523:; it had been prosperous, but the hereditary McNeill proprietor had set up a kelp works which had drawn in outsiders; the works had proved uneconomic and to meet its losses, the crofters' rents had been raised to unsustainable levels. The kelp works were abandoned, but the high rents retained. "The poverty of the people is beyond description" wrote their parish priest in 1830. Despite the high rents, McNeill went bankrupt and his trustees in bankruptcy seized and sold most of the islanders' livestock (their main source of income) to pay rent arrears. Barra itself ended up in the hands of John Gordon of Cluny, "the richest commoner in Scotland" (he died worth £2m in 1858). Colonel Gordon (he was a colonel in the Aberdeenshire Militia) was notoriously parsimonious in his personal habits, but he authorised his factor to reduce rents to realistic levels and attempted various schemes (most notably a deep-water fishery) to improve the lot of the islanders (and his income from the island). These schemes met with little cooperation (and in some cases active opposition) from the islanders, and came to nothing: by 1850 Gordon had owned Barra for ten years, and seen no return for his money. Consequently, the islanders were still both poor and heavily dependent on potatoes. Furthermore, their landlord had no sentimental ties to them or the island, and held that the islanders were largely the authors of their own misfortune: if they had supported his improvements they would not find themselves dependent on the benevolence of others.
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giving an account which was markedly different but not significantly more favourable to Gordon. The
Inverness party said they had been moved from their crofts two to three years ago: "Ejectments were made illegally. No summonses of removal were served, nor any steps taken before the judge ordinary, or any other. The bare authority of Colonel Gordon, in a letter to the ground-officer, was that on which their houses were pulled about their ears, to make way for the large farmers to whom their crofts were let". They had been moved to infertile land; their crops were small or blighted, and they had been living on relief. When the Destitution Board had ceased operation, Gordon had taken over relief, but with inferior and unpalatable meal. They had not been evicted from the island; indeed Gordon's factor had refused them any assistance to leave the island – not even any meal for the journey. They were, however, convinced that Gordon was deliberately trying to "disgust them into" leaving. (In contrast to the treatment they had had from Gordon and his agents, they had reached Inverness through multiple kindnesses: An Irish merchant on Barra had given them provisions; the captain of a
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to do so. Gordon chartered ships and offered free passage to Quebec to his tenants in Barra and South Uist (and to those recently evicted). About 1,700 people availed themselves of the offer, but on arrival at Quebec some members of the last shipload signed a statement that they had been induced to emigrate by promises by their landlord (free onward passage to Upper Canada, guaranteed work, the possibility of free land grants) which they now found were illusory. They said twenty of those on the ship had wanted to change their mind about emigrating, but had been dragooned onto the ship by Gordon's factor and a police constable. The emigrants arrived on board half-starving and half-naked (some children
222:. Crops failed in about three-quarters of the crofting region, putting a population of about 200,000 at risk; the following winter was especially cold and snowy and the death rate rose significantly. The Free Church of Scotland, strong in the affected areas, was prompt in raising the alarm and in organising relief, being the only body actively doing so in late 1846 and early 1847; relief was given regardless of denomination. Additionally, the Free Church organised transport for over 3,000 men from the famine-struck regions to work on the Lowland railways. This both removed people who needed to be fed from the area and provided money for their families to buy food.
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financial conditions and struggled to meet expectations, some of them being in denial about their lack of ability to do so. The last class, those who had the means to fund relief for their tenants, but chose not to, were put under substantial pressure by the government. Senior relief officers made personal inspections of their properties (the Royal Navy had a steamer to provide transport for this). Formal exhortations were made over the winter of 1846 to those who still did not comply. Threats were added that the government would recover the costs of relief they had provided, even by selling part of the problem estates. By the summer of 1847, even the notorious
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over and above the originally intended population of townships) but declined or collapsed over its second quarter. The crofting areas were correspondingly impoverished, but able to sustain themselves by a much greater reliance on potatoes (it was reckoned that one acre growing potatoes could support as many people as four acres growing oats). Between 1801 and 1841 the population in the crofting area increased by over half, whereas in the eastern and southern
Highlands the increase in the same period was under 10 percent. Consequently, immediately pre-blight, whilst mainland Argyll had over 2 acres (0.8 hectares) of arable land per inhabitant, there was only
500:, and this certainly had an influence on the management of the Duke of Sutherland's estate. His factor in the Scourie district (Evander McIver) worked both to persuade the landlord to subsidise emigration and to encourage the tenantry to accept the assistance offered. Whilst the second Duke of Sutherland effectively forbade eviction to achieve this, the influence of favourable reports from previous emigrants, coupled with the level of destitution in the community acted as a stimulus for people to leave. Extreme poverty acted as a barrier to emigration – emphasising the importance of financial assistance from the landlord.
511:, the large-scale "voluntary" emigration to Canada from the Matheson estates was encouraged by both the carrot (promises of good treatment of volunteers) and the stick (reminders to tenants of their rent arrears and the possibility of their eviction). A witness of it said in the 1880s: "Some people say it was voluntary. But there was a great deal of forcing and these people were sent very much against their will. That is very well known and people present know that perfectly well. Of course, they were not taken in hand by the police and all that, but they were in arrears and had to go, and remonstrated against going."
258:. Existing legislation was examined for ways of providing help. Innovative measures were shunned for fear of expanding the role of government. Discretion was allowed to Inspectors of the Poor in providing meal to recipients of casual relief for destitute families. A much larger use of current law was the active encouragement of landowners to apply for loans under the Drainage and Public Works Act. After streamlining of the cumbersome application process, this channelled money to landlords that allowed them to employ their tenantry to improve the land that they rented.
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tenants (his version) or to reduce the number of destitute islanders he would have to support (the view taken by his critics). Some Barra islanders appeared, penniless, ragged, and unable to speak
English, on the streets of Glasgow just before Christmas 1850 . The tale told on their behalf was that they were only a small part of 132 families evicted from their holdings in May 1850; they squatted on waste land only to be evicted when relief operations ceased in September 1850. They excited public sympathy and Gordon became the target of criticism in Scottish
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insularity of the
Highlanders. When the kelp industry had collapsed they surely would have sought work elsewhere had they not been separated by habits and language from the majority of the population and regarded the rest of the kingdom as a foreign country. Such emigration as had taken place had been of the prosperous; in replacing them the landlords had discovered tacksmen operating large grazings to be willing to pay higher rents and more reliable in paying them. That discovery had led them to move crofters to more marginal areas to create more grazings.
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of the country were relatively good, where there was greater acceptance of seasonal migration in search of work, or where there were significant other sources of income. There was widespread agreement, therefore, that in the short term, prompt and widespread emigration was necessary to the well-being of the population and to their extrication from their current difficulties. Parliament should therefore authorise loans to assist immigration as they had formerly loans to assist improvements in the distressed areas.
52:
504:(under which over 16,000 crofters were shipped overseas to Canada and Australia), others encouraged their tenants to move by taking a harder line on rent arrears, turf-cutting rights, and other practices on which tenants had traditionally been allowed some leeway. But – since crofters had no security of tenure – landlords could simply evict their superfluous tenants. Pine Coffin became alarmed by the extent of evictions in 1848-9, warning of "the unsettling of the very foundations of the social system".
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need to prevent uncontrolled population growth in crofting areas by preventing sub-division or multiple occupancy of crofts; they had taken much less notice of his view that crofters should be granted secure leases. Consequently, there was growing resentment amongst the crofting communities. In 1882 there were failures of both the potato and cereal harvests in the
Hebrides (because of blight and wind damage, respectively); this led to widespread destitution in 1883.
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319:) per man, 12 oz (340 g) per woman and 8 oz (230 g) per child. Recipients were expected to work for their rations, leading to the building of "destitution roads" and other public works of little (if any) real value. This requirement was not rigorously enforced at first, but potato crops failed to recover to pre-blight levels, and the Central Board became concerned that long-term recipients of the rations would become "pauperised".
