Han dynasty - Knowledge

5342: 5491: 5482: 5545: 3922: 4981: 4761: 4723: 17057: 4972: 2947: 6631: 7050: 7023: 6833: 5101: 3575: 3402: 6182:), before eliminating the rebellious vassal kings in 154 BC. This prompted some of the Xiongnu vassals to swap allegiances to the Han, starting in 147. Han court officials were initially hostile to the idea of disrupting the status quo by expanding into Xiongnu territory in the steppe. The surrendered Xiongnu were integrated into a parallel military and political structures loyal to the Han emperor, a step toward a potential Han challenge to the superiority of Xiongnu cavalry in steppe warfare. This also brought the Han into contact with the interstate trade networks through the Tarim Basin in the far northwest, allowing for the Han's expansion from a regional state to a universalist, cosmopolitan empire achieved in part through further marriage alliances with the 3182: 6400: 4742: 4819: 4810: 4648: 4902: 1085: 3697: 6516: 6201: 2485: 6372: 5082: 3200: 18963: 4624: 7092: 5927: 6235: 6226: 5610: 4553: 4107: 3143: 5246: 7069: 6656: 7112: 4893: 7585: 2749: 687: 6639: 2586: 6884: 6276:. Prior to the abolition of much of the conscription system after 30 AD, soldiers could be called up for future service following the completion of their terms. They had to continue training regularly to maintain their skills, and were subject to annual inspections of their military readiness. The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court, or in the capital under the Minister of the Guards. A small professional army was stationed near the capital. 4268: 7601: 5881: 7736: 6665: 5449: 6824: 6148: 5464: 5567: 5771: 124: 7132: 6530:

significant portion of its land tax revenue. To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies. By the Eastern Han, the central government monopolies were repealed in favour of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.

92: 6875: 2456: 6552: 5351: 6035: 16773: 4770: 5008: 18975: 4932:; each son received an equal share of the family property. Unlike the practice in later dynasties, the father usually sent his adult married sons away with their portions of the family fortune. Daughters received a portion of the family fortune through their dowries, though this was usually much less than the shares of sons. A different distribution of the remainder could be specified in a 6537:

interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government stores of grain at a lower price than that demanded by merchants. Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.

2943:. The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers. On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour. The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. 4428:, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee. After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao. 6133:. Before 157 BC, some kingdoms were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government. Although the emperor appointed the Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the remaining civil officials in their fiefs. 5807:)—where ministers were convened to reach a majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions. If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences. 6961:, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archaeological sites. 6176:

response to the Emperor's threats. The Han moved to secure a treaty with the Xiongnu, aiming to clearly divide authority between them. The Han and Xiongnu now held one another out as the "two masters" with sole dominion over their respective peoples; they cemented this agreement with a marriage alliance (

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In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivalled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce numbering in the thousands. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a

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The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations. On the basis of their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be

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Timber was the chief building material during the Han; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls, and single-story houses. Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles. The oldest

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were paid in coin cash. The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins. The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD,

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The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119 BC before reverting to Grand Commandant in 51 AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiefly a civil official who shared many

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and Administrators of commanderies. Complex, high-profile, or unresolved cases were often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or even the emperor. In each Han county was several districts, each overseen by a chief of police. Order in the cities was maintained by government officers in

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in 154—the imperial court began enacting a series of reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145, dividing their former territories into new commanderies under central control. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became

6310:), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers. When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops. 5311:

Various cases for rape, physical abuse, and murder were prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having fewer rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and criminal charges against men. While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly

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Monogamous marriages were also normal, although nobles and high officials were wealthy enough to afford and support concubines as additional lovers. Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce their spouses and remarry. However, a woman who had been

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Wealthy landowners, such as nobles and officials, often provided lodging for retainers who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes including fighting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves, retainers could come and go from their master's home as they pleased. Physicians, pig breeders, and

4368:) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao ( 6143:

With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom. Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's

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The Imperial Counsellor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Minister of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became the oversight of public

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The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, for sale at market, or for large textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women. Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became singers, dancers, sorceresses, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants

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describes how, on one occasion, one of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (modern Gansu), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the

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The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords. The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small

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A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an administrator. He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defence, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers, and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system

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Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age. However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly

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was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 litres (0.053 US gal) was levied for those who traded it privately. By 110 BC, Emperor Wu also

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State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-coloured clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status. These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as industrialists and itinerant

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The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes. Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet

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whenever they felt threatened by imperial centralization of power. The seven years of Gaozu's reign featured defections by three vassal kings and one marquess, who then aligned themselves with the Xiongnu. Even imperial princes controlling fiefdoms would sometimes invite a Xiongnu invasion in

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members did not occupy the same house, unlike families of later dynasties. According to Confucian family norms, various family members were treated with different levels of respect and intimacy. For example, there were different accepted time frames for mourning the death of a father versus a

6844:: A pottery model of a palace from a Han dynasty tomb; the entrances to the emperor's palaces were strictly guarded by the Minister of the Guards; if it was found that a commoner, official, or noble entered without explicit permission via a tally system, the intruder was subject to execution. 4331:

was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of the

6777:) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons. Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it. Han farmers also used the pit field system ( 6502:

In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth, and later to one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.

7156:) did not leave behind detailed records of their work. Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described. Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. 6911:

surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty. Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archaeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.

3285:) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age. Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine 7211:

cart, invented during the Han period, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance travelled. This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century.

3120:). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal 7708:

Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century BC. Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer

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a dog figurine found in a Han tomb wearing a decorative dog collar, indicating their domestication as pets. Dog figurines are a common archaeological find in Han tombs, while it is also known from written sources that the emperor's imperial parks had kennels for keeping hunting

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monetary fines, periods of forced hard labour for convicts, and the penalty of death by beheading. Early Han punishments of torturous mutilation were borrowed from Qin law. A series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with progressively less-severe beatings by the

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with shared values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship. When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentry even considered the cultivation of morally-grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office.

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The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent

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The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools, and domestic wares. A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron

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of the universe, theorizing that it was a sphere surrounding the Earth in the centre. They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that

5869:. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits, and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600 bushels. 4132:

against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying

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A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.

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Farmers, namely small landowner–cultivators, were ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as tenants, wage labourers, and slaves. The Han dynasty made adjustments to

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Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavours to be far beneath them. Professional artisan-engineers

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Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BC. This central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the

3101:. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. 2744:

agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.

4213:) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide. 3759:(modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao. 6506:

The labour tax took the form of conscripted labour for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labour became more popular.

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For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase. Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed

5645:. If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts. 5790:

In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a

6946:, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites. These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and 5417:, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels, and dogs (various types were bred specifically for food, while most were used as pets). Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, 6435:

In 144 BC, Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favour of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin. Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the

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existed during the Han. However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature. There is only one relief sculpture dated to the Han period that depicts an arch bridge; it is located in Sichuan province.

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land between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of

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that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth. The account of this device in the

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widowed continued to belong to her husband's family after his death. In order to remarry, the widow would have to be returned to her family in exchange for a ransom fee. Her children would not be allowed to go with her.

5964:) was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages, and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces. The Minister of Justice ( 5519:

The types of clothing worn and the materials used during the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk could afford silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and

4760: 6895:: A ceramic architectural model of a grain storage tower with five layers of tiled rooftops and columns supporting the roofs of balconies on the first two floors, dated from the mid-Western Han to early Eastern Han. 16763: 6968:

chambers, and domed roofs. Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits. The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.

5363:, one a bowl, the other a tray; usually only wealthy officials, nobles, and merchants could afford domestic luxury items like lacquerwares, which were common commodities produced by skilled artisans and craftsmen. 5077:

opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments. Schools were established in far southern regions where standard Chinese texts were used to assimilate the local populace.

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Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the

2232:, prompting the Han to appease the Xiongnu with a policy of marriage alliance and payments of tribute, though the Xiongnu continued to raid the Han's northern borders. Han policy changed in 133 BC, under 16498:

Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of China, June 28 – July 3,

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landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans, and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in

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Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route

6904:(78–139 AD) described the large imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows from the top in order to entertain the Western Han emperors. 7068: 6279:

During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favoured the recruitment of a volunteer army. The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (

3360:), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch 3571:), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han. 6103:

first established by Emperor Wu. The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called chiefs, and both could be referred to as

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in 108 BC. The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households.

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used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.

