469:
Norway, Sweden and the United States. Although these member states continue to support the initiative, several countries have been vocal about their resistance to an HFO ban on such a short time scale. The
Russian Federation has expressed concern for impacts to the maritime shipping industry and trade given the relatively low cost of HFO. Russia instead suggested the development and implementation of mitigation measures for the use and carriage of HFO in Arctic waters. Canada and Marshall Islands have presented similar arguments, highlighting the potential impacts on Arctic communities (namely remote indigenous populations) and economies.
131:. HFOs are blended to achieve certain viscosity and flow characteristics for a given use. As a result of the wide compositional spectrum, HFO is defined by processing, physical and final use characteristics. Being the final remnant of the cracking process, HFO also contains mixtures of the following compounds to various degrees: "paraffins, cycloparaffins, aromatics, olefins, and asphaltenes as well as molecules containing sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and/or organometals". HFO is characterized by a maximum density of 1010 kg/m at 15°C, and a maximum viscosity of 700 mm/s (cSt) at 50°C according to ISO 8217.
254:
Being the remnant of the distillation and cracking processes, HFO is characterized by an elevated overall toxicity compared to all other fuels. Its viscosity prevents breakdown into the environment, a property exacerbated by the cold temperatures in the Arctic resulting in the formation of tar-lumps, and an increase in volume through emulsification. Its density, tendency to persist and emulsify can result in HFO polluting both the water column and seabed.
29:
232:
401:
emissions compared to all other fuels. The choice of marine fuel is the most important determinant of ship engine emission factors for black carbon. The second most important factor in the emission of black carbon is the ship load size, with emission factors of black carbon increasing up to six times
239:
The use and carriage of HFO in the Arctic is a commonplace marine industry practice. In 2015, over 200 ships entered Arctic waters carrying a total of 1.1 million tonnes of fuel with 57% of fuel consumed during Arctic voyages being HFO. In the same year, trends in carriage of HFO were reported to be
171:
by the IMO. For these two reasons, HFO is the single most widely used engine fuel oil on-board ships. Data available until 2007 for global consumption of HFO at the international marine sector reports total fuel oil usages of 200 million tonnes, with HFO consumption accounting for 174 million tonnes.
402:
given low engine loads. Black carbon is the product of incomplete combustion and a component of soot and fine particulate matter (<2.5 μg). It has a short atmospheric lifetime of a few days to a week and is typically removed upon precipitation events. Although there has been debate concerning the
176:
Residual oils are often combined to various degrees with distillates to achieve desired properties for operational and/or environmental performance. Table 1 lists commonly used categories of marine fuel oil and mixtures; all mixtures including the low sulfur marine fuel oil are still considered HFO.
253:
Due to its very high viscosity and elevated density, HFO released into the environment is a greater threat to flora and fauna compared to distillate or other residual fuels. In 2009, the Arctic
Council identified the spill of oil in the Arctic as the greatest threat to the local marine environment.
175:
Marine vessels can use a variety of different fuels for the purpose of propulsion, which are divided into two broad categories: residual oils or distillates. In contrast to HFOs, distillates are the petroleum products created through refining crude oil and include diesel, kerosene, naphtha and gas.
472:
To appease concerns and resistance, at its 6th session in
February 2019, the PPR sub-committee working group developed a "draft methodology for analyzing impacts" of HFO to be finalized at PPR's 7th session in 2020. The purpose of the methodology being to evaluate the ban according to its economic
459:
IMO's Marine
Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) tasked the Pollution Prevention Response Sub-Committee (PPR) to enact a ban on the use and carriage of heavy fuel in Arctic waters at its 72nd and 73rd sessions. This task is also accompanied by a requirement to properly define HFO taking into
244:
calculated the total fuel use of HFO by mass in the Arctic to be over 75% with larger vessels being the main consumers. In light of increased area traffic and given that the Arctic is considered to be a sensitive ecological area with a higher response intensity to climate change, the environmental
439:
The carriage and use of HFO in the Arctic is discouraged by the Polar Code while being banned completely from the
Antarctic under MARPOL Annex I regulation 43. The ban of HFO use and carriage in the Antarctic precedes the adoption of the Polar Code. At its 60th session (26 March 2010), The Marine
468:
The Clean Arctic
Alliance was the first IMO delegate nonprofit organization to campaign against the use of HFO in Arctic waters. However, the phase-out and ban of HFO in the Arctic was formally proposed to MEPC by eight countries in 2018: Finland, Germany, Iceland, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
410:
Black carbon affects the climate system by: decreasing the snow/ice albedo through dark soot deposits and increasing snowmelt timing, reducing the planetary albedo through absorption of solar radiation reflected by the cloud systems, earth surface and atmosphere, as well as directly decreasing
415:
with black carbon contamination of water and ice found therein. The greatest increase in Arctic surface temperature per unit of black carbon emissions results from the decrease in snow/ice albedo which makes Arctic specific black carbon release more detrimental than emissions elsewhere.