182:(farm workers with no land of their own, sometimes sub-let a small patch of land by their employer or a crofter). The economy had become assimilated to that of the Lowlands, whose proximity allowed and encouraged a diverse agriculture. Proximity to the Lowlands had also led to a steady drain of population from these areas. In the Western Isles and the adjacent mainland developments had been very different. Chieftains who had become
230:, the Assistant Secretary to the Treasury (effectively the senior civil servant at this department) provided the lead. The government was restricted by the common attitudes of the middle of the 19th century: minimal intervention, and there was deep concern to avoid upsetting the free play of normal market forces. Despite the constraints of these ruling economic theories, Trevelyan made completely clear that "the people cannot,
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operations would cease at the end of
September 1850. In doing so, they expressed two concerns: if the potato crop failed again things would be as bad as in 1846; on the other hand, if the 1850 crop was largely unaffected, the Highlanders would not learn the lesson that the blight should teach them and revert to their old ways, and four years' effort to diversify their sources of food and of income would have gone to waste.
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and paid for the emigration of more than 16,000 of their tenants and a significant but unknown number paid for their own passage. Evidence suggests that the majority of
Highlanders who permanently left the famine-struck regions emigrated, rather than moving to other parts of Scotland. It is estimated that about a third of the population of the western Scottish Highlands emigrated between 1841 and 1861.
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former landlords. "The Lewis men were provided ... not only with clothing for the voyage, and a free passage to Quebec, but with a week's rations after arrival ... and a free passage to their ultimate destination". Emigrants from the Duke of
Sutherland's estates arrived well-clad and fed, and with money to buy and stock farms; where their own savings were inadequate, the Duke had gifted them money.
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historian summarises its evolution: "... gradually it took on the worst features of mid-Victorian philanthropy. At once autocratic and bureaucratic, the Board became a gradgrind employer, paying rock bottom wages in kind for hard labour on public works... ". Relief was not available to those with any disposable capital (which was interpreted to include livestock). The daily ration (of oatmeal or
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Barra; he would welcome further enquiry, as it would show the truth of the matter. He replied to criticism by letting it be known that, prior to the evictions, he had cooperated with the Relief
Committee, given them £1000, and spent nearly £2300 in relieving distress in the island; he declared himself willing to lay out more money if anyone could show him where it might effect lasting good.
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improved means of education would tend to enlighten the people and to fit them for seeking their livelihood in distant places, as well as tend to break the bonds that now confine them to their native localities", but education should not simply be in the "three Rs"; it should also seek to excite a desire for knowledge in which respect education in the
Highlands was currently deficient.
582:), but his comments on the cultural barriers which had hindered timely migration from the congested areas mirrored and reinforced a prevalent assumption that Gaelic culture and language was an unnecessary brake on progress and the long-term happiness and prosperity of the Gaelic-speaking areas could best be secured by making them English-speaking. Two decades after the famine the
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without any means of paying for passage to Upper Canada (where they might be able to find work); the Canadian authorities had to lay out £670 to get them there. Because they had not sailed until August, they arrived too late to be properly settled before the onset of a Canadian winter, for which they remained unprepared. The vice-president of a Scottish benevolent society in
643:) to identify remedies. Napier's report in 1884 recommended security of tenure for crofters paying rents of over £6 a year (of whom there were few) and voluntary emigration for the rest of the population. Napier's recommendations were at odds with the measures adopted in Ireland to resolve the Irish 'land question' and the subsequent
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population levels had long-term problems, they feared that the government would impose some system of permanent relief charged against their estates (either directly or through Poor Law reform). They instead sought to solve or remove the problems by inducing their poorer tenants to migrate to the Lowlands, or emigrate overseas.
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They were noted to have been living on seaweed and shellfish, "the meal supplied by the Destitution Committee being inadequate to support them". (At this stage the meal was not supplied by the Destitution Committee but was the much inferior "Colonel Gordon's pound of salt water-saturated Indian meal"
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the emigration from Barra is sometimes described as forced or forcible and this is supported by oral tradition on Barra, but this seems to be the full extent of the coercion as far as contemporary newspapers were concerned – despite the highly critical view they took of Gordon no claims were recorded
615:
In the 1880s, the technical issue of how to avoid future famines or seasons of destitution in the Highlands became submerged in the political question of how to address the grievances of crofters and cottars (agricultural labourers without land). Landlords had taken to heart McNeill's comments on the
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noted emigration from Hebridean islands, which was the best cure for their ills, was accelerated by education: "It is startling enough to be asked to establish and maintain a school system for the purpose of depopulating a district, but we have little doubt this would be the first effect and the best
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The crofting areas lost about a third of their population between the early 1840s and the late 1850s; losses were higher in the Hebrides and remoter areas of the mainland such as Ardnamurchan, with over 40% of inhabitants being evicted by 1856. Some landlords contributed towards "assisted" emigration
426:(where the blight was said to be more prevalent than in 1846). In subsequent years blight was usually reported in various localities, but it was always only partial and never as bad as first feared: "There is some clamour about the potato blight but ... the fear is greater than the hurt". On Lewis,
164:
The terms on which charitable relief was given, however, led to destitution and malnutrition amongst its recipients. A government enquiry could suggest no short-term solution other than reduction of the population of the area at risk by emigration to Canada or Australia. Highland landlords organised
552:
In 1851, the Parochial Board of Barra reported that over half the population wished to emigrate if only they had the means. In May, they told the Board of Supervision that they did not have the funds to continue relief to the able-bodied poor – the Board wrote back to say it was their responsibility
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for having them removed first from their homes and secondly from the island of their birth; the criticism intensified when he indicated he had no intention of assisting them. Gordon denied that he had had anybody evicted "at this inclement time of year" and denied all knowledge of why they had left
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By 1850, the relief funds were almost exhausted and, with potato blight persisting, there was a growing sense (even within the relief committees) that long-term solutions were needed; the provision of short-term aid had delayed these being adopted. The Destitution Relief Boards announced that their
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in the winter of 1846-7 and based a team of relief officers in the affected areas. The depots sold meal only at market prices - any hint of a subsidy went against free market principles. However, the purpose in establishing the depots was to prevent spiralling prices due to local shortages - thereby
237:
The government's first action was to ensure that Highland landlord met their responsibilities to provide famine relief to their tenants. Landlord response varied. Some had both the resources and the willingness to do this. Others, typically among the remaining hereditary landowners, were in perilous
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Various schemes of improvement had been attempted locally to relieve destitution and had been urged upon him as deserving wider adoption. However, the areas less badly affected by destitution were not those where these schemes had been attempted, but rather those where communications with the rest
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the working classes, disabused of the notion that the eleemosynary aid they had been receiving for some years would be permanent, and thrown upon the local resources and their own exertions, have hitherto surmounted the danger, with an amount of relief absolutely trifling. No doubt, suffering must
306:
In 1847 the crop failure was less extensive, and death rates had returned to normal; thereafter the government left famine relief to the Central Board. Crop failures continued, but at a reduced level, and the charitable relief programme only ceased upon the near-exhaustion of its funds. One modern
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The Barra islanders who reached Glasgow do not appear to have given interviews to journalists (and were subsequently claimed by the Barra Parochial Board to have left Barra in July and to be known bad characters). A subsequent party arrived at Inverness and talked to a Gaelic-speaking journalist,
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Following on from the Free Church's voluntary efforts, relief committees were set up in Edinburgh in December 1846 and Glasgow in January 1847. By February 1847, the Free Church and the Edinburgh and Glasgow groups combined to form the Central Board of Management for Highland Relief. By the end of
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in 1870 and began steamer services from a pier there. More generally, better steamships and more frequent services eventually allowed better communication, and the recovery of fishing and cattle-rearing and the greater ease of temporary migration for seasonal work eventually allowed the crofting
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The lot of the emigrants from Gordon of Cluny's estates was woeful, and drew a letter of complaint from the Canadian authorities to Gordon's factor but both that letter and contemporary newspaper reports made a comparison with the better treatment of emigrants from other Highland estates by their
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nor to assist emigration from distressed areas. It suggested that a Poor Law clause giving the Poor Law authorities discretion to grant relief to those temporarily unable to work might (somewhat contrary to its wording) be used to provide relief to the able-bodied poor willing but unable to find
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There were again considerable failures of the potato crop in 1850, and the question then naturally arose as to how the distressed population were to be supported. The Scottish Poor Laws, unlike those in England, allowed relief to be given from the parish poor rates only to the sick and infirm and
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A contemporary writer thought that a crofter would have to do work away from his holding for 200 days a year if his family were to avoid destitution. The various industries the crofting townships were supposed to support mostly prospered in the first quarter of the 19th century (drawing workers
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a twice-weekly steamer from Greenock . Consequently, it took 74 to 132 hours for letters to reach Stornoway from Edinburgh or London, and any reply had to wait half a week for the next steamer. Complaints that Stornoway was worse served than some other islands were denied by their inhabitants;
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naked: "Many children of nine and ten years old had not a rag to cover them. Mrs Crisp the wife of the master of ... ... was employed the whole of the voyage converting empty bread-bags, old canvases and blankets into coverings for them"). They arrived in Quebec unable to support themselves and
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lighthouse tender had kindly taken them to Tobermory; the townsfolk of Tobermory had fed them, lodged them, and given them money to pay their fare to Oban; the captain of the Tobermory–Oban packet had refused payment; the people of Oban "had outdone those of Tobermory in generosity"; and so on.)
