288: 7271: 7251: 7245:978-0472118434 7244: 7222: 7215: 7197: 7172: 7158: 7130: 7099: 7078: 7046: 7033:978-1400833580 7032: 7004: 6995: 6976: 6956: 6949: 6932: 6912: 6888: 6872: 6866:978-0231153263 6865: 6842: 6828: 6803: 6782: 6762: 6748:J Tyldesley – 6741: 6720: 6699: 6685: 6673:(March 1978). 6655: 6638: 6607: 6595: 6581: 6561: 6522: 6507: 6484: 6471:978-1444341317 6470: 6450: 6436: 6416: 6395: 6386: 6365: 6349: 6325: 6308: 6283: 6270: 6251: 6228: 6211: 6172: 6158: 6135: 6107: 6084: 6077: 6057: 6051:978-1134166015 6050: 6030: 6004: 5987: 5969: 5956: 5936: 5917: 5903: 5883: 5872: 5855: 5828:978-0814652596 5827: 5804: 5785: 5772: 5752: 5738: 5718: 5705: 5692: 5671: 5650: 5644:JA Thompson – 5637: 5617: 5597: 5577: 5560:OJ Thatcher – 5553: 5533: 5508: 5488: 5462: 5438: 5389: 5366:Washington, DC 5341: 5320:Avalon Project 5299: 5250: 5227:Washington, DC 5202: 5190: 5174: 5157: 5136: 5115: 5090: 5077: 5064:GW Bromiley – 5057: 5037: 5016: 4995: 4983: 4966: 4945: 4925: 4905: 4893: 4878: 4865: 4851: 4828: 4807: 4794:978-0470278628 4793: 4773: 4759: 4739: 4725: 4705: 4687: 4673: 4653: 4640:978-0199567782 4639: 4616: 4602:978-1134750849 4601: 4581: 4568: 4555: 4541: 4521: 4493: 4473: 4445: 4429: 4421:Hoggson, N. F. 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4401: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4362: 4357: 4355:Online banking 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4300:Money creation 4296: 4295: 4294: 4278: 4275: 4274: 4273: 4266: 4259: 4252: 4237: 4226: 4219: 4208: 4201: 4182: 4175: 4172: 4165: 4154: 4147: 4146:on 18 January. 4144:Bank of France 4140: 4133: 4126: 4119: 4104: 4093: 4075: 4064: 4057: 4050: 4035: 4032: 4025: 4014: 4003: 3988: 3981: 3972: 3969: 3948:JPMorgan Chase 3924: 3921: 3865: 3862: 3813: 3810: 3782:retail banking 3769:(IMF) and the 3717: 3714: 3642: 3639: 3626: 3623: 3591:Main article: 3588: 3585: 3567:who developed 3530: 3527: 3510:inn, in 1775. 3469: 3466: 3434: 3431: 3313: 3310: 3275:Bank of Greece 3271:Bank of Danzig 3251:Montagu Norman 3224:Andrew Jackson 3085:Hamburger Bank 3065:Banco del Giro 3045:Main article: 3042: 3039: 3023: 3020: 2999: 2996: 2902: 2899: 2840: 2837: 2813:money changing 2789: 2786: 2782:Royal Exchange 2771: 2768: 2741: 2738: 2730:Berenberg Bank 2706: 2703: 2658:Main article: 2655: 2652: 2591: 2588: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2532:Albrecht Dürer 2530:attributed to 2448:pope's usurers 2423:Bank of Venice 2406: 2403: 2375: 2372: 2333: 2330: 2234:merchant banks 2214:Main article: 2211: 2208: 2183: 2180: 2127:Main article: 2124: 2121: 2086:Hope & Co. 2019: 2016: 1953: 1950: 1918: 1915: 1774:Main article: 1771: 1768: 1751: 1748: 1710: 1707: 1623: 1620: 1567: 1564: 1549: 1546: 1524: 1521: 1517:Maurya dynasty 1505:Main article: 1502: 1499: 1465: 1462: 1454:Murashu family 1442:house of Egibi 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1264: 1261: 1236: 1233: 1173: 1172:Record-keeping 1170: 1132: 1129: 1102: 1099: 1082:Dutch Republic 980:ancient Greece 950: 949: 947: 946: 939: 932: 924: 921: 920: 919: 918: 908: 898: 885: 884: 881: 880: 877: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 829:Public finance 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 805: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 737:Bond (finance) 734: 728: 726:Related topics 725: 724: 721: 720: 715: 714: 713: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 670:Sustainability 667: 662: 657: 655:Money creation 652: 650:Mobile banking 647: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 591: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 444: 443: 438: 423: 420: 419: 416: 415: 412: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 390: 389: 379: 374: 369: 364: 363: 362: 357: 347: 346: 345: 340: 330: 325: 319: 317:Funds transfer 316: 315: 312: 311: 306: 305: 304: 303: 298: 293: 288: 280: 279: 275: 274: 270: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 247:Christmas club 241: 240: 234: 222: 221: 218: 217: 212:Lists of banks 209: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 166:Postal savings 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 141:Mutual savings 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 52: 50:Types of banks 49: 48: 45: 44: 36: 35: 29: 28: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9950: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9930: 9928: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9909: 9901: 9897: 9895: 9891: 9890: 9885: 9882: 9879: 9875: 9873: 9872:online review 9869: 9865: 9863: 9862:online review 9859: 9855: 9852: 9848: 9845: 9844:History Today 9841: 9839:(2014): 385+. 