245:
risks posed by HFO present concern for environmentalists and governments in the area. The two main environmental concerns for HFO in the Arctic are the risk of spill or accidental discharge and the emission of black carbon as a result of HFO consumption.
712:
123:. Thus, HFO is also commonly referred to as residual fuel oil. The chemical composition of HFO is highly variable due to the fact that HFO is often mixed or blended with cleaner fuels; blending streams can include carbon numbers from C
473:
and social impacts on Arctic indigenous communities and other local communities, to measure anticipated benefits to local ecosystems, and potentially consider other factors that could be positively or negatively affected by the ban.
719:
493:
McKee, Richard; Reitman, Fred; Schreiner, Ceinwen; White, Russell; Charlap, Jeffrey; O'Neill, Thomas; Olavsky Goyak, Katy (2013). "The toxicological effects of heavy fuel oil category substances".
297:
Skimmers are used to recover on-water spill until the oil emulsifies making its removal more difficult. Once coated to the surface, the oil is difficult to remove from substrate and sediment.
1045:
Sand, M., Berntsen, T. K., Von Salzen, K., Flanner, M. G., Langner, J., & Victor, D. G. (2016). Response of Arctic temperature to changes in emissions of short-lived climate forcers.
172:
Data available until 2011 for fuel oil sales to the international marine shipping sector reports 207.5 million tonnes total fuel oil sales with HFO accounting for 177.9 million tonnes.
428:, adopted into force on 1 January 2017 the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters or Polar Code. The requirements of the Polar Code are mandatory under both the
313:
Limited information. Likely to have similar impacts as IFO with increased initial toxicity due to the higher distillate component causing immediate dispersal and evaporation.
406:
of black carbon, combinations of ground and satellite observations suggest a global solar absorption of 0.9W·m, making it the second most important climate forcer after CO
794:
Willis, Kathy J.; Benz, David; Long, Peter R.; Macias-Fauria, Marc; Seddon, Alistair W. R. (2016). "Sensitivity of global terrestrial ecosystems to climate variability".
310:
No ground data to determine immediate spill impact. Laboratory tests suggest behavior similar to other HFO mixtures namely environmental persistence and emulsification.
329:
The following HFO specific spills have occurred since the year 2000. The information is organized according to year, ship name, amount released and the spill location:
283:
Tar-like consistency of HFO sticks to feathers and fur, results in short and long term impacts on marine flora and fauna (benthic, intertidal and shoreline species)
531:
Bengtsson, S.; Andersson, K.; Fridell, E. (13 May 2011). "A comparative life cycle assessment of marine fuels: liquefied natural gas and three other fossil fuels".
1096:
155:
due to its low cost compared with all other fuel oils, being up to 30% less expensive, as well as the historically lax regulatory requirements for emissions of
104:
436:. The two broad categories covered by the Polar Code include safety and pollution prevention related to navigation in both Arctic and Antarctic polar waters.
460:
account its current definition under MARPOL Annex I regulation 43. The adoption of the ban is anticipated for 2021, with widespread implementation by 2023.
1092:
MEPC 60 (2010). Amendments to the Annex of the
Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973.
440:
Environmental
Protection Committee (MEPC) adopted Resolution 189(60) which went into effect in 2011 and prohibits fuels of the following characteristics:
690:
880:
Lack, D. A., & Corbett, J. J. (2012). Black carbon from ships: a review of the effects of ship speed, fuel quality and exhaust gas scrubbing.
598:
864:
240:
830,000 tonnes, representing a significant growth from the reported 400,000 tonnes in 2012. A report in 2017 by
Norwegian Type Approval body
139:
Given HFO's elevated sulfur contamination (maximum of 5% by mass), the combustion reaction results in the formation of sulfur dioxide SO
448:
oils, other than crude oils, having a density at 15°C higher than 900 kg/m or a kinematic viscosity at 50°C higher than 180 mm /s; or
84:
75:, making emissions upon combustion more polluting compared to other fuel oils. HFO is predominantly used as a fuel source for
574:
1112:
100:
1192:
1068:
1093:
1137:
575:"Phasing Out the Use and Carriage for Use of Heavy Fuel Oil in the Canadian Arctic: Impacts to Northern Communities"
533:
Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment
865:"HFO Project Phase III(a) Heavy Fuel Oil & Other Fuel Releases from Shipping in the Arctic and Near-Arctic"
87:. The use and carriage of HFO on-board vessels presents several environmental concerns, namely the risk of
286:
Water recovery of spill is limited, cleanup consists mainly of shoreline and oiled substrate remediation.
1187:
606:
979:
Ramanathan, V., & Carmichael, G. (2008). Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon.
957:
Gustafsson, Ö., & Ramanathan, V. (2016). Convergence on climate warming by black carbon aerosols.
630:
MEPC 72 (2018). Report of the Marine Environment Protection Committee on its Seventy-Second Session.
235:
Wildlife suffering from a tanker oil spill. Tar-like HFO coats and persistently sticks to feathers.
120:
99:. The use of HFOs is banned as a fuel source for ships travelling in the Antarctic as part of the
107:(Polar Code). For similar reasons, an HFO ban in Arctic waters is currently being considered.
1197:
668:
80:
1010:
914:
803:
56:
19:
8:
751:
Prior, Sian; Walsh, Dave (2 November 2018). "A Vision for a Heavy Fuel Oil-Free Arctic".
347:
1014:
918:
807:
845:
776:
544:
368:
152:
72:
691:"Marine Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) For Ships – Properties, Challenges and Treatment Methods"
1028:
940:
932:
849:
837:
829:
780:
768:
548:
510:
403:
294:
Emulsifies up to 3x the original spill volume, may sink to seabed or remain buoyant.
76:
997:
Flanner, Mark G.; Zender, Charles S.; Randerson, James T.; Rasch, Philip J. (2007).
1094:
http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=28814&filename=189(60).pdf
1018:
922:
819:
811:
760:
536:
502:
433:
764:
63:. For this reason, HFO is contaminated with several different compounds including
1100:
385:
425:
375:
357:
2004 Selendang Ayu, Malaysia (336,000 gallons in Unalaska Island - near Arctic)
164:
1182:
1176:
1032:
936:
833:
772:
540:
506:
998:
430:
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
944:
841:
643:
514:
429:
412:
398:
316:
Limited information. Likely to have similar impacts to other HFO mixtures.
96:
92:
1023:
280:
May emulsify, form into tar balls, remain buoyant or sink to the seabed.
151:
Since the middle of the 20th century, HFO has been used primarily by the
116:
815:
424:
The International Maritime Organization (IMO), a specialized arm of the
83:
due to its relatively low cost compared to cleaner fuel sources such as
397:
The combustion of HFO in ship engines results in the highest amount of
361:
322:
115:
HFO consists of the remnants or residual of petroleum sources once the
824:
351:
334:
88:
64:
60:
999:"Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow"
927:
902:
28:
381:
2001 Baltic Carrier, Marshall Islands (2350 tons in the Baltic Sea)
231:
40:
119:
of higher quality are extracted via processes such as thermal and
1113:"IMO Moves to Ban HFO from Arctic Shipping | World Maritime News"
451:
248:
445:
crude oils having a density at 15°C higher than 900 kg/m ;
341:
241:
68:
434:
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
392:
1167:
18:"Bunker oil" redirects here. For the Norwegian company, see
996:
793:
753:
Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development
220:
distillate/residual oil blend (higher ratio of distillate)
492:
530:
463:
156:
55:, HFO is the result or remnant from the distillation and
44:
903:"Climate change: Black carbon and atmospheric feedbacks"
134:
258:
Table 2: Marine HFO Spill Characteristics and Impacts
105:
International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters
324:
History of heavy fuel oil spill incidents since 2000
146:
110:
1174:
226:
959:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
572:
249:Environmental impacts of heavy fuel oil spills
900:
307:Low Sulfur Marine Fuel Oils (HFO derivative)
217:Low Sulfur Marine Fuel Oils (HFO derivative)
180:Table 1: Types of Marine HFO and Composition
1003:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
340:2011 Godafoss, Malaysia (200,000 gallons in
573:DeCola, Elise; Robertson, Tim (July 2018).
393:Environmental impacts of heavy fuel oil use
360:2003 Fu Shan Hai, China (1,680 tons in the
750:
212:distillate combined with 88% residual oil
204:distillate combined with 98% residual oil
1022:
926:
823:
419:
230:
91:and the emission of toxic compounds and
27:
669:"History and Transition of Marine Fuel"
1175:
901:Bellouin, Nicolas; Booth, Ben (2015).
464:Resistance to heavy fuel oil phase-out
32:Tar-like consistency of heavy fuel oil
1063:
1061:
1059:
975:
973:
971:
896:
894:
746:
744:
742:
740:
713:"Third IMO Greenhouse Gas Study 2014"
638:
636:
626:
624:
593:
591:
568:
566:
564:
562:
560:
558:
526:
524:
862:
488:
486:
384:2000 Janra, Germany (40 tons in the
135:Combustion and atmospheric reactions
495:International Journal of Toxicology
101:International Maritime Organization
25:Fuel oils of a tar-like consistency
13:
1056:
968:
891:
737:
633:
621:
588:
555:
521:
14:
1209:
882:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
671:. Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (MOL) Group
483:
374:, Spain (17.8 million gallons in
350:, Panama (6,300-9,500 gallons in
47:-like consistency. Also known as
333:2011 Golden Traded (205 tons in
302:Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) 180
291:Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) 380
209:Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) 180
201:Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) 380
1130:
1105:
1086:
1039:
990:
951:
874:
856:
787:
147:Heavy fuel oil use and shipping
705:
683:
661:
111:Heavy fuel oil characteristics
1:
765:10.1080/00139157.2018.1517515
477:
227:Arctic environmental concerns
7:
1161:
242:Det Norske Veritas (DNV GL)
10:
1214:
454:, tar and their emulsions.
17:
1193:IARC Group 2B carcinogens
296:
293:
282:
541:10.1177/1475090211402136
507:10.1177/1091581813504230
272:Cleanup Characteristics
77:marine vessel propulsion
277:Bunker C/Fuel oil No.6
266:Immediate Spill Impact
263:Category of Marine HFO
193:Bunker C/Fuel oil No.6
188:Marine HFO Composition
185:Category of Marine HFO
718:. 2014. Archived from
648:powerplants.man-es.com
457:
420:IMO and the Polar Code
236:
33:
1117:worldmaritimenews.com
1047:Nature Climate Change
442:
269:Environmental Impact
234:
81:marine diesel engines
31:
1099:23 July 2020 at the
1024:10.1029/2006JD008003
582:Report to WWF Canada
37:Heavy fuel oil (HFO)
20:Bunker Oil (company)
1069:"MEPC 73rd session"
1015:2007JGRD..11211202F
919:2015Natur.519..167B
816:10.1038/nature16986
808:2016Natur.531..229S
501:(1 Suppl): 95–109.
259:
181:
157:nitrogen oxides (NO
1188:Petroleum products
725:on 19 October 2015
257:
237:
179:
165:sulfur dioxide (SO
121:catalytic cracking
34:
1138:"PPR 6th Session"
981:Nature Geoscience
913:(7542): 167–168.
802:(7593): 229–232.
404:radiative forcing
320:
319:
224:
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153:shipping industry
127:to greater than C
53:residual fuel oil
39:is a category of
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965:(16), 4243–4245.
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693:. Marine Insight
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609:on 10 April 2019
605:. Archived from
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1101:Wayback Machine
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1009:(D11): D11202.
995:
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928:10.1038/519167a
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888:(9), 3985-4000.
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863:PAME (2016).
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1198:Liquid fuels
1157:
1145:. Retrieved
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1120:. Retrieved
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1076:. Retrieved
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727:. Retrieved
720:the original
707:
695:. Retrieved
685:
673:. Retrieved
663:
651:. Retrieved
647:
611:. Retrieved
607:the original
602:
599:"Polar Code"
581:
532:
498:
494:
471:
467:
458:
438:
423:
413:cloud albedo
399:black carbon
396:
386:Sea of Åland
369:
328:
323:
252:
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174:
150:
138:
117:hydrocarbons
114:
97:black carbon
93:particulates
52:
48:
36:
35:
15:
1142:www.imo.org
1073:www.imo.org
759:(6): 4–11.
603:www.imo.org
85:distillates
59:process of
49:bunker fuel
1177:Categories
825:1956/16712
697:16 January
675:16 January
478:References
362:Baltic Sea
95:including
1053:(3), 286.
1033:2156-2202
987:(4), 221.
937:1476-4687
850:205247770
834:1476-4687
781:158679052
773:0013-9157
549:110498596
372:oil spill
352:Langesund
335:Skagerrak
103:'s (IMO)
89:oil spill
65:aromatics
61:petroleum
41:fuel oils
1162:See also
1097:Archived
945:25762278
842:26886790
515:24179029
432:and the
370:Prestige
344:Islands)
73:nitrogen
57:cracking
1147:4 April
1122:4 April
1078:4 April
1011:Bibcode
915:Bibcode
804:Bibcode
729:9 April
653:7 April
613:5 March
452:bitumen
1031:
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907:Nature
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796:Nature
779:
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342:Hvaler
79:using
71:, and
69:sulfur
1168:Mazut
868:(PDF)
846:S2CID
777:S2CID
723:(PDF)
716:(PDF)
644:"HFO"
578:(PDF)
545:S2CID
367:2002
51:, or
43:of a
1183:Oils
1149:2019
1124:2019
1080:2019
1029:ISSN
941:PMID
933:ISSN
838:PMID
830:ISSN
769:ISSN
731:2019
699:2024
677:2024
655:2019
615:2019
511:PMID
163:and
1019:doi
1007:112
963:113
923:doi
911:519
820:hdl
812:doi
800:531
761:doi
537:doi
503:doi
45:tar
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