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worked to lessen the effects of the famine on their crofting tenants: forgoing rent, donating to the relief committees, running their own parallel relief operations, funding the introduction of new crops and industries or reviving old ones. However, as it became apparent that crofting at current
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had advocated that the Scottish Poor Law be amended to allow the able-bodied poor to claim relief; critics countered that the scale of destitution was such that it was clearly unrealistic to expect a large number of unemployed in a distressed parish to be supported solely by rates levied on that
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of meal as there were persons in them." Consequently, the islanders became dependent on the benevolence of others to an extraordinary extent: in 1850, 1,965 of a population of 2,300 received relief. Gordon attempted to consolidate small crofts into larger holdings better able to support their
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With the population reduced, the area could be made more resilient against future crises by giving crofters greater security of tenure (so giving them some incentive for agricultural improvement), by instruction in agriculture and the management of stock, and by better education. "Increased and
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There had been no known deaths by starvation since the cessation of Relief Board operations (to put those in proportion, he noted that total expenditure by the Relief Board on Skye in 1850 was less than half the value of taxed whisky sales on Skye in 1850, gratuitously going on to note that the
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Consequently, he concluded that the programme of extensive relief to the able-bodied poor, although well-intentioned, had ultimately been deleterious. He made no recommendation for changes to the Scottish Poor Law to give the able-bodied poor a right to claim parish relief, but recommended all
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latter was more than double the value of sales in 1846) and the predicted humanitarian crisis had not materialised. On Skye, where the parochial boards had been giving discretionary relief to the able-bodied in response to the end of Relief Board Operations even before government guidance:
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Eleemosynary aid… would be a curse instead of a benefit; and hence it was absolutely necessary to teach the people of the Highlands that they must depend on their resources for the future. To accomplish this object it would be requisite to instruct them in croft husbandry, in developing the
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Having carried out his enquiry from February to April 1851, Sir John made his report in July 1851. He ascribed the current difficulties to the sub-division of crofts (or, amounting to the same thing, more than one family being supported by a single croft) in times of prosperity, and to the
161:, but compared with its Irish counterpart, it was much less extensive (the population seriously at risk was never more than 200,000 – and often much less) and took many fewer lives as prompt and major charitable efforts by the rest of the United Kingdom ensured relatively little starvation.
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had found livestock-grazing (generally sheep, sometimes cattle) the most remunerative form of agriculture; to accommodate this they had moved their tenants to coastal townships where they hoped valuable industries could be developed and established an extensive crofting system (see
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The British government took early notice of the crop failure. They were approached for assistance by landowners at the end of the summer of 1846, but any direct subsidies to the landlords were ruled out, as this would have relieved them of their responsibilities to their tenants.
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success of the thorough education of the Hebrides". Consequently, on the other hand "There is still a prejudice among some of the old people against any but Gaelic education, because they see that it gives their children wings with which they can fly away from the family nest".
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The prompt response of the Lowlands (and the much smaller size of the problem) meant that famine relief programmes were better organised and more effective in Scotland than in Ireland. As in Ireland, the export of foodstuffs from Scotland was not prohibited, and in
716:. "Kelp was formerly a valuable resource of the highland and Irish peasantry on the coast, but it ceased to be remunerative as Barilla became cheaper, and the manufacture of soda by chemical means has reduced the price still more and utterly destroyed the trade"
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have been endured, the pressure upon all classes must have been severe: but to the latest date to which intelligence has been received, there is no sufficient reason to believe that one life has yet been lost in consequence of the cessation of eleemosynary relief
820:
The boll was originally a measure of volume for dry goods, but at the time of the Highland Potato Famine had become defined by weight. Its definition varied depending on the item being measured, but a boll of oatmeal was 140 pounds (10 stone) or 63.5 kg. A
562:, wrote: "the emigrants from Barra and South Uist, amounting to between two and three thousand were the most destitute I ever saw coming to this country. They were actually in a state of nudity on their arrival here and were utterly helpless".
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in the early 19th century because of the Napoleonic Wars and a high import duty on barilla: from 1822 onwards the duty on barilla was progressively reduced and 1845 abolished; by then neither natural source could compete on price with the
810:
On the basis of enquiry to the parochial Poor Law Boards, who of course were expected to prevent such deaths. In 1851 Scotland had neither civil registration of deaths (which would require a cause of death to be identified) nor coroner's
801:, rather than simply poor. It was inherent in the thinking of the age that the recipients of relief should be reduced to poverty and generally live in such a state that no self-respecting man would claim relief unless he had no option.
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Over the late 18th and early 19th century, Highland society had changed greatly. On the eastern fringes of the Highlands, most arable land was divided into family farms with 20 to 50 acres (8.1 to 20.2 hectares) employing
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was more influenced by the Irish precedents than by the Napier Commission report. In the General Election of 1885, 5 Highland seats had elected 'Independent Liberal' MPs endorsed by the Highland Land League ("the
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Blight returned year after year, but never to the same extent as in 1846. As late as 1854, the complete loss of the potato crop was being reported for local blackspots such as the Hebridean communities of
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In response to inquiries from county officials, the government indicated that it did not intend to make additional funds available now that the charitable relief effort had ended, neither to provide relief
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had spent £33,000 in three years to support his tenants; in six of the next thirty years he had to provide similar help, but on a much smaller scale and with a greater likelihood of being repaid:
754:, who did not hesitate to buy food for his destitute tenants, but was obliged to sell all the properties he could by the spring of 1847 and find employment in London, in his words "a ruined man".
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acre (0.2 hectares) of arable land per head in Skye and Wester Ross: in the crofting area, as in Ireland, the population had grown to levels which only a successful potato harvest could support.
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of arable land, with normally an additional acreage of grazing: a typical mid-19th-century census entry for the tenant of one of these farms would be "Farmer of 500 acres of which 50 arable"
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Published after both Fleming and Gordon refused to accept the letter, which both criticised their conduct and asked for a contribution to the costs of getting the emigrants to Upper Canada.
866:)". (For shore dwellers, shellfish and seaweed are sensible sources for the protein and vitamins inherently lacking in a cereal (or potato) diet and are not intrinsically "famine foods")
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In the immediate aftermath of the famine government resisted arguments that it should subsidise a railway to Oban in order to reduce the isolation of the Hebrides. Only in 1880 did the
1406:
A dictionary of trade products, commercial, manufacturing, and technical terms: with a definition of the moneys, weights, and measures of all countries, reduced to the British standard
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1847 the Relief Committees had raised about £210,000 (roughly equivalent in purchasing power to £17m in 2018) to support relief work. Other groups to organise relief work included the
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that the destitution was due to the inherent laziness of the Gael (which contrasted unfavourably with the estimable traits of the 'Teutonic' Lowland Scots who read the
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Potato blight destroyed any possibility of Barra being self-sufficient. In November 1850, it was reported of that year's cereal crop that "it might give about 453
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It also reports that he never married but had a number of illegitimate children by his housekeeper, which might suggest he was not easily swayed by public opinion.
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2005:
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Macdonald, Coll (11 October 1850). "State of the Highlands – Emigration (open letter 'To the Members of Parliament for the Highland counties and burghs')".