6788:) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require ploughs or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain. In the southern and small parts of central Han-era China, 5073:

The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century AD. A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and

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and saw an increase in agricultural slaves. Artisans, technicians, tradespeople, and craftsmen had a legal and socioeconomic status between that of owner-cultivator farmers and common merchants.

2169:(618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government 5341: 3398:. From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han. 16761: 4695:

who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses.

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During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in

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Liu, Guilin; Feng, Lisheng; Jiang, Airong; Zheng, Xiaohui (2003), "The Development of E-Mathematics Resources at Tsinghua University Library (THUL)", in Bai, Fengshan; Wegner, Bern (eds.),

4614: 6264:). Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was spent in one of three branches of the armed forces: 17056: 6140:. The Imperial Counsellors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government. 19005: 19000: 15266:

Jin, Guantao; Fan, Hongye; Liu, Qingfeng (1996), "Historical Changes in the Structure of Science and Technology (Part Two, a Commentary)", in Dainian, Fan; Cohen, Robert S. (eds.),

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During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a general (

4150:) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the 2927:

invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control:

5721:, was constructed outside the wall of Luoyang during Emperor Ming's reign. Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century AD, including the 4033:) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife, 2677:

and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.

5656:. Han-era Taoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques, and the use of medical elixirs. 2831:

involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of

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that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year. During the spring and autumn periods of the 5th century BC, the Chinese established the Sifen calendar (

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traders working between a network of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of government officials.

4103:) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide. 7763:, or vital energy, channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance. 4655:

In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However, the emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the

4227:) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs 2173:

private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, creating government monopolies that were later repealed during the Eastern period. There were significant advances in

631: 617: 603: 578: 564: 6454:(618–907). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu. 8115: 4388:) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had previously fled with 6020:) served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment. 3929:

barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops – Eastern Han-era, Tsangshan tomb, Linyi. Also visible in the

5998:) oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles. The Minister of Finance ( 17206: 7846: 6432:

that was not reduced until 175 BC, when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.092 oz) in weight.

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chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.

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By the Eastern Han, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a nationwide

4007:) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD. 17235: 6029: 5914:) was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers, and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars. The Minister of the Household ( 5544: 4271: 4844: 2723:. Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade 7091: 6755:

seeds by hand. The heavy mouldboard iron plough, also invented during the Han, required only one man to control it with two oxen to pull it. It had three

6428:), who abolished private minting. In 182 BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread 5678:

and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices, and chant sections of the

8003:, Plate V, Fig. 15, for a photo of a Han-era fortress in Dunhuang, Gansu province that has rammed earth ramparts with defensive crenellations at the top. 6243:

A Chinese crossbow mechanism with a buttplate from either the late Warring States period or the early Han dynasty; made of bronze and inlaid with silver

3921: 6759:, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m (492,200 sq ft) of land in a single day. 16805: 6849:: A painted ceramic architectural model—found in an Eastern Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan province—depicting a fortified manor with towers, a courtyard, 6607:, and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps. 14576: 16496:; Zhang, Lu (2010), "Condition, Conservation, and Reinforcement of the Yumen Pass and Hecang Earthen Ruins Near Dunhuang", in Neville Agnew (ed.), 7841: 6459: 4980: 4722: 7572:

occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth. Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the

5923:) was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks, and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot. 3256:), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent. Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew 19050: 19045: 4876:, were especially important. A lack of either was considered dishonourable and the woman would have been seen not as a wife, but as a concubine. 7751:

Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the

3034:, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han was eventually victorious and established the 7794:

to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing surgical wounds. Whereas the physician

3947:) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by 2555:, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the 17830: 6630: 3331:

to survive. Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the

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that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century

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for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement. The Minister Steward (

7651:(AD 224–271), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps. 19065: 16895: 15486:

Lo, Vivienne (2001), "The influence of nurturing life culture on the development of Western Han acumoxa therapy", in Hsu, Elisabeth (ed.),

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Marriages were highly ritualized, particularly for the wealthy, and included many important steps. The giving of betrothal gifts, known as

14378:——— (1986), "Wang Mang, the Restoration of the Han Dynasty, and Later Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), 6043: 5668: 4948:

who could afford their own silk clothes. Some women formed spinning collectives, aggregating the resources of several different families.