9838: 9834: 9831: 9827: 9826:Wilkins, Mira 9823: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9811: 9807: 9804: 9800: 9797: 9794: 9790: 9787: 9783: 9780: 9779: 9774: 9773:Hammond, Bray 9771: 9768: 9764: 9761: 9757: 9754: 9753: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9725: 9721: 9716: 9713: 9709: 9706: 9702: 9699: 9696: 9692: 9691: 9681:, 12 May 2008 9680: 9676: 9670: 9661: 9659: 9643: 9636: 9620: 9616: 9610: 9608: 9601: 9596: 9589: 9584: 9579: 9572: 9567: 9559: 9555: 9551: 9545: 9537: 9533: 9526: 9518: 9511: 9504: 9496: 9489: 9482: 9476: 9475: 9474:The Economist 9470: 9469: 9463: 9447: 9443: 9436: 9420: 9416: 9415: 9410: 9404: 9388: 9384: 9380: 9374: 9366: 9362: 9361:Bloomberg.com 9358: 9352: 9333: 9326: 9324: 9316: 9307: 9291: 9287: 9281: 9279: 9270: 9266: 9259: 9244: 9240: 9236: 9234:9780236311446 9230: 9226: 9225: 9217: 9203: 9201:0-19-924843-5 9197: 9193: 9192: 9184: 9176: 9169: 9161: 9159:0-900382-38-4 9155: 9151: 9135: 9131: 9124: 9108: 9104: 9096: 9090: 9086: 9079: 9064: 9062:0-415-03720-4 9058: 9054: 9053: 9048: 9040: 9038:0-900382-38-4 9034: 9030: 9023: 9016: 9010: 9003: 8997: 8991: 8987: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8967: 8961: 8954: 8950: 8947: 8941: 8934: 8928: 8920: 8905: 8901: 8897: 8896: 8891: 8890: 8885: 8878: 8870: 8864: 8856: 8852: 8851: 8846: 8840: 8832: 8831: 8823: 8816: 8810: 8803: 8793: 8786: 8782: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8762: 8756: 8740: 8736: 8730: 8714: 8710: 8708:9780674019393 8704: 8700: 8699: 8691: 8675: 8671: 8669:9781107149663 8665: 8661: 8660: 8652: 8636: 8632: 8630:9788120342378 8626: 8622: 8621: 8613: 8607: 8603: 8600: 8594: 8578: 8574: 8573: 8565: 8558: 8552: 8545: 8532: 8528: 8526:9780405112126 8522: 8518: 8517: 8510: 8504: 8500: 8497:Riksbank.com 8496: 8491: 8484: 8478: 8471: 8467: 8463: 8460: 8454: 8439: 8437:9780415170123 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7582: 7576: 7568: 7566:1-4000-6228-4 7562: 7558: 7557: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7504: 7497: 7488: 7481: 7477: 7476:1 Samuel 22:2 7471: 7465: 7461: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7444: 7438: 7432: 7426:. pp. 172–173 7425: 7424:0-06-091533-1 7421: 7417: 7413: 7412:Johnson, Paul 7408: 7401: 7395: 7387: 7381: 7377: 7376: 7368: 7361: 7355: 7346: 7338: 7332: 7328: 7327: 7319: 7311: 7305: 7301: 7300: 7292: 7285: 7281: 7275: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7255: 7247: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7226: 7218: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7186: 7182: 7176: 7161: 7159:9780521389327 7155: 7150: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7135: 7118: 7117: 7112: 7106: 7104: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7082: 7067: 7063: 7062: 7057: 7054:Brill Online 7050: 7035: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7020: 7016: 7008: 6999: 6992: 6988: 6985: 6980: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6960: 6952: 6950:0-264-67284-4 6946: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6927: 6924: 6921: 6916: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6892: 6885: 6881: 6876: 6868: 6862: 6858: 6857: 6849: 6847: 6831: 6825: 6821: 6820: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6789:M Robertson- 6786: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6766: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6745: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6724: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6703: 6688: 6682: 6678: 6677: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6660: 6652: 6648: 6642: 6635: 6631: 6628: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6604: 6599: 6584: 6578: 6574: 6573: 6565: 6557: 6551: 6535: 6534: 6526: 6510: 6504: 6500: 6499: 6491: 6489: 6473: 6467: 6463: 6462: 6454: 6439: 6433: 6429: 6428: 6420: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6399: 6390: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6369: 6362: 6359: 6353: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6329: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6294:published by 6293: 6287: 6280: 6274: 6259:on 2 May 2006 6258: 6254: 6248: 6244: 6243: 6235: 6233: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6208: 6197: 6193: 6192: 6187: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6161: 6159:9780521893916 6155: 6151: 6150: 6142: 6140: 6131: 6125: 6110: 6104: 6100: 6099: 6091: 6089: 6080: 6078:9780521838399 6074: 6070: 6069: 6061: 6053: 6047: 6043: 6042: 6034: 6018: 6014: 6008: 6000: 5999: 5991: 5983: 5979: 5973: 5966: 5960: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5940: 5933: 5929: 5926: 5921: 5906: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5887: 5881: 5876: 5869: 5865: 5859: 5851: 5845: 5830: 5824: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5808: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5789: 5782: 5776: 5769: 5765: 5762: 5756: 5741: 5739:9781402185458 5735: 5731: 5730: 5722: 5715: 5709: 5702: 5696: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5675: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5581: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5557: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5540:JP