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of meal, or what would be adequate to the support of the population for about two months; whilst even then there were families who did not possess so many
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336:) per man), and it would only be given to those doing a full eight-hour day's work. This "destitution test", harsh in itself, implemented by Victorian
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from A C Buchanan Chief Agent (at Quebec) of the Colonial Land and Emigration Office to John Fleming (Gordon's factor in South Uist) published in:
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191:). Croft sizes were set low to encourage the tenantry to participate in the industry (e.g. fishing, kelp ) the landlord wished to develop.
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His refusal (although legal) went against a widely held maxim of the age that "property has its responsibilities, as well as its rights".
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of Cluny was acknowledged by the senior relief officer, Sir Edward Pine Coffin, as having improved beyond the worst class of landlord.
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371:, the chairman of the Board of Supervision (of Scottish Poor Law Boards), to investigate the situation and recommend remedies.
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untitled editorial following mid-page masthead (1 February 1850). "Royal Cornwall Gazette, Truro, Friday, February 1, 1850".
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652:") and thereafter political considerations heavily influenced the Liberal approach to the problems of the crofting region.
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Contempt, Sympathy and Romance: Lowland Perceptions of the Highlands and the Clearances During the Famine Years, 1845–1855
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An account with a wealth of detail from interviews of named individuals – very precise in its accusations against Gordon.
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economy to move from self-sufficiency to one in which enough cash was generated to allow the purchase of imported grain.
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untitled editorial following mast-head - (7 November 1851). "Elgin and Morayshire Courier, Friday, November 7, 1851".
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788:"Corn flour, whole-grain, yellow" contains 361 kcal/100g and hence an ounce of maize flour contains just over 100 kcal
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explicitly forbade any relief being given to the able-bodied poor unable to find work locally. As early as 1848 Sir
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demonstrating the dilemma in choosing practical, necessary measures that fitted with the contemporary views on
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4098:
4033:
3737:
3608:
3549:
3402:
2500:
2455:
1963:
1823:
3800:
3644:
3637:
3594:
3542:
3476:
3074:
2450:
2417:
2291:
2274:
1356:"Gordon, John (c.1776-1858), of Cluny, Aberdeen; 4 St. Andrew Street, Edinburgh and 25 Jermyn Street, Mdx"
594:
eventually reach Oban as a purely commercial venture. In 1867 the inhabitants of Stornoway got their mail
274:. News of the famine led the Scottish diaspora, including Scottish-Americans, to organise relief efforts.
3956:
3948:
3622:
3615:
3535:
3462:
3454:
3446:
3424:
2823:
2505:
2239:
2000:
4137:
4132:
3940:
3845:
3651:
3329:
3092:
2487:
2384:
1930:
263:
858:(16 oz of maize is about 1,600–1,700 kcal and inadequate for 8 hours' manual labour): the seaweed was
178:(with some land held in their own right, insufficient on its own to give them an adequate living) and
4147:
4142:
4055:
3979:
3751:
3234:
2637:
2339:
2020:
747:
604:
545:
3226:
3716:
3379:
3351:
3188:
2399:
2301:
114:
1769:
The Great Highland Famine: Hunger, Emigration and the Scottish Highlands in the Nineteenth Century
928:
The Great Highland Famine: Hunger, Emigration and the Scottish Highlands in the Nineteenth Century
340:, and policed by officials used to enforcing naval discipline, engendered considerable hostility.
4091:
4009:
3513:
3416:
3017:
2422:
2257:
2249:
661:
628:
368:
218:
In the Scottish Highlands, in 1846, there was widespread failure of potato crops as a result of
4084:
3786:
3181:
3025:
2977:
2963:
2679:
2600:
2442:
2432:
2355:
2262:
2204:
2165:
1854:
1305:
671:
666:
150:
101:
4016:
3409:
3263:
2926:
2908:
2835:
2814:
2217:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2010:
764:
497:
239:
3963:
3793:
3337:
2949:
2854:
2846:
2758:
2319:
2311:
2060:
1869:
1750:
737:, both of whom were very wealthy and felt it a matter of pride to look after their tenants.
620:
125:
and Scottish history (1846 to roughly 1856) over which the agricultural communities of the
1404:
639:
of Inquiry into the Condition of Crofters and Cottars in the Highlands and Islands" under
527:
514:
8:
3919:
3629:
3527:
3432:
3292:
3144:
3062:
2896:
2721:
2472:
2296:
2100:
2095:
188:
2802:
2568:
2110:
1090:
1052:
798:
649:
591:
158:
130:
122:
1257:
Richards, Eric (2011). "Highland Emigration in the Age of Malthus: Scourie, 1841-55".
4157:
2888:
2871:
2772:
2286:
2115:
1758:
1410:
1288:
letter from Dr Alexander Macleod (factor for Barra and S Uist until 1847) printed as
1097:
981:
931:
897:
632:
624:
559:
255:
157:
caused by potato blight during the mid-1840s, whose most famous manifestation is the
1781:
3853:
3368:
3363:
2779:
2751:
2728:
2660:
2482:
2329:
2281:
2232:
1980:
1925:
1774:
Andrew G. Newby, 'Emigration and Clearance from the Island of Barra, c.1770-1858'.
1266:
636:
496:
There was theoretical support on the problem of excess population from the work of
423:
136:
3813:
3663:
3498:
3344:
3300:
3199:
2700:
2227:
2222:
2015:
1904:
1899:
1562:
1501:"Sixth Annual Report (for 1851), Board of Supervision of the Poor for Scotland".
713:
328:
To encourage them to stand on their own feet, the ration was reduced (e.g. to 16
250:
179:
154:
51:
3578:
3490:
3395:
2765:
2744:
2587:
2145:
1958:
1889:
1859:
1844:
825:
is more variably defined, but can be taken, in context, to mean a quarter of a
730:
283:
1043:
Strum, Harvey (2000), "Famine Relief from the Garden City to the Green Isle",
1000:
4121:
3241:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3130:
3114:
3106:
3099:
3085:
3055:
3048:
3041:
2999:
2992:
2985:
2956:
2795:
2788:
2714:
2686:
2594:
2324:
1920:
1849:
734:
508:
219:
146:
57:
829:, which in turn is a quarter of a boll. So one peck is 8.75 pounds or 4 kg.
599:
letters posted in London took as long to reach Barra as they would to reach
3570:
3321:
3122:
2693:
2539:
2065:
1985:
1194:"Destitution in the West Isles and Highlands - Sir John McNeill's Report".
708:
175:
1270:
3824:
3281:
2880:
2737:
2707:
2575:
2561:
2140:
2070:
1828:
608:
337:
291:
2334:
1534:
1056:
2085:
1884:
772:
2090:
2075:
1894:
1874:
776:
536:
279:
574:
McNeill's report did not endorse the argument of papers such as the
2672:
2629:
2532:
2269:
1864:
704:
489:
308:
287:
145:(upon which they had become over-reliant) repeatedly devastated by
126:
82:
324:
treasures of the deep, and in prosecuting the manufacture of kelp.
2125:
2080:
894:
The Scottish Clearances: A History of the Dispossessed, 1600-1900
246:
27:
Major agrarian crisis in the Scottish Highlands from 1846 to 1857
848:
that emigrants had never wanted to emigrate but been forced to.
1430:
Ross, Donald (1 January 1851). "Destitution in the Highlands".
826:
600:
142:
60:
863:
768:
419:
329:
312:
619:
There was also unrest among the crofters and formation of a
2581:
1132:
822:
751:
700:
531:
333:
316:
2438:
Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences
1991:
Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs
374:
519:
Barra was a particularly hard case and in due course a
234:, be allowed to starve" in a letter of September 1846.
1710:"Education and Postal Communication in the Hebrides".
1137:
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference
1133:"Basic Report: 20016, Corn flour, whole-grain, yellow"
707:. The industry was only able to compete with imported
2978:
Post-Napoleonic Irish grain price and land use shocks
1811:
134:
40:
1172:
Letter from 'A Highland Agriculturist' published as
2478:
Royal Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland
515:
Barra – "The most destitute" emigrants "I ever saw"
1996:Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
1089:
343:
168:
301:
4119:
1661:Emigration Department, Quebec, November 26, 1851
1605:
1603:
1045:Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society
603:. Services to Skye and Lewis improved when the
405:This led to the creation by January 1852 of the
1776:Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness
767:meant that the government had to send grain to
394:parochial boards to give discretionary relief.