4971: 3581:

of a Xiongnu chieftain with impression and transcription, conferred by the Eastern Han government and inscribed with the following text:

2062:, and had a permanent impact on Chinese identity in later periods. The majority ethnic group of modern China refer to themselves as the " 7297:(78–139 AD) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere. To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the 5606:), and the body-soul which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony. 2946: 2001: 1941: 16637:

Zhang, Guangda (2002), "The role of the Sogdians as translators of Buddhist texts", in Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A. (eds.),

2668:. The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned, and after several insurrections by Han kings—with the largest being the 17417: 17295: 6546: 6136:

However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials whose

4736: 4070:). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent 2174: 7179:. Around AD 180, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings. Ding also used 4944:

labour duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning.

4328: 4290:

who might otherwise join the rebellions. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical

1038: 4651:

Museum restoration of a household's lacquered furniture and furbishing. Lacquerware became a common luxury item in the Han dynasty.

6610:

The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century BC. The standard papermaking process was invented by

6442: 535: 6567:; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps smoke within the body. 4425: 4424:) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made 15774:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 9, Textile Technology: Spinning and Reeling

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Modern archaeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal

17065: 17024: 16970: 7301:

of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.

6832: 6571:

The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of

5144:(78–163 AD) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order. The 4547: 3039: 2423: 2328: 2265: 2085: 1631: 5100: 18783: 18165: 17244: 16726: 16665: 16646: 16615: 16584: 16565: 16547: 16528: 16506: 16482: 16431: 16412: 16393: 16371: 16352: 16300: 16236: 16209: 16161: 16142: 16094: 16071: 16005: 15980: 15955: 15936: 15912: 15893: 15874: 15852: 15804: 15781: 15762: 15739: 15720: 15701: 15682: 15663: 15641: 15593: 15574: 15555: 15536: 15517: 15495: 15476: 15454: 15435: 15344: 15320: 15301: 15275: 15256: 15234: 15189: 15138: 15119: 15100: 15081: 15059: 15040: 15019: 15000: 14963: 14942: 14890: 14868: 14845: 14826: 14804: 14783: 14761: 14739: 14720: 14701: 14653: 14634: 14615: 14596: 14542: 14494: 14475: 14452: 14425: 14387: 14368: 14326: 14307: 14280: 14261: 14242: 14220: 14197: 14175: 14156: 14137: 10774: 8094: 7368: 4472:

Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the

2649:—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten 1931: 1021: 15151:(1965), "The changing relationship between local society and the central political power in Former Han: 206 B.C. – 8 A.D.", 14587:

Ch'en, Ch'i-Yün (1986), "Confucian, Legalist, and Taoist thought in Later Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.),

7555:

and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the appearance of the comet now known as

6399: 6107:. A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual 5942:

in art and religious beliefs predated the Han and remained popular during the first half of Western Han and the Eastern Han.

5623:

In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the

16999: 7431:, where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods. Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician 7171:

machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing. The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman

5955:) was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces. The Minister Coachman ( 5865:

The Chancellor, whose title had changed in 8 BC to Minister over the Masses, was chiefly responsible for drafting the

3296:

Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery,

3181: 2973:'s travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered 1504: 1494: 18689: 14933:——— (1986), "The Economic and Social History of Later Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), 6900:: A Han pottery model of a granary tower with windows and balcony placed several stories above the first-floor courtyard; 17240: 17201: 16989: 5983: 5760: 3035: 1973: 1135: 241: 144: 6643: 4741: 2147: 18835: 17835: 15363: 15180:

Hsu, Elisabeth (2001), "Pulse diagnostics in the Western Han: how mai and qi determine bing", in Hsu, Elisabeth (ed.),

7730: 6934:. The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their 6813: 6057:

The Han empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided, in descending order of size, into political units of

5688: 5628: 4151: 4139:) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant 3767: 1125: 15843:

Nishijima, Sadao (1986), "The economic and social history of Former Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.),

7616:

existed in China before the Han. Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the

6614:(AD 50–121) in 105. The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han 6137: 5792: 5596:. They believed that these items could be used by those in the spiritual realm. It was thought that each person had a 3574: 3168:, were built during the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and was significantly rebuilt during the 2296:

increasingly involved themselves in the dynasty's court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between various

17479: 17250: 16310:

Thorp, Robert L. (1986), "Architectural principles in early Imperial China: structural problems and their solution",

4691:. Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule. 3401: 1802: 16818: 16104:

Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (2004), "The Tang architectural icon and the politics of Chinese architectural history",

7385: 5070:

cosmologies. Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe.