Nielsen – 5537: 5521: 5520: 5512: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5451: 5442: 5435: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5393: 5386: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5330: 5326: 5325:New Haven, CT 5322: 5321: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5304: 5296: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5272: 5264: 5260: 5254: 5247: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5206: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5183: 5178: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5140: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5103: 5102: 5094: 5087: 5081: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5052: 5049: 5046: 5041: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5020: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5002:Chahin, M. – 4999: 4992: 4987: 4979: 4978: 4970: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4949: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4902: 4897: 4889: 4882: 4875: 4869: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4843: 4835: 4833: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4796: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4777: 4762: 4756: 4752: 4751: 4743: 4728: 4722: 4718: 4717: 4709: 4701: 4694: 4692: 4676: 4670: 4666: 4665: 4657: 4642: 4636: 4632: 4631: 4626: 4620: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4593: 4585: 4578: 4572: 4565: 4562:Ian Hodder – 4559: 4544: 4542:9780195074451 4538: 4534: 4533: 4525: 4517: 4511: 4496: 4494:9781461700005 4490: 4486: 4485: 4477: 4462: 4461: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4436: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4415: 4410: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4385:New Testament 4380: 4376: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4292: 4281: 4271: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4257: 4253: 4250: 4246: 4245:Richard Nixon 4242: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4179:Panic of 1825 4176: 4173: 4170: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4152: 4148: 4145: 4141: 4138: 4134: 4131: 4127: 4124: 4120: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4091: 4090:gold standard 4087: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4033: 4030: 4026: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3982: 3979: 3975: 3974: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3933: 3929: 3920: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3902: 3898: 3893: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3861: 3859: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3818: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3776: 3775:gold standard 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3752: 3748: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3688: 3687:vicious cycle 3683: 3674: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3652: 3647: 3638: 3636: 3635:runs on banks 3632: 3631:Panic of 1907 3622: 3620: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3599:Great Britain 3594: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3540: 3535: 3526: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3439: 3430: 3428: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3403:, as well as 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3327: 3318: 3309: 3307: 3306:public sector 3303: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3245:(EFO) of the 3244: 3240: 3235: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3207:gold standard 3204: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3156:United States 3153: 3149: 3146:in 1782. The 3145: 3141: 3140:Bank of Spain 3137: 3136:Banque Royale 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3116:royal charter 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3094:, founded in 3093: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3048: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3029: 3026:In 1868, the 3019: 3017: 3012: 3009: 3005: 2995: 2993: 2992:Pembrokeshire 2988: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2921:In 1695, the 2916: 2912: 2907: 2898: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2846: 2836: 2834: 2833:central banks 2828: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2785: 2783: 2777: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2737: 2735: 2731: 2726: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2686: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2651: 2649: 2640: 2636: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2587: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2554: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2518: 2513: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2455: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2411: 2402: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2385: 