311:) was initially set by the Central Board at 24
294:, troops were used to quell protests about the
1954:Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board
1755:The History and Social Influence of the Potato
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
4106:List of stock market crashes and bear markets
2645:
1797:
1757:. (1985) New York Cambridge University Press
1600:
1335:"Death of the Richest Commoner in Scotland".
1330:
1328:
1326:
1242:"Lewis and the Destitution of the Crofters".
1018:"Inflation: the value of the pound 1750-2011"
921:
919:
917:
915:
913:
887:
885:
883:
2390:National Farmers' Union of England and Wales
1633:
1547:"Highland Emigration - Terrible Hardships".
1409:. London: Routledge, Warne & Routledge.
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
245:The government stationed two meal depots at
1655:
1653:
1651:
1438:
1189:
1187:
1185:
73:United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
2652:
2638:
1804:
1790:
1323:
1284:
1282:
1280:
910:
880:
483:
298:of grain or potatoes from local harbours.
50:
3927:2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence
2031:Scottish Government Net Zero Directorates
1725:"Stornoway and its Postal Arrangements".
1700:
1698:
1696:
1609:
1545:– the text of the statement is given in:
1374:
1237:
1235:
971:
969:
967:
750:, owner of one of the 2 major estates on
208:
1679:
1677:
1648:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1402:
1256:
1182:
1083:
1081:
965:
963:
961:
959:
957:
955:
953:
951:
949:
947:
1594:Elgin Courant and Morayshire Advertiser
1277:
645:Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act, 1886
14:
4120:
3832:Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010
3602:South American economic crisis of 2002
3499:Black Wednesday (1992 Sterling crisis)
2203:
1693:
1306:"Barra, Inverness, Scotland Genealogy"
1232:
975:
925:
891:
407:Highland and Island Emigration Society
3883:2013 Chinese banking liquidity crisis
3839:2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis
3315:Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975
2633:
2428:Country Land and Business Association
2377:
1785:
1747:. (2000) East Lothian: Tuckwell Press
1674:
1580:
1087:
1078:
1042:
978:The Scottish Nation: A Modern History
944:
375:Sir John McNeill's report (1851–1852)
213:
3913:Russian financial crisis (2014–2016)
3766:2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis
3759:2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis
3724:2000s U.S. housing market correction
3564:1998–2002 Argentine great depression
2659:
1429:
623:which took its inspiration from the
4070:2023–2024 Egyptian financial crisis
3905:Puerto Rican government-debt crisis
3898:2014–2016 Brazilian economic crisis
3271:1963–1965 Indonesian hyperinflation
3174:Shanghai rubber stock market crisis
2863:Dutch Republic stock market crashes
2468:Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Centre
2395:National Farmers' Union of Scotland
412:
24:
4168:History of agriculture in Scotland
3876:2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis
3780:2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis
3752:2008–2009 Russian financial crisis
3745:2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis
3440:1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis
2935:British credit crisis of 1772–1773
1737:
1484:According to a letter (signed WC).
1478:
367:work. It set up an enquiry under
266:; its efforts were coordinated by
25:
4189:
4163:History of the Scottish Highlands
4063:2023 United States banking crisis
3869:2011 Bangladesh share market scam
3557:1998–1999 Ecuador economic crisis
3521:Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994
3447:Japanese asset price bubble crash
3388:Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash
3138:Australian banking crisis of 1893
2942:Dutch Republic financial collapse
1813:Agriculture in the United Kingdom
1592:"Scottish Emigration to Canada".
1110:
1015:
699:Various seaweeds, including true
2920:Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763
2614:
2613:
2136:Scottish Agricultural Revolution
2131:Rural Reconstruction Association
1949:Agricultural Land Classification
1640:"Destitution in the Highlands".
1117:"Destitution in the Highlands".
3645:2007 Chinese stock bubble crash
2971:Danish state bankruptcy of 1813
1976:British Cattle Movement Service
1718:
1618:
1555:
1541:. Quoting extensively from the
1528:
1513:
1494:
1463:
1423:
1396:
1348:
1298:
1250:
1217:
1202:
1166:
1151:
1125:
1063:
1036:
1022:Commons Briefing papers RP12-31
1009:
851:
841:
832:
814:
804:
791:
782:
703:, gathered and burned to yield
459:Value of meal and seed advanced
344:End of charitable relief (1850)
169:Vulnerability of crofting areas
121:) was a period of 19th-century
4026:Chinese property sector crisis
3934:2015–2016 stock market selloff
3862:August 2011 stock markets fall
3773:2008–2011 Irish banking crisis
3470:1990s Swedish financial crisis
3219:Weimar Republic hyperinflation
2463:National Non-Food Crops Centre
2405:Young Farmers' Clubs of Ulster
1971:Animal and Plant Health Agency
1139:. US Department of Agriculture
994:
930:. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited.
763:For example, the obstinacy of
757:
740:
733:, who had recently bought the
729:, a hereditary landowner, and
719:
693:
684:
302:Destitution relief (1847–1850)
13:
1:
4128:Famines in the United Kingdom
4099:List of sovereign debt crises
4041:2022 Russian financial crisis
3738:2008 Latvian financial crisis
3731:U.S. bear market of 2007–2009
3609:Stock market downturn of 2002
3550:1998 Russian financial crisis
3403:1983 Israel bank stock crisis
2501:Royal Agricultural University
2456:National Museum of Rural Life
1964:Meat and Livestock Commission
1880:Müller Milk & Ingredients
1824:Economy of the United Kingdom
1070:"Potato Riots at Inverness".
873:
3801:Greek government-debt crisis
3638:2004 Argentine energy crisis
3595:2001 Turkish economic crisis
3484:1990s Armenian energy crisis
3477:1990s Finnish banking crisis
3338:1976 British currency crisis
3308:1973–1974 stock market crash
2451:Museum of English Rural Life
2418:British Egg Industry Council
2275:Scottish Crofting Foundation
1708:(date not given) printed as
1537:Elgin and Morayshire Courier
1486:"Pauperism and Emigration".
1290:"Barra and Colonel Gordon".
1174:"The Highland Emigrations".
765:Colonel John Gordon of Cluny
569:
149:. It was part of the wider
7:
3957:2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis
3623:2003 Myanmar banking crisis
3616:2002 Uruguay banking crisis
3536:1997 Asian financial crisis
3463:1991 Indian economic crisis
3455:Rhode Island banking crisis
3425:Cameroonian economic crisis
3211:Early Soviet hyperinflation
2824:Crisis of the Third Century
2001:Institute for Animal Health
1771:. (1988) Edinburgh: Birlinn
655:
409:by Trevelyan and McNeill .
10:
4194:
3988:Sri Lankan economic crisis
3846:Energy crisis in Venezuela
3825:2009 Dubai debt standstill
3675:2007–2008 financial crisis
3330:Latin American debt crisis
3093:Paris Bourse crash of 1882
2492:Universities and colleges
2488:Tenant Farmers Association
1931:Rare Breeds Survival Trust
1024:. House of Commons Library
264:British Relief Association
4079:
4056:2022 stock market decline
4048:Pakistani economic crisis
4034:2021–2023 inflation surge
3980:Lebanese liquidity crisis
3949:Venezuelan hyperinflation
3941:Brexit stock market crash
3890:Venezuela economic crisis
3812:
3662:
3652:Zimbabwean hyperinflation
3362:
3280:
3251:
3235:Wall Street Crash of 1929
3198:
3075:2nd Industrial Revolution
3073:
3009:
2909:1st Industrial Revolution
2907:
2834:
2812:
2667:
2609:
2553:
2520:
2413:
2368:
2348:
2310:
2302:Scotland Food & Drink
2248:
2196:
2164:
2051:
2044:
2021:Rights of way in Scotland
1939:
1913:
1837:
1819:
1683:Hector Munro, quoted in:
1472:Edinburgh Evening Courant
1470:"The Barra Highlanders".
1454:"The Barra Highlanders".
1388:"The Barra Highlanders".
1360:The History of Parliament
1337:Edinburgh Evening Courant
1209:"The Weather and Crops".
