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left serious doubts as to the competence and honesty of the electoral authorities. The
Supreme Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Electoral—TSE) was, as a result, completely reorganized. Second, the government—remembering a campaign slogan calling "Roldós to the government, Bucaram to power"—was understandably dismayed with results of the first-round election. By delaying the second round, the government sought to give rightists the time to build an anti-Roldós coalition under which Durán could emerge as the second-round victor. To complicate matters further, Abdón Calderón Múñoz, a populist candidate who had won 9 percent of the vote in the first round, was murdered under circumstances implicating the government. Finally, as a further distraction during this difficult period, Velasco returned from exile to bury his wife and died in March 1979 at age eighty-six.
803:
considerably. Velasco attempted to compensate for his lost prestige by baiting the United States, seizing and fining United States fishing boats found within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of the
Ecuadorian coast. The intensification of the "tuna war" inflamed tempers in both countries; Ecuador dismissed United States military advisers, and the United States withdrew almost all economic and military aid to Ecuador. Such nationalistic adventures were of only momentary value to Velasco, however. In 1971, amid mounting civic unrest that verified the extent of the opposition, he was forced to cancel a scheduled national plebiscite in which he hoped to replace the 1967 constitution, with the charter written under his own auspices in 1946 the Constitution, Velasco argued, made the president too weak to be effective.
795:
Velasquista—FNV) was far short of a majority in either house of
Congress, and a failure to build any working coalition made for a stalemate in the legislative process. Even Velasco's own vice president, a Guayaquileño Liberal named Jorge Zavala Baquerizo, turned into a strident and vocal critic. Cabinet ministers came and went with astonishing frequency. This political impasse soon combined with the fiscal and balance-of- payments crises, which by now had become customary under the spendthrift habits and administrative mismanagement associated with each of Velasco's terms in office, to spawn a major political crisis. The turning point came on June 22, 1970, when Velasco, in an action known as an
811:
the presidency in 1972 was Asaad
Bucaram Elmhalim, a former street peddler who in 1960 had seized the leadership of the CFP from Guevara Moreno and later had twice been an extremely popular mayor of Guayaquil. Both the military and the business community regarded Bucaram as dangerous and unpredictable and unfit to be president, especially at a time when unprecedented income was expected to flow into the state coffers. On February 15, 1972, four months before the scheduled elections, the military under the command of Jorge Queirolo G. once again overthrew Velasco, who was sent into his final period of exile. He was replaced by a three-man military junta headed by the Army chief of staff, General
42:
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percent of
Ecuador's cultivable land had changed hands under the reform. More notable achievements came in the areas of building infrastructure projects, such as the major oil refinery and petrochemical complex in Esmeraldas; various highway and electrification projects; and state capitalist enterprises, particularly the Ecuadorian State Petroleum Corporation (Corporación Estatal Petrolera Ecuatoriana—CEPE). The latter corporation was founded in 1972 and grew to become the major actor in Ecuador's exploitation of its oil reserves.
852:
the world market price, the oil companies cut back drastically on their exports, at a cost to the government of hundreds of millions of dollars over the following nine months. This intense financial pressure finally led to a July 1975 announcement that taxes on the oil companies' exports were being reduced. It was thus clear that the military regime had overplayed its nationalistic oil policy, having failed to keep in mind that
Ecuador was, after all, a relatively small oil producer and thus not a powerful player within OPEC.
848:, with all its attendant prestige and economic benefits. He was also responsible for Ecuador's renegotiation of a number of oil concessions, including the key Texaco-Gulf concession in the Oriente, on terms much more favorable to the state, such as substantial increases in both the royalties paid by foreign firms and the tax rate they paid on petroleum exports. These efforts were initially successful in allowing the government to retain a larger share of Ecuador's petroleum earnings.
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56:
837:, were tried for corruption in connection with oil concessions granted during the 1960s. In addition, a large number of functionaries of the Velasco government, supporters of Bucaram, as well as drug traffickers, legitimate importers, and customs officials were charged with corruption and "illegal enrichment." Although it thus assailed its major opponents from the start the military regime, however, failed to build its own civilian base of political support.
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the minister of defense. The outgoing government also made it clear to Roldós (who had an early campaign slogan of "we will not forgive, we will not forget") that it would not tolerate any investigation into the behavior of the military with respect to human rights. With his autonomy thus diminished, Roldós finally assumed the presidency on August 10, and thus
Ecuador returned to constitutional, civilian rule after almost a decade of dictatorship.