2381: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2346: 2345:First Crusade 2342: 2338: 2329: 2326: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2296: 2290: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2216:Merchant bank 2207: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2179: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2130: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2069:Protestantism 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2015: 2011: 2005: 2001: 1998:a woodcut by 1997: 1993: 1988: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1973: 1969: 1963: 1959: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1934:Mesopotamians 1924: 1914: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1901:in Sardinia. 1900: 1896: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1782: 1777: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1756: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1725: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1661:, and within 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1635:Greek temples 1631: 1629: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1605: 1600: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1578: 1572: 1563: 1560: 1555: 1548:Ancient Egypt 1545: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1508: 1498: 1496: 1491: 1489: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1461: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1438: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1378:specified in 1377: 1376:maturity date 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1326:Antiochus III 1323: 1318: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1270: 1260: 1259:settlements. 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1194: 1178: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1128: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1112: 1108: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1091:bank failures 1088: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1049:in 1397. The 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1005: 1004:money lending 1001: 997: 996:ancient China 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 945: 940: 938: 933: 931: 926: 925: 923: 922: 917: 913: 909: 907: 899: 897: 889: 888: 887: 886: 879: 878: 875: 874:Watered stock 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 854:Systemic risk 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 814:List of banks 812: 810: 807: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 779: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 732:Asset pricing 730: 729: 723: 722: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 545: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 503:Eco-investing 501: 499: 496: 494: 493:Disinvestment 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 473:Capital asset 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 442: 439: 437: 434: 433: 432: 429: 428: 427: 426: 418: 417: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 388: 385: 384: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 361: 358: 356: 353: 352: 351: 348: 344: 341: 339: 336: 335: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 320: 314: 313: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 283: 282: 281: 277: 276: 273: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 244: 243: 242: 238: 237: 232: 229: 225: 220: 219: 214: 213: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 156:Participation 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 136:Middle market 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 67: 66:Bulge bracket 64: 62: 59: 57: 54: 53: 47: 46: 42: 38: 37: 34: 31: 30: 27: 23: 22: 19: 9899: 9887: 9877: 9867: 9857: 9850: 9843: 9836: 9829: 9815: 9792: 9785: 9776: 9766: 9759: 9750: 9737: 9719: 9711: 9704: 9694: 9678: 9669: 9645:. Retrieved 9635: 9623:. Retrieved 9619:the original 9595: 9578: 9566: 9558:the original 9544: 9535: 9525: 9516: 9503: 9494: 9481: 9472: 9467: 9462: 9450:. Retrieved 9445: 9435: 9423:. Retrieved 9412: 9403: 9391:. Retrieved 9387:the original 9373: 9360: 9351: 9339:. Retrieved 9332:the original 9322: 9315: 9306: 9294:. Retrieved 9290:the original 9268: 9258: 9246:. Retrieved 9223: 9216: 9205:, retrieved 9190: 9183: 9174: 9168: 9149: 9138:. Retrieved 9134:the original 9123: 9111:. Retrieved 9106: 9084: 9078: 9066:. Retrieved 9051: 9028: 9022: 9014: 9009: 9001: 9000:Joan Comay, 8996: 8978: 8973: 8965: 8960: 8940: 8932: 8927: 8907:. Retrieved 8893: 8888: 8877: 8863: 8848: 8839: 8829: 8822: 8814: 8809: 8801: 8792: 8773: 8768: 8760: 8755: 8743:. Retrieved 8739:the original 8729: 8719:29 September 8717:. Retrieved 8697: 8690: 8680:29 September 8678:. Retrieved 8658: 8651: 8641:29 September 8639:. Retrieved 8619: 8612: 8593: 8581:. Retrieved 8571: 8564: 8551: 8542: 8535:. 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