1196:Edinburgh Evening Courant
748:Norman MacLeod of MacLeod
746:A well-known example was
605:Dingwall and Skye Railway
96:
88:
78:
68:
49:
34:
3717:Subprime mortgage crisis
3380:Brazilian hyperinflation
3352:Brazilian hyperinflation
3189:Financial crisis of 1914
2897:Mississippi bubble crash
2506:Scotland's Rural College
1625:"The Highland Capital".
1158:"Highland Destitution".
797:Reconciled to long-term
779:over the winter of 1846.
677:
546:Board of Northern Lights
4092:List of economic crises
4010:2020 stock market crash
4003:Financial market impact
3972:Turkish economic crisis
3587:9/11 stock market crash
3543:October 1997 mini-crash
3514:1994 bond market crisis
3506:Yugoslav hyperinflation
3417:Savings and loan crisis
3018:European potato failure
2423:British Poultry Council
2385:Farmers' Union of Wales
2213:Agriculture in Cheshire
2056:Agricultural Revolution
1665:"Highland Emigration".
1520:"Highland Emigration".
1092:Scotland: A New History
1088:Lynch, Michael (1992).
662:Agriculture in Scotland
484:Consequent depopulation
232:under any circumstances
4085:List of banking crises
3854:Syrian economic crisis
3787:Blue Monday Crash 2009
3396:Chilean crisis of 1982
3227:Shōwa financial crisis
3033:Highland Potato Famine
2889:South Sea bubble crash
2680:Commodity price shocks
2443:James Hutton Institute
2433:Fresh Start Initiative
2106:Highland Potato Famine
1685:"Highland Emigrants".
1456:John O'Groat Chronicle
1403:Simmonds, P L (1863).
1224:"Harvest Operations".
1003:Royal Cornwall Gazette
896:. London: Allen Lane.
727:2nd Duke of Sutherland
672:European Potato Famine
667:Great Famine (Ireland)
631:Government set up the
560:Hamilton, Upper Canada
391:
326:
209:Famine and destitution
135:
118:
111:Highland Potato Famine
41:
36:Highland Potato Famine
18:Highland potato famine
4173:Disasters in Scotland
4153:History of the potato
3410:Black Saturday (1983)
3264:Kennedy Slide of 1962
2836:Commercial revolution
2400:Ulster Farmers' Union
2218:Agriculture in London
2036:Single Payment Scheme
2026:Rural Payments Agency
2011:Quality Meat Scotland
1341:Reprinting item from
1271:10.3366/nor.2011.0005
862:'slocken' (a kind of
386:
321:
228:Sir Charles Trevelyan
4178:19th-century famines
3964:Ghana banking crisis
3794:European debt crisis
3579:Dot-com bubble crash
3491:Cuban Special Period
2950:Copper Panic of 1789
2855:The Great Debasement
2847:Great Bullion Famine
2150:Women's Land Army -
2061:British timber trade
1870:Frontier Agriculture
1778:, 61 (2003), 116-48.
1753:& J. G. Hawkes,
1751:Redcliffe N. Salaman
1727:John O Groat Journal
1712:John O Groat Journal
1627:John O Groat Journal
1612:John O'Groat Journal
1503:Parliamentary Papers
1490:. 25 September 1851.
1226:John O Groat Journal
1096:. London: Pimilico.
976:Devine, T M (2012).
926:Devine, T M (1995).
892:Devine, T M (2018).
621:Highland Land League
119:Gaiseadh a' bhuntàta
42:Gaiseadh a' bhuntàta
3920:2015 Nepal blockade
3630:2000s energy crisis
3528:Mexican peso crisis
3433:Black Monday (1987)
3293:1970s energy crisis
3253:Post–WWII expansion
2927:Bengal bubble crash
2722:Financial contagion
2473:Rothamsted Research
2297:Royal Highland Show
2197:Nations and regions
2101:Highland Clearances
2096:Haughley Experiment
1644:. 14 December 1850.
1551:. 19 November 1851.
1458:. 14 February 1851.
1392:. 24 December 1850.
1246:. 29 December 1882.
1228:. 7 September 1855.
1162:. 24 December 1850.
1074:. 13 February 1846.
980:. London: Penguin.
240:Colonel John Gordon
189:Highland Clearances
184:improving landlords
56:Cross-section of a
3182:Panic of 1910–1911
3026:Great Irish Famine
2964:Panic of 1796–1797
2803:Stock market crash
2111:Lowland Clearances
1729:. 17 January 1867.
1714:. 10 October 1867.
1689:. 29 January 1852.
1563:"Deserted Village"
1343:Banffshire Journal
1294:. 14 January 1851.
1121:. 18 January 1851.
799:welfare dependency
592:Caledonian Railway
428:Sir James Matheson
214:Famine (1846–1847)
159:Great Irish Famine
131:Scottish Highlands
4138:1850s in Scotland
4133:1840s in Scotland
4115:
4114:
3996:COVID-19 pandemic
2881:Tulip mania crash
2872:Kipper und Wipper
2849:(c. 1400–c. 1500)
2627:
2626:
2516:
2515:
2364:
2363:
2192:
2191:
2116:Napier Commission
1743:Krisztina Fenyo,
1706:Edinburgh Courant
1687:Inverness Courier
1667:Inverness Courier
1488:Edinburgh Courant
1390:Dundee Advertiser
1345:of unstated date.
1292:Dundee Advertiser
1259:Northern Scotland
1213:. 31 August 1854.
1211:Inverness Courier
1176:Inverness Courier
1160:Dundee Advertiser
987:978-0-718-19320-1
725:For example, the
633:Napier Commission
625:Irish Land League
584:Edinburgh Courant
481:
480:
355:Charles Trevelyan
272:Earl of Dalhousie
256:political economy
107:
106:
16:(Redirected from
4185:
4148:1847 in Scotland
4143:1846 in Scotland
4108:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4072:
4065:
4058:
4051:
4043:
4036:
4029:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3983:
3975:
3967:
3959:
3952:
3944:
3936:
3929:
3922:
3915:
3908:
3900:
3893:
3885:
3878:
3871:
3864:
3857:
3849:
3841:
3834:
3827:
3803:
3796:
3789:
3782:
3775:
3768:
3761:
3754:
3747:
3740:
3733:
3726:
3719:
3712:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3684:
3677:
3655:
3647:
3640:
3633:
3625:
3618:
3611:
3604:
3597:
3590:
3582:
3574:
3566:
3559:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3531:
3523:
3516:
3509:
3501:
3494:
3486:
3479:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3450:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3420:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3391:
3383:
3369:Great Regression
3364:Great Moderation
3355:
3347:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3296:
3273:
3266:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3222:
3214:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3169:
3162:
3155:
3148:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3118:
3110:
3102:
3095:
3088:
3066:
3058:
3051:
3044:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3002:
2995:
2988:
2981:
2973:
2966:
2959:
2952:
2945:
2937:
2930:
2922:
2900:
2892:
2884:
2876:
2866:
2858:
2850:
2827:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2782:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2754:
2752:Liquidity crisis
2747:
2740:
2731:
2729:Social contagion
2724:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2661:Financial crises
2654:
2647:
2640:
2631:
2630:
2617:
2616:
2483:Soil Association
2375:
2374:
2369:Non-governmental
2349:Northern Ireland
2330:Royal Welsh Show
2201:
2200:
2049:
2048:
1981:The Country Code
1926:Hedgerow removal
1855:Bernard Matthews
1806:
1799:
1792:
1783:
1782:
1731:
1730:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1702:
1691:
1690:
1681:
1672:
1670:
1657:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1629:. 14 March 1851.
1622:
1616:
1615:
1607:
1598:
1597:
1589:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1540:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1524:. 4 August 1851.
1517:
1511:
1510:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1451:
1436:
1435:
1432:Aberdeen Journal
1427:
1421:
1420:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1332:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1286:
1275:
1274:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1239:
1230:
1229:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1095:
1085:
1076:
1075:
1072:Stamford Mercury
1067:
1061:
1059:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1016:Allen, Grahame.