4818: 19055: 19020: 19010: 16888: 15732:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics

15311:

Kramers, Robert P. (1986), "The development of the Confucian schools", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.),

4880:

were typical, with the father's input on his offspring's spouse being considered more important than the mother's.

15354:

Lewis, Mark Edward; Hsieh, Mei-yu (2017). "Tianxia and the invention of empire in East Asia". In Wang, Ban (ed.).

5389:. Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, 19030: 18461: 17396: 16778: 16682: 14444: 7355: 6409: 6200: 3615: 3327:

The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the

1556: 531: 17623: 14836:

Demiéville, Paul (1986), "Philosophy and religion from Han to Sui", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.),

14535:

The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157

6171:, the Han emperors had great difficulties controlling their vassal kings, who often switched allegiances to the 3693:), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death. 19040: 17213: 17084: 15112:

Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries AD

7934: 6935: 6572: 6564: 5973:) was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law. The Minister Herald ( 5592:

Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors at

5146: 5031:

gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. In 136 BC, he abolished all academic chairs not concerned with the

4809: 3478: 2602: 2357: 1994: 1946: 910: 713: 700: 5116:'s reign along the roadside of the imperial university right outside Luoyang, were made at the instigation of 19025: 19015: 18899: 17174: 17105: 17029: 16936: 16082: 7944: 6809: 5754: 5660: 5290: 5016: 4283: 3701: 3656: 3486: 2669: 2610: 2378: 2109: 2089: 1968: 1894: 1829: 979: 851: 729: 704: 67: 15713:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

15270:, translated by Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 165–184, 4286:

in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the

3782:. In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the 3320:. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the 2883:) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, 18894: 18778: 16974: 16855: 16827: 16381: 14676: 6205: 3009:). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the 2502: 2313: 2241: 1904: 15755:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing

14553: 14166:

An, Jiayao (2002), "When glass was treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A. (eds.),

4719:

butchers had fairly high social status, while occultist diviners, runners, and messengers had low status.

1046: 1029: 19060: 18904: 17941: 17178: 16994: 16881: 16516: 7756: 7348: 6588: 6195: 5723: 5642: 5121: 5063: 4647: 2404: 1956: 1713: 1094: 807: 42: 7815:("Dissertation on Typhoid Fever"), it is thought that both he and Hua Tuo collaborated in compiling the 3992:

and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—

3417:

The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han (

2331:

by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and

18953: 17260: 17123: 16951: 16913: 16706: 15972: 7836: 7405: 6356: 6058: 5815: 5774:

A scene of historic paragons of filial piety conversing with one another, Chinese painted artwork on a

5637:. It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of 5050:(179–104 BC). Dong was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of 4410:). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River. 3059: 2398: 2273: 2143: 1961: 889: 17: 15907:, Lanham, New York, Toronto, Plymouth: AltaMira Press, Division of Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 15675:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3; Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth

4901: 4683:

Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full

4506:

in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north,

3696: 3260:(45 BC – 23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under 18862: 18010: 17574: 16941: 16797: 16156:, New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum, pp. 283–285, 16137:, New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum, pp. 275–281, 15862: 14771: 6996:, some reaching depths over 100 m (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal ores. 5717:

at this point was heavily associated with Huang–Lao Taoism. China's first known Buddhist temple, the

5320: 5294: 4306: 3775: 3461:). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until 2924: 2817: 2517:. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in a rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, 2419: 2249: 1987: 1924: 1889: 1462: 1158: 1068: 38: 15584:

Mawer, Granville Allen (2013), "The Riddle of Cattigara", in Robert Nichols and Martin Woods (ed.),

15527:——— (1986), "The Former Han Dynasty", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), 15184:, Cambridge, New York, Oakleigh, Madrid, and Cape Town: Cambridge University Press, pp. 51–92, 7654:

Han dynasty Chinese sailed in a variety of ships different from those of previous eras, such as the