913:, the leader of the Christian Democratic Party (Partido Demócrata Cristiano—PDC), was tapped to be Roldós's vice presidential running mate. The traditional rightist vote was split between two candidates, and the various parties of the Marxist left coalesced to name one candidate. After a lengthy recount, the final results of the July 16 election confirmed the initial tally of a surprise victory by Roldós, with 27 percent of the national vote.
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believed, had become a source of growing frustration within the lower classes, thus making them more receptive to the lure of communism. The junta combined its reformist anticommunism with the more traditional hard-line variety. After jailing or exiling the entire leadership of the communist left, the new government reorganized the nation's two leading universities in an effort to eliminate them as sources of left-wing political activity.
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plurality of 44 percent voted in favor of the newly drafted national charter. The charter was the more progressive of the two constitutions, its major reforms being the acknowledgement of a role for the state in socioeconomic development, the legalization of a worker self-managed sector in the economy, a unicameral legislature, no presidential re-election, and, for the first time in
Ecuador, electoral suffrage for illiterates.
713:. He thus came to power with the adoration of the masses, but he saddled himself with expensive commitments to the poor at a time when deficits in the state coffers were approaching a critical level. Additionally, Velasco threatened Ecuador's shaky economy with what amounted to a declaration of hostilities against Peru and the guarantors of the Rio Protocol, namely Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States.
766:
imports sparked the opposition of the powerful
Guayaquil Chamber of Commerce, which in March called for a general strike. Long- disgruntled student groups and labor unions were only too happy to join in the protest, which rapidly spread to other cities. On March 29, 1966, following a bloody and demoralizing attack on the Central University in Quito, the disillusioned military reformers stepped down.
786:, a cousin of Carlos Julio and a political centrist, to act as a second provisional president. During his twenty months in office, the new constitution went into effect in May 1967, and popular elections for president were held in June 1968. Incredibly, Velasco—now seventy-five years old—was voted into the presidency for the fifth time, an incredible thirty-four years after his initial victory.
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of a failed attempt to oust the powerful commandant of the Quito military academy in April 1971, however, Acosta himself was forced to resign his ministerial portfolio and was summarily dispatched to Madrid as ambassador. Having lost the man who was his linchpin in the armed forces and the only apparent heir to the velasquista throne, Velasco was left to the mercy of the high command.
737:
with Cuba, Poland, and
Czechoslovakia. The crisis over Cuba proved to be very costly for Arosemena, who lost not only much of his local political support, but also the self-confidence to pursue his own, independent course. Afterward, the government drifted with little leadership from the president, who allegedly indulged in frequent drinking bouts.
724:(who was also president of the Chamber of Deputies) openly opposing the government in July 1961. By October relations between Velasco's government and Congress had deteriorated to the point where legislators and progovernment spectators engaged in a gun battle. Although dozens of bullet holes were later found in the Chamber, no one was injured.
860:
later, a bloody attempt led by the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Raúl González Alvear, to overthrow Rodríguez Lara. Although this coup attempt failed, at a cost of twenty-two lives, on January 11, 1976, a second, bloodless coup was successful in removing Rodríguez Lara. He was replaced by the
823:
The military regime called itself "nationalist and revolutionary," but the well-known connections of Rodríguez Lara to the Guayaquil business community signaled disappointment for those who anticipated that he would head a progressive military regime such as was ruling in Peru at the time. It shortly
806:
The president's autogolpe and his continuance in power were possible because of support from the armed forces. Velasco's key ally was his nephew and minister of defense, General Jorge Acosta Velasco, who continually reshuffled the high command in order to retain velasquistas in key posts. In the wake
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Meaningful reform was precluded, in part at least, by the increasingly cumbersome process of decision making within the politically heterogeneous, plural executive. Insubordination by the air force representative on the junta led to his dismissal and arrest in November 1965; thereafter, the junta had
740:
The brief appearance of a guerrilla movement in the coastal jungle and a rash of small-scale terrorist incidents (many of which later were found to have been staged by right-wing provocateurs) also left Arosemena open to accusations of being either unable or unwilling to stop communist subversion. By
736:
Arosemena's insistence on maintaining relations with Cuba, however, became a major domestic political issue in Ecuador. Political opponents labeled Arosemena a dangerous communist, and part of the military went into open rebellion in March 1962. The following month, Ecuador broke diplomatic relations
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The instability began immediately. Ponce was so angry over Velasco's vicious campaign attacks on his government that he resigned on his last day in office rather than preside over the inauguration of his successor. During his campaign, "the National Personification" had promised government support to
929:
in Washington made it difficult for the military to stop the "democratization" process at this late date. The military did extract as a price, in any case, unprecedented powers to name representatives to the boards of directors of major state corporations and to participate directly in the naming of
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The second round was finally held on April 29, 1979, with the Roldós-Hurtado ticket sweeping to an overwhelming 68.5 percent victory against a weak performance by Durán. Doubts persisted, however, up to the moment that the winners took office three months later, that the military would allow them to
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Two circumstances proved critical in persuading the military to overthrow Velasco before the scheduled completion of his term in 1972. On the one hand, the state was due very shortly to begin reaping vast revenues under a 1964 petroleum concession. On the other hand, the overwhelming favorite to win
765:
In 1965 Ecuador also saw a dramatic drop in its revenue from banana exports and, despite generous development assistance from the United States government and the Inter-American Development Bank, the junta suddenly faced an economic crisis of major proportions. The announcement of increased taxes on
904:
Five candidates then campaigned for the presidency. The consistent favorite in polls was Rodrigo Borja of the social democratic Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática—ID). Because the Supreme Council of Government made sure that Bucaram was barred from running, the CFP strongman named his second in
840:
Promises of a "meaningful agrarian reform" under the auspices of Minister of Agriculture Guillermo Maldonado, a dedicated reformer, were frustrated by intense opposition from traditional elites. Maldonado was eventually forced out, and by the end of Rodríguez Lara's four years in office less than 1
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Law to commemorate the first anniversary of its assumption of power. The law abolished the huasipungo system, the feudalistic land tenure arrangement widely used in the Sierra. However, the law resulted in little real improvement in the lives of the long-suffering Sierra peasants and died from lack
749:
The four-man military junta that seized power announced its intention not to return the nation to constitutional rule until the institution of basic socioeconomic reforms, which both Velasco and Arosemena had promised but never implemented. This failure by their two civilian predecessors, the junta
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The oil companies became increasingly disconcerted, however, when Jarrín proposed in late 1974 that the share of stock in the Texaco-Gulf subsidiary held by CEPE be increased from 25 to 51 percent. Claiming that the terms of their concessions negotiated with Jarrín had priced Ecuadorian oil beyond
920:
It was more than nine months before the second-round election took place, however. They were months of considerable political tension and doubt as to whether the transition would proceed as planned. First, widespread problems in organizing the election and in the vote count during the first round
892:
Two reasons are commonly cited for the delay: the slowness of decision making within the Supreme Council of Government because of ongoing disagreement within the military high command and repeated maneuverings by the military government to manipulate the electoral process, thereby controlling its
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Virtually the only item on the agenda of the new military triumvirate was to preside over a return of the government to constitutional, civilian rule. The bloody September 1975 coup attempt had revealed the depth of the breach in the institutional unity of the armed forces. Handing the government
828:
regime was a hybrid, reflecting a tenuous equilibrium among the widely divergent political tendencies within the Ecuadorian armed forces. Nevertheless, like the contemporary Peruvian and Brazilian regimes, the regime of Rodríguez Lara, he promised, would not be an interim government, but rather a
855:
The moderation of the regime's oil policy, however, did not result in the anticipated resolution of mounting economic problems. Oil exports rose only slightly, while imports, particularly of luxury items, continued to soar, aided by a low-tariff policy that had been designed to soak up petroleum
900:
to choose the constitution was finally held on 15 January 1978. The results saw 23 percent of the voting population nullify their ballots, an action that had been advocated by the traditional right; 31 percent of the population voted in favor of a revised version of the 1945 constitution, and a
888:
The original timetable, announced in June 1976, called for a transition that was to culminate in presidential elections in February 1978. First, new government charters and electoral laws were to be drafted by appointed commissions, and then a public referendum would choose between two proposed
859:
In August, in an effort to resolve its balance-of-payments difficulties, the regime decreed a 60 percent duty on imported luxury items. The measure was condemned by the Chambers of Commerce in Quito and Guayaquil, whose constituents had grown dependent on the sale of imports, and caused, a week
802:
Velasco subsequently decreed a number of extremely unpopular economic measures. After devaluing the sucre for the first time since 1961, he placed tight controls on foreign exchange transactions and then decreed a number of new tax measures, the most controversial of which raised import tariffs
727:
A series of new sales taxes imposed during the same month in order to raise desperately needed revenues then sparked a general strike and a series of demonstrations and riots in several major cities. Amid growing chaos, Velasco ordered the arrest of his vice president, a move that opened him to
716:
Sensing the direction of the political wind in the wake of the Cuban Revolution, Velasco magnified his anti-United States rhetoric and included leftists in his government. Meanwhile, the United States encouraged Latin American governments to break diplomatic relations with Cuba. Before long,
794:
The weakness of Velasco's mandate—he managed only a plurality of barely one-third of the popular vote in a crowded field of five candidates—foreshadowed political difficulties that plagued him during his final term. His newly formed National Velasquista Federation (Federación Nacional
832:
Rodríguez Lara's regime gave early emphasis to a campaign designed in part to exert firm control over the nation's petroleum resources and in part to consolidate the government's political authority. Several former political leaders, including ex-President
889:
constitutions. The transition was repeatedly slowed down, however, and in the end, instead of the less than two years originally scheduled, three years and eight months elapsed between the 1976 coup and the inauguration of a civilian president.
728:
charges of violating the constitution. On November 8, after only fourteen months in office, Velasco was ousted by the military and replaced by Vice President Arosemena, who was his constitutional successor as well as his leading opponent.
709:
the masses of urban poor, many of whom had recently migrated to Guayaquil and other major cities in search of a decent job and a place to live. Velasco's populism continued into his inaugural address, when he renounced the hated 1942
917:, candidate of a coalition of rightist parties, finished second with 24 percent. The electoral law mandated that when no candidate achieved a majority vote, a run-off election between the two top finishers be held.
399:
encompasses a period of political, social, and economic changes in the country. During this time, Ecuador experienced military regimes, political instability, social movements, and economic challenges.
893:
outcome. Like the Rodríguez Lara government, the Council was particularly interested in seeing a poor electoral performance by the CFP and, especially, preventing Bucaram from winning the presidency.
844:
Oil policy was the regime's vehicle for its most forceful expression of nationalism. Minister of Natural Resources Gustavo Jarrín Ampudia presided over Ecuador's 1973 entry into the
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assume their duly elected offices. The size of their popular mandate and, according to political scientist John D. Martz, pressure from the administration of President
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earnings, and thus control inflation. In excess of 22 percent during 1974, inflation was rapidly eroding the real value of wages within the middle class.
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back to civilians, it was hoped, might remove the causes of divisions within the military, or at least make it easier to hide them from public view.
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The rapidly deteriorating economic situation soon brought about a split in the velasquista coalition, however, with the left, led by Vice President
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early 1963, military conspiracy was again afoot. On July 11 the high command of the armed forces decided, without dissent, to depose Arosemena.
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Ecuador's widening political polarization became manifest in outbreaks of violence between leftist students and the anticommunist right.
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long-term venture dedicated to introducing structural changes thought necessary to unfreeze the development process.
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799:(self-seizure of power), dismissed Congress and the Supreme Court and assumed dictatorial powers.
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This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain.
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909:, to be the party's candidate. In order to broaden the appeal of the ticket,
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778:, a non-partisan banana grower who had served as minister of economy under
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The following day, a small group of civilian leaders named
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consisting of the commanders of the three armed services:
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Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
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history of the Republic of Ecuador from 1960 to 1990
758:of funding under subsequent civilian governments.
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16:Overview of the history of Ecuador, 1960–1979
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824:became apparent that, ideologically, the
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732:Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy (1961–1963)
983:Rudolph, James D. "Historical Setting".
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704:José María Velasco Ibarra (1960–1961)
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753:In July 1964, the junta decreed the
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470:Spanish colonization of the Americas
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14:
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951:, in Hanratty, Dennis M. (ed.),
826:General Guillermo Rodríguez Lara
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548:Ecuador as part of Gran Colombia
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367:
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1579:Contemporary history by country
949:"Chapter 1. Historical Setting"
989:(Dennis M. Hanratty, editor).
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1:
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862:Supreme Council of Government
722:Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy
261:Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy
160:Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy
7:
10:
1600:
947:Rudolph, James D. (1989),
580:Marcist (March) Revolution
520:Free Province of Guayaquil
495:Viceroyalty of New Granada
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994:Federal Research Division
960:Federal Research Division
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74:"Dios, patria y libertad"
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986:A Country Study: Ecuador
953:A Country Study: Ecuador
813:Guillermo Rodríguez Lara
776:Clemente Yerovi Indaburu
218:Guillermo Rodríguez Lara
1574:20th century in Ecuador
555:1827 Guayaquil uprising
515:Revolution of October 9
1584:Military dictatorships
770:Transition (1966–1967)
634:Ecuador–Peru conflicts
309:• Disestablished
907:Jaime Roldós Aguilera
445:Pre-Columbian Ecuador
122:military dictatorship
118:Presidential republic
26:República del Ecuador
784:Otto Arosemena Gómez
762:only three members.
535:Guayaquil Conference
991:Library of Congress
957:Library of Congress
955:, Country Studies,
898:national referendum
790:Velasco (1968–1972)
644:Demographic history
591:Battle of Guayaquil
568:Republic of Ecuador
530:Battle of Pichincha
508:War of Independence
490:Viceroyalty of Peru
299:• Established
23:Republic of Ecuador
1554:Ecuador portal
915:Sixto Durán Ballén
667:Ecuador portal
172:Ramón Castro Jijón
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819:Junta (1972–1979)
745:Junta (1963–1967)
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450:Las Vegas Culture
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280:National Congress
225:• 1976-1979
213:• 1972-1976
203:• 1968-1972
191:• 1966-1968
167:• 1963-1966
155:• 1961-1963
143:• 1960–1961
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872:(Air Force) and
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639:Military history
483:Colonial Ecuador
465:Spanish conquest
455:Valdivia culture
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255:• See list
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525:Luz de América
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313:10 August 1979
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241:Vice President
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230:Alfredo Poveda
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53:
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39:
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25:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1596:
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1026:
1024:
1019:
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999:
995:
992:
988:
987:
980:
966:on 2008-11-16
965:
961:
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931:
928:
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827:
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742:
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729:
725:
723:
718:
714:
712:
694:
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631:
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614:
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609:
607:
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583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
569:
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563:
556:
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552:
549:
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543:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
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496:
493:
491:
488:
487:
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479:
478:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
442:
439:
438:Pre-Columbian
434:
433:
429:
425:
424:
421:
415:
414:
409:
404:
403:
400:
398:
389:
386:
384:Today part of
382:
366:
364:
361:
360:
357:
351:
348:
341:
340:
337:
336:
333:
330:
328:
325:
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312:
306:
302:
296:
292:
288:
284:
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244:
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228:
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176:
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132:
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126:
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119:
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93:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
63:
57:
49:
43:
35:
30:
20:
1545:
1408:21st century
1097:20th century
1057:19th century
997:
985:
979:
968:, retrieved
964:the original
952:
942:
927:Jimmy Carter
923:
919:
903:
895:
891:
887:
883:
858:
854:
850:
843:
839:
831:
822:
809:
805:
801:
793:
773:
764:
760:
752:
748:
739:
735:
726:
719:
715:
711:Rio Protocol
707:
616:1990–present
396:
394:
332:Succeeded by
331:
326:
179:• 1966
79:
72:Motto:
71:
62:Coat of arms
970:15 November
460:Inca Empire
417:History of
327:Preceded by
276:Legislature
1568:Categories
934:References
880:Transition
870:Luis Leoro
780:Galo Plaza
113:Government
1051:–present)
1043:Years in
905:command,
797:autogolpe
611:1960–1990
606:1944–1960
601:1925–1944
596:1895–1925
585:1860–1895
575:1830–1860
129:President
32:1960–1979
996:(1989).
876:(Army).
868:(Navy),
408:a series
406:Part of
120:under a
1045:Ecuador
419:Ecuador
388:Ecuador
363:Ecuador
350:Ecuador
286:History
102:Capital
80:Anthem:
628:Topics
410:on the
289:
245:
133:
82:
106:Quito
1535:2024
1530:2023
1525:2022
1520:2021
1515:2020
1510:2019
1505:2018
1500:2017
1495:2016
1490:2015
1485:2014
1480:2013
1475:2012
1470:2011
1465:2010
1460:2009
1455:2008
1450:2007
1445:2006
1440:2005
1435:2004
1430:2003
1425:2002
1420:2001
1415:2000
1399:1999
1394:1998
1389:1997
1384:1996
1379:1995
1374:1994
1369:1993
1364:1992
1359:1991
1354:1990
1349:1989
1344:1988
1339:1987
1334:1986
1329:1985
1324:1984
1319:1983
1314:1982
1309:1981
1304:1980
1299:1979
1294:1978
1289:1977
1284:1976
1279:1975
1274:1974
1269:1973
1264:1972
1259:1971
1254:1970
1249:1969
1244:1968
1239:1967
1234:1966
1229:1965
1224:1964
1219:1963
1214:1962
1209:1961
1204:1960
1199:1959
1194:1958
1189:1957
1184:1956
1179:1955
1174:1954
1169:1953
1164:1952
1159:1951
1154:1950
1146:1940
1138:1930
1130:1920
1122:1912
1117:1911
1112:1910
1104:1900
1088:1899
1080:1890
1072:1860
1064:1830
1049:1830
972:2008
896:The
395:The
48:Flag
1150:...
1142:...
1134:...
1126:...
1108:...
1084:...
1076:...
1068:...
263:to
1570::
815:.
1047:(
1029:e
1022:t
1015:v
692:e
685:t
678:v
267:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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