1013:
1007:
1006:
998:
992:
991:
973:
942:
941:
923:
908:
907:
889:
867:
861:
855:
849:
845:
839:
836:
830:
818:
812:
808:
802:
795:
789:
786:
780:
761:
755:
744:
738:
723:
717:
697:
691:
688:
637:Royal Commission
433:
432:
413:Blight dies away
369:Sir John McNeill
204:
203:
199:
140:
129:and the western
100:Policy failure,
54:
44:
37:
32:
31:
21:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4182:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4111:
4104:
4097:
4090:
4083:
4075:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4046:
4039:
4032:
4024:
4015:
4008:
4001:
3994:
3986:
3978:
3970:
3962:
3955:
3947:
3939:
3932:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3903:
3896:
3888:
3881:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3852:
3844:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3816:
3814:Information Age
3808:
3799:
3792:
3785:
3778:
3771:
3764:
3757:
3750:
3743:
3736:
3729:
3722:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3694:
3687:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3664:Great Recession
3658:
3650:
3643:
3636:
3628:
3621:
3614:
3607:
3600:
3593:
3585:
3577:
3569:
3562:
3555:
3548:
3541:
3534:
3526:
3519:
3512:
3504:
3497:
3489:
3482:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3445:
3438:
3431:
3423:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3394:
3386:
3378:
3371:
3367:
3358:
3350:
3345:1979 oil crisis
3343:
3336:
3328:
3320:
3313:
3306:
3301:1973 oil crisis
3299:
3291:
3284:
3282:Great Inflation
3276:
3269:
3262:
3255:
3247:
3240:
3233:
3225:
3217:
3209:
3202:
3200:Interwar period
3194:
3187:
3180:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3151:
3143:
3136:
3129:
3121:
3113:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3077:
3069:
3061:
3054:
3047:
3040:
3031:
3024:
3016:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2984:
2976:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2940:
2933:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2903:
2895:
2887:
2879:
2869:
2861:
2853:
2845:
2838:
2830:
2822:
2808:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2701:Currency crisis
2699:
2692:
2685:
2678:
2671:
2663:
2658:
2628:
2623:
2605:
2569:Clarkson's Farm
2549:
2512:
2409:
2370:
2360:
2344:
2306:
2244:
2188:
2160:
2040:
2016:Natural England
1941:
1935:
1909:
1905:Vestey Holdings
1900:Saputo Dairy UK
1833:
1815:
1810:
1740:
1738:Further reading
1735:
1734:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1709:
1703:
1694:
1684:
1682:
1675:
1669:. 29 July 1852.
1664:
1659:letter - dated
1658:
1649:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1608:
1601:
1591:
1590:
1581:
1571:
1569:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1474:. 26 July 1851.
1469:
1468:
1464:
1453:
1452:
1439:
1428:
1424:
1417:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1386:
1375:
1364:
1362:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1339:. 22 July 1858.
1334:
1333:
1324:
1314:
1312:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1278:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1240:
1233:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1198:. 26 July 1851.
1193:
1192:
1183:
1178:. 20 June 1850.
1173:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1142:
1140:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1104:
1086:
1079:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1041:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1014:
1010:
999:
995:
988:
974:
945:
938:
924:
911:
904:
890:
881:
876:
871:
870:
859:
856:
852:
846:
842:
837:
833:
819:
815:
809:
805:
796:
792:
787:
783:
762:
758:
745:
741:
724:
720:
714:Leblanc process
698:
694:
689:
685:
680:
658:
650:Crofters' Party
572:
517:
486:
415:
377:
346:
304:
216:
211:
201:
197:
196:
171:
155:Northern Europe
115:Scottish Gaelic
64:
38:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4191:
4181:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4102:
4095:
4088:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4066:
4059:
4052:
4050:(2022–present)
4044:
4037:
4030:
4028:(2020–present)
4022:
4021:
4020:
4013:
4006:
3992:
3990:(2019–present)
3984:
3982:(2019–present)
3976:
3974:(2018–present)
3968:
3960:
3953:
3945:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3916:
3909:
3901:
3894:
3892:(2013–present)
3886:
3879:
3872:
3865:
3858:
3856:(2011–present)
3850:
3848:(2010–present)
3842:
3835:
3828:
3820:
3818:
3817:(2009–present)
3810:
3809:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3797:
3790:
3783:
3776:
3769:
3762:
3755:
3748:
3741:
3734:
3727:
3720:
3713:
3706:
3699:
3692:
3685:
3682:September 2008
3670:
3668:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3656:
3654:(2007–present)
3648:
3641:
3634:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3583:
3575:
3567:
3560:
3553:
3546:
3539:
3532:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3502:
3495:
3487:
3480:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3451:
3443:
3436:
3429:
3421:
3413:
3406:
3399:
3392:
3384:
3375:
3373:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3356:
3348:
3341:
3334:
3326:
3318:
3311:
3304:
3297:
3288:
3286:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3267:
3259:
3257:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3238:
3231:
3223:
3215:
3206:
3204:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3170:
3163:
3156:
3149:
3141:
3134:
3127:
3119:
3111:
3103:
3096:
3089:
3081:
3079:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3029:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3003:
2996:
2989:
2982:
2974:
2967:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2944:(c. 1780–1795)
2938:
2931:
2923:
2915:
2913:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2893:
2885:
2877:
2867:
2865:(c. 1600–1760)
2859:
2851:
2842:
2840:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2819:
2817:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2748:
2745:Hyperinflation
2741:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2718:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2690:
2683:
2676:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2657:
2656:
2649:
2642:
2634:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2591:
2588:Farmers Weekly
2584:
2579:
2572:
2565:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2379:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2316:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2254:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2207:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2170:
2168:
2166:Foot-and-mouth
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2146:Victory garden
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1959:Potato Council
1951:
1945:
1943:
1942:and regulation
1937:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1890:Norbrook Group
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1860:Faccenda Foods
1857:
1852:
1847:
1845:ADAS (company)
1841:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1809:
1808:
1801:
1794:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1748:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1717:
1692:
1673:
1647:
1632:
1617:
1599:
1596:. 21 May 1852.
1579:
1554:
1549:Dundee Courier
1527:
1522:Glasgow Herald
1512:
1493:
1477:
1462:
1437:
1422:
1415:
1395:
1373:
1347:
1322:
1297:
1276:
1249:
1244:Dundee Courier
1231:
1216:
1201:
1181:
1165:
1150:
1124:
1109:
1102:
1077:
1062:
1051:(4): 388–414,
1035:
1008:
993:
986:
943:
936:
909:
903:978-0241304105
902:
878:
877:
875:
872:
869:
868:
850:
840:
831:
813:
803:
790:
781:
756:
739:
731:James Matheson
718:
692:
682:
681:
679:
676:
675:
674:
669:
664:
657:
654:
571:
568:
516:
513:
485:
482:
479:
478:
475:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
456:
455:
452:
449:
446:
443:
440:
437:
414:
411:
376:
373:
345:
342:
303:
300:
215:
212:
210:
207:
170:
167:
105:
104:
98:
94:
93:
90:
86:
85:
80:
76:
75:
70:
66:
65:
55:
47:
46:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4190:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4107:
4103:
4100:
4096:
4093:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4071:
4067:
4064:
4060:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3884:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3840:
3836:
3833:
3829:
3826:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3781:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3767:
3763:
3760:
3756:
3753:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3704:
3703:December 2008
3700:
3697:
3696:November 2008
3693:
3690:
3686:
3683:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3642:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3620:
3617:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3474:
3471:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3361:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3312:
3309:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3242:Panic of 1930
3239:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3167:Panic of 1907
3164:
3161:
3160:Panic of 1901
3157:
3154:
3153:Panic of 1896
3150:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3135:
3132:
3131:Panic of 1893
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3115:Baring crisis
3112:
3108:
3107:Arendal crash
3104:
3101:
3100:Panic of 1884
3097:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3086:Panic of 1873
3083:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3056:Panic of 1866
3053:
3050:
3049:Panic of 1857
3046:
3043:
3042:Panic of 1847
3039:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3022:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3001:
3000:Panic of 1837
2997:
2994:
2993:Panic of 1825
2990:
2987:
2986:Panic of 1819
2983:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2957:Panic of 1792
2954:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2921:
2917:
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2841:
2837:
2833:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2811:
2804:
2800:
2797:
2796:Social crisis
2793:
2790:
2789:Minsky moment
2786:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:Energy crisis
2712:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2687:Credit crunch
2684:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2650:
2648:
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2612:
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2608:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2595:Farming Today
2592:
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2507:
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2371:organisations
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2320:Animal breeds
2318:
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2268:
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2259:
2258:Animal breeds
2256:
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2226:
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2202:
2199:
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2169:
2167:
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2157:
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2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
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2043:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
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1974:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
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1952:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1921:Grazing marsh
1919:
1918:
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1912:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
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1876:
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1868:
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1851:
1850:Arla Foods UK
1848:
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1807:
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1795:
1793:
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1767:T.M. Devine,
1766:
1764:
1763:0-521-07783-4
1760:
1756:
1752:
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1728:
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1707:
1704:extract from
1701:
1699:
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1668:
1662:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1643:
1642:Northern Star
1636:
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1595:
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1567:Isle of Barra
1564:
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1416:9780665475122
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1197:
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1188:
1186:
1177:
1169:
1161:
1154:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1120:
1113:
1105:
1103:0-7126-9893-0
1099:
1094:
1093:
1084:
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1073:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1023:
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997:
989:
983:
979:
972:
970:
968:
966:
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
952:
950:
948:
939:
937:1-904607-42-X
933:
929:
922:
920:
918:
916:
914:
905:
899:
895:
888:
886:
884:
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865:
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844:
835:
828:
824:
817:
807:
800:
794:
785:
778:
774:
770:
766:
760:
753:
749:
743:
736:
735:Isle of Lewis
732:
728:
722:
715:
710:
706:
702:
696:
687:
683:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
659:
653:
651:
646:
642:
638:
634:
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617:
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606:
602:
597:
593:
588:
585:
581:
577:
567:
563:
561:
556:
550:
547:
541:
538:
533:
529:
524:
522:
521:cause celebre
512:
510:
505:
501:
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494:
491:
476:
473:
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457:
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314:
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297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
275:
273:
269:
268:Lord Kinnaird
265:
259:
257:
252:
248:
243:
241:
235:
233:
229:
223:
221:
220:potato blight
206:
192:
190:
185:
181:
177:
166:
162:
160:
156:
152:
148:
147:potato blight
144:
139:
138:
137:Gàidhealtachd
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
103:
102:potato blight
99:
95:
91:
87:
84:
81:
77:
74:
71:
67:
62:
59:
53:
48:
45:
43:
33:
30:
19:
3689:October 2008
3571:Samba effect
3427:(1987–2000s)
3322:Steel crisis
3145:Black Monday
3123:Encilhamento
3063:Black Friday
3032:
2870:
2826:(235–284 CE)
2694:Credit cycle
2593:
2586:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2540:Fell farming
2105:
2066:Celtic field
1986:Crown Estate
1914:Conservation
1775:
1768:
1754:
1744:
1726:
1720:
1711:
1705:
1686:
1666:
1660:
1641:
1635:
1626:
1620:
1611:
1593:
1570:. Retrieved
1566:
1557:
1548:
1543:Quebec Times
1542:
1536:
1530:
1521:
1515:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1487:
1480:
1471:
1465:
1455:
1431:
1425:
1405:
1398:
1389:
1363:. Retrieved
1359:
1350:
1342:
1336:
1313:. Retrieved
1310:FamilySearch
1309:
1300:
1291:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1243:
1225:
1219:
1210:
1204:
1195:
1175:
1168:
1159:
1153:
1141:. Retrieved
1136:
1127:
1119:Morning Post
1118:
1112:
1091:
1071:
1065:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1026:. Retrieved
1021:
1011:
1005:. p. 4.
1002:
996:
977:
927:
893:
853:
843:
834:
816:
806:
793:
784:
759:
742:
721:
695:
686:
618:
614:
595:
589:
583:
579:
575:
573:
564:
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551:
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525:
520:
518:
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487:
416:
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387:
382:
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363:
360:
351:
347:
327:
322:
305:
295:
276:
260:
244:
236:
231:
224:
217:
193:
172:
163:
141:) saw their
110:
108:
39:
29:
3966:(2017–2018)
3951:(2016–2022)
3907:(2014–2022)
3667:(2007–2009)
3632:(2003–2008)
3581:(2000–2004)
3530:(1994–1996)
3508:(1992–1994)
3493:(1991–2000)
3457:(1990–1992)
3449:(1990–1992)
3419:(1986–1995)
3382:(1982–1994)
3372:(1982–2007)
3354:(1980–1982)
3332:(1975–1982)
3324:(1973–1982)
3295:(1973–1980)
3285:(1973–1982)
3256:(1945–1973)
3221:(1921–1923)
3213:(1917–1924)
3203:(1918–1939)
3125:(1890–1893)
3078:(1870–1914)
3020:(1845–1856)
2980:(1815–1816)
2929:(1769–1784)
2912:(1760–1840)
2875:(1621–1623)
2857:(1544–1551)
2839:(1000–1760)
2738:Flash crash
2708:Debt crisis
2576:Countryfile
2562:The Archers
2141:Swing Riots
2071:Common land
2006:Legislation
1829:Agriculture
1028:18 December
641:Lord Napier
609:Stromeferry
338:bureaucracy
309:Indian meal
292:Invergordon
151:food crisis
143:potato crop
4122:Categories
2759:Accounting
2528:Beekeeping
2086:Dutch barn
1940:Government
1885:NFU Mutual
1572:6 February
1509:: V. 1852.
1365:4 February
1315:6 February
1143:7 February
874:References
773:South Uist
537:newspapers
332:(450
315:(680
4017:Recession
3010:1840–1870
2121:Rationing
2091:Enclosure
2076:Corn Laws
1895:Openfield
1838:Companies
1265:: 60–82.
777:Benbecula
629:Gladstone
570:Aftermath
490:landlords
280:Inverness
251:Tobermory
92:1846–1856
4158:Crofting
2673:Bank run
2619:Category
2545:Forestry
2533:June Gap
2447:Museums
2335:Tŷ unnos
2270:Crofting
2263:Shetland
2250:Scotland
2228:Cornwall
1865:Farmcare
1057:40193453
811:inquests
705:soda ash
656:See also
607:reached
580:Scotsman
576:Scotsman
358:parish.
288:Cromarty
270:and the
176:crofters
127:Hebrides
123:Highland
83:Scotland
79:Location
58:blighted
2773:Funding
2766:Capital
2601:Hurdles
2521:Sectors
2356:Cuisine
2340:Fishing
2325:Cuisine
2292:Fishing
2282:Cuisine
2240:Fishing
2223:Cuisine
2205:England
2126:Run rig
2081:Diggers
2045:History
709:barilla
627:. The
498:Malthus
364:in situ
247:Portree
200:⁄
180:cottars
153:facing
69:Country
3943:(2016)
3589:(2001)
3573:(1999)
3390:(1982)
3229:(1927)
3176:(1910)
3147:(1894)
3117:(1890)
3109:(1886)
3065:(1869)
2899:(1720)
2891:(1720)
2883:(1637)
2780:Market
2378:Unions
2287:Factor
1761:
1413:
1100:
1055:
984:
934:
900:
827:firlot
601:Bombay
424:Harris
330:ounces
313:ounces
296:export
290:, and
97:Causes
89:Period
61:potato
2554:Other
2496:CAFRE
2312:Wales
2233:Devon
1875:Genus
1053:JSTOR
864:dulse
769:Barra
678:Notes
532:pecks
528:bolls
509:Lewis
488:Most
477:£353
474:£1886
454:1877
420:Barra
63:tuber
3710:2009
2815:1000
2813:Pre-
2582:Eglu
2184:2007
2179:2001
2174:1967
2156:WWII
1759:ISBN
1574:2015
1507:XXII
1411:ISBN
1367:2015
1317:2015
1145:2015
1098:ISBN
1030:2018
982:ISBN
932:ISBN
898:ISBN
823:peck
775:and
752:Skye
701:kelp
635:(a "
555:were
471:£278
468:£740
465:£150
462:£806
451:1869
448:1864
445:1863
442:1862
439:1855
436:Year
422:and
284:Wick
249:and
109:The
2152:WWI
1267:doi
596:via
507:On
4124::
2154:/
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334:g
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113:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