3951:

intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial

1668: 18820: 18795: 18645: 18304: 18299: 17230: 16963: 16958: 16925: 16696: 16606:——— (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), 15569:, New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum, pp. 23–74, 15490:, Cambridge, New York, Oakleigh, Madrid and Cape Town: Cambridge University Press, pp. 19–50, 7759:. Each organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that 6981: 6751:, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of 6724: 6515: 6120: 5823: 5649: 5422: 5081: 4834: 4660: 4347: 3534: 3071: 2650: 2281: 2105: 1658: 1307: 319: 16021:"Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis" 14338:"Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition" 6604: 6559:

in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated to the 2nd century BC, found in the tomb of

2801:'s subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the 2484: 18887: 18768: 18309: 18262: 18205: 17904: 17848: 17596: 17273: 17034: 15966: 15289: 6340: 5633: 5557: 5090: 5086: 4933: 4552: 4453:). Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by 4279: 3709: 3410: 3328: 3098: 2309: 2162: 1884: 7697:

found in Western vessels. Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a

18909: 18810: 18805: 18493: 18441: 18361: 18294: 18198: 18183: 18076: 17843: 17797: 17638: 17525: 17039: 16979: 16921: 16599:

Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations

15565:——— (2005), "Funerary Practice in Han Times", in Richard, Naomi Noble (ed.), 15427: 15419: 7678: 7397: 5166: 4443: 4262: 3618:

before establishing a garrison at Hami. After the new Protector General of the Western Regions

3522: 3462: 3365: 2998: 2548: 2386: 2332: 2108:. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the 2035: 1936: 1914: 1899: 1385: 1104: 16931: 14900:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1974), "Estate and family management in the Later Han as seen in the

7588:

An early Western Han dynasty silk map found in Tomb #3 of Mawangdui, depicting the Kingdom of

6417:

in favour of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his widow

6371: 5798:

However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (

5659:

By the 2nd century AD, Taoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the

5289:(201–169 BC) portrayed the Qin as a brutal regime. However, archaeological evidence from 4514:(161–223 AD) dominating the west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son 4480:(173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance. His brothers 4093: 18840: 18800: 18613: 18488: 17552: 17542: 17501: 17472: 17223: 17191: 17111: 17098: 15694:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1, Physics

14440: 7817: 7621: 7334: 6152: 6066: 5587: 5170: 5141: 5105: 4623: 4518:(187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as 3549: 3220: 3199: 2510: 2100:. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government called 1909: 1326: 211: 18728: 16477:, translated by K. C. Chang and collaborators, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 15928:

Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China

7779:

as methods of maintaining one's health. When surgery was performed by the Chinese physician

2240:

to quell the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were eventually defeated and forced to accept a status as

18995: 18933: 18763: 18733: 18608: 18539: 18510: 18429: 17763: 17601: 17591: 17373: 17285: 17128: 17044: 16984: 16793: 16224: 14398: 14185: 7740: 7690: 7617: 7471: 7436: 7401: 7381: 7261: 7098: 6965: 5931: 5811: 5729: 5196: 4503: 4045: 3937: 3806: 3235: 2568: 2059: 1951: 1164: 260: 18713: 16810: 16441:

Wang, Yu-ch'uan (1949), "An outline of The central government of the Former Han dynasty",

16171:

Straffin, Philip D. Jr (1998), "Liu Hui and the first Golden Age of Chinese mathematics",

14973:

Eiland, Murray (2003), "Looking at Ancient Chinese Dogs Looking at Ancient Chinese Dogs",

6930:, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in 6234: 5926: 8: 18625: 18505: 18471: 18373: 18193: 18188: 18000: 17719: 17655: 17530: 17515: 17333: 17268: 17164: 16946: 16556:

Xue, Shiqi (2003), "Chinese lexicography past and present", in Hartmann, R. R. K. (ed.),

10590: 7393: 7160: 6958: 6927: 6323: 6254: 6225: 6168: 5819: 5703: 5278: 5227: 5129: 5113: 4400: 4217: 4060: 3978: 3885: 3833: 3755:) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his forces to 3641: 3587:("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han") 3350: 3261: 3224: 2832: 2802: 2768: 2415: 2317: 2237: 2190: 2165:

minted by the central government in 119 BC remained the standard in China until the

1116: 284: 18341: 18331: 16608: