890:
929:
875:
2472:
909:
2483:
40:
371:
31:
145:
494:. Commands may be issued manually in real time, or they may be part of automated or semi-automated procedures uploaded in their entirety. Typically, commands successfully received by the spacecraft are acknowledged in telemetry, and a command counter is maintained on the spacecraft and at the ground to ensure synchronization. In certain cases,
843:
include requirements placed on facilities, hardware, software, network connectivity, security, and staffing. Ground station costs in particular depend largely on the required transmission power, RF band(s), and the suitability of preexisting facilities. Control centers may be highly automated as a
469:
provided by the spacecraft manufacturer is called on to provide information on telemetry frame formatting, the positions and frequencies of parameters within frames, and their associated mnemonics, calibrations, and soft and hard limits. The contents of this database—especially calibrations and
1569:
187:. There are often backup stations from which radio contact can be maintained if there is a problem at the primary ground station which renders it unable to operate, such as a natural disaster. Such contingencies are considered in a
835:
on NASA small spacecraft missions, operation costs alone contribute 8% to the lifetime cost of a typical mission, with integration and testing making up a further 3.2%, ground facilities 2.6%, and ground systems engineering 1.1%.
34:
A simplified spacecraft system. Dotted orange arrows denote radio links; solid black arrows denote ground network links. (Customer terminals typically rely on only one of the indicated paths for access to space-segment
889:
1575:
286:
received telemetry for later playback to control centers, often when ground network bandwidth is not sufficient to allow real-time transmission of all received telemetry. They may support
1331:
713:(I&T) facilities. Mission-specific I&T provides an opportunity to fully test communications between, and behavior of, both the spacecraft and the ground segment prior to launch.
413:
Control centers use telemetry to determine the status of a spacecraft and its systems. Housekeeping, diagnostic, science, and other types of telemetry may be carried on separate
352:
with command and telemetry signals. Ground station tracking and ranging data are passed to the control center along with spacecraft telemetry, where they are often used in
125:. They may be located together or separated geographically, and they may be operated by different parties. Some elements may support multiple spacecraft simultaneously.
470:
limits—may be updated periodically to maintain consistency with onboard software and operating procedures; these can change during the life of a mission in response to
164:
between the space and ground segments for telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C), as well as payload data transmission and reception. Tracking networks, such as
188:
725:, which handle the logistics of rocket launches. Launch facilities are typically connected to the ground network to relay telemetry prior to and during launch. The
254:(often located in the antenna hub to minimize the distance the signal must travel) before being down-converted to IF; these two functions may be combined in a
2188:
1600:
1729:
827:
Costs associated with the establishment and operation of a ground segment are highly variable, and depend on accounting methods. According to a study by
1394:
Fillery, Nigel P.; Stanton, David (2011). "Telemetry, Command, Data
Handling and Processing". In Fortescue, Peter; Swinerd, Graham; Stark, John (eds.).
397:
to spacecraft. For crewed spacecraft, mission control manages voice and video communications with the crew. Control centers may also be responsible for
1642:
1501:
701:
communicate directly with spacecraft, while other types of user terminals rely on the ground segment for data receipt, transmission, and processing.
1344:
309:, when a line of sight exists to the spacecraft, is determined by the location of ground stations, and by the characteristics of the spacecraft
928:
2507:
983:
729:
itself is sometimes said to constitute a "transfer segment", which may be considered distinct from both the ground and space segments.
908:
2166:
1756:
243:
for transmission. In colder climates, electric heaters or hot air blowers may be necessary to prevent ice or snow buildup on the
693:, are collectively called the "user segment", and are typically distinguished from the ground segment. User terminals including
634:
and unable to generate power. Increasingly commonly, control centers for uncrewed spacecraft may be set up for "lights-out" (or
1369:
Sheriff, Ray E.; Tatnall, Adrian R. L. (2011). "Telecommunications". In
Fortescue, Peter; Swinerd, Graham; Stark, John (eds.).
2512:
1746:
1681:
1609:
1461:
1031:
741:
handle data transfer and voice communication between different elements of the ground segment. These networks often combine
646:
of significant events – both planned and unplanned – in the ground or space segment that may require operator intervention.
1505:
1160:
1131:
1106:
874:
499:
1493:
1766:
1083:
654:
Remote terminals are interfaces on ground networks, separate from the mission control center, which may be accessed by
2522:
1786:
1403:
1378:
1224:
424:
200:
831:, the ground segment contributes approximately 5% to the total cost of a space system. According to a report by the
405:. As with ground stations, there are often backup control facilities available to support continuity of operations.
1599:
de Weck, Olivier; de
Neufville, Richard; Chang, Darren; Chaize, Mathieu. "Technical Success and Economic Failure".
1537:
547:
271:
1613:
2517:
1941:
749:
elements, for which different parties may be responsible. Geographically separated elements may be connected via
365:
2316:
2178:
1761:
1545:
1340:
828:
17:
2527:
795:
Security considerations are vital to protect space resources and sensitive data. WAN links often incorporate
639:
255:
184:
457:
of parameters against each other or over time, or synoptic displays (sometimes called mimics) – essentially
1882:
623:
578:
Dedicated physical spaces may be provided in the control center for certain mission support roles, such as
236:
87:
498:
may be performed. Commanded activities may pertain directly to mission objectives, or they may be part of
2294:
2130:
1877:
1724:
896:
293:
A single spacecraft may make use of multiple RF bands for different telemetry, command, and payload data
2366:
2135:
1808:
954:
816:
710:
690:
682:
583:
106:
94:
2289:
2171:
1909:
1674:
1429:
1309:
770:
686:
572:
375:
287:
2404:
1904:
1892:
1864:
1215:
Chatel, Franck (2011). "Ground
Segment". In Fortescue, Peter; Swinerd, Graham; Stark, John (eds.).
789:
663:
398:
275:
122:
344:
of RF frequencies due to the motion of the spacecraft. Ground stations may also perform automated
2408:
2344:
2123:
2025:
1936:
1840:
1813:
1714:
758:
754:
543:
434:
161:
118:
114:
59:
2456:
2418:
1852:
1771:
1709:
1637:
Matthews, Anthony J. (February 25, 1996). "A ground cost model (G-COST) for military systems".
1270:
1244:
987:
963:
900:
599:
333:
220:
80:
1021:
2306:
2113:
1751:
1135:
1110:
958:
785:
762:
659:
598:
complexity have increased, there is a trend toward performing more automated data processing
283:
267:
62:
and user segment. The ground segment enables management of a spacecraft, and distribution of
1266:
1240:
991:
417:. Flight control software performs the initial processing of received telemetry, including:
2475:
2376:
2359:
1996:
1931:
1924:
1781:
1667:
1075:
804:
800:
694:
675:
671:
394:
263:
8:
2371:
2349:
2284:
2003:
1847:
935:
792:
of network components is the primary means of achieving the required system reliability.
643:
533:
522:
495:
353:
251:
244:
63:
486:
Commands sent to spacecraft are formatted according to the spacecraft database, and are
2486:
2269:
2195:
2050:
1946:
1798:
881:
812:
742:
428:
306:
294:
282:
or saved to files for transmission on ground networks. Ground stations may temporarily
232:
169:
70:
among interested parties on the ground. The primary elements of a ground segment are:
2482:
2441:
2081:
1976:
1951:
1897:
1887:
1704:
1541:
1457:
1399:
1374:
1220:
1079:
1027:
766:
746:
667:
619:
557:
475:
240:
2354:
2183:
2140:
2106:
2071:
2008:
1961:
1803:
1646:
919:
832:
808:
738:
627:
537:
1420:
1300:
678:
teams. They may be receive-only, or they may transmit data to the ground network.
2399:
2299:
2252:
2150:
2091:
2076:
2030:
2013:
1919:
1914:
1531:
1451:
1069:
777:
698:
595:
591:
579:
568:
526:
487:
454:
437:
of parameter values, and association of these values with parameter names called
414:
228:
224:
2446:
2326:
2257:
2247:
2232:
2210:
2200:
2096:
2086:
2035:
1956:
1333:
Introduction to satellite constellations: Orbital types, uses and related facts
726:
615:
563:
341:
279:
204:
139:
74:
509:
Spacecraft procedures are generally developed and tested against a spacecraft
2501:
2394:
2311:
2242:
2205:
2045:
1966:
1830:
1825:
318:
173:
1164:
788:
being of paramount concern. As with other aspects of the spacecraft system,
2451:
2386:
2055:
2040:
1741:
1736:
458:
349:
259:
177:
2279:
2145:
1835:
1818:
1690:
840:
750:
444:
386:
52:
1650:
453:
Generation of telemetry displays, which may be take the form of tables,
2413:
2321:
2264:
2224:
2018:
1719:
951:(CCSDS), which maintains standards for telemetry and command formatting
796:
635:
611:
503:
314:
216:
1450:
Uhlig, Thomas; Sellmaier, Florian; Schmidhuber, Michael, eds. (2014).
450:
Limit and constraint checking (which may generate alert notifications)
2423:
2274:
1991:
1872:
1793:
1776:
1023:
The
Satellite Communication Ground Segment and Earth Station Handbook
722:
510:
382:
337:
208:
100:
67:
1159:
Reiniger, Klaus; Diedrich, Erhard; Mikusch, Eberhard (August 2006).
381:
Mission control centers process, analyze, and distribute spacecraft
153:
466:
438:
212:
149:
1161:"Aspects of Ground Segment Design for Earth observation missions"
655:
631:
471:
370:
345:
113:
These elements are present in nearly all space missions, whether
109:, which allow for communication between the other ground elements
39:
30:
709:
Space vehicles and their interfaces are assembled and tested at
2237:
2101:
781:
402:
390:
144:
55:
1659:
1639:
1068:
Ley, Wilfried; Wittmann, Klaus; Hallmann, Willi, eds. (2008).
506:
to prevent unauthorized access to the spacecraft or its data.
461:
that present component or subsystem interfaces and their state
948:
757:. The design of ground networks is driven by requirements on
321:
310:
1426:
1306:
915:
447:(engineering) values, and calculation of derived parameters
165:
58:
used by operators and support personnel, as opposed to the
1598:
776:
Reliability is a particularly important consideration for
270:
and decoding. Data errors, such as those caused by signal
2118:
1449:
521:
Mission control centers may rely on "offline" (i.e., non-
176:, handle communications with multiple spacecraft through
630:
procedures and periods, such as when a spacecraft is in
1158:
859:, third edition, by James W. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson
638:) operation, as a means of controlling costs. Flight
250:
Received ("downlinked") signals are passed through a
1500:. Space Operations and Support Technical Committee,
490:
against the database before being transmitted via a
203:
to a spacecraft must first be extracted from ground
1067:
431:(gaps may be filled by commanding a retransmission)
1643:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1502:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
819:provide additional security at network endpoints.
704:
278:where possible. The extracted data stream is then
1571:Cost Estimation for Space System Elements, v.1.02
1387:
1362:
297:, depending on bandwidth and other requirements.
2499:
77:, which provide radio interfaces with spacecraft
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
529:subsystems to handle analytical tasks such as:
421:Separation and distribution of virtual channels
324:to extend pass opportunities over the horizon.
51:consists of all the ground-based elements of a
1393:
1368:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1675:
1561:
1124:
949:Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
895:Space Telescope Operations Control Center at
194:
1498:Satellite Operations Best Practice Documents
1259:
849:
622:. Staffing is typically greatest during the
27:Ground-based elements of a spacecraft system
1181:
1026:(2nd ed.). Artech House. p. 141.
586:control, or these roles may be handled via
1682:
1668:
1154:
1152:
359:
43:Select ground segment facilities worldwide
1398:(4th ed.). Wiley. pp. 467–494.
1373:(4th ed.). Wiley. pp. 467–494.
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1219:(4th ed.). Wiley. pp. 467–494.
976:
513:prior to use with the actual spacecraft.
1636:
1630:
1525:
1523:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
590:outside the control center. As on-board
369:
143:
38:
29:
2167:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
1602:Communications Satellite Constellations
1568:Zandbergen, B.T.C., "ROM system cost",
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1163:. Alpbach Summer School. Archived from
1149:
516:
408:
327:
81:Mission control (or operations) centers
14:
2500:
2189:Psychological and sociological effects
1592:
1567:
1533:Satellite Communication Systems Design
1412:
1285:
1233:
1214:
1099:
1063:
1019:
1663:
1610:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1529:
1520:
1443:
1419:"Chapter 13: Spacecraft Navigation".
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1006:
844:means of controlling staffing costs.
587:
478:, and changes to mission parameters.
1477:
1329:
1323:
914:Integration of flight hardware at a
721:Vehicles are delivered to space via
716:
491:
262:, and the data stream extracted via
649:
83:, from which spacecraft are managed
24:
1898:Weather and environment monitoring
1299:"Chapter 10: Telecommunications".
1040:
934:Decommissioned launch site at the
732:
502:. Commands (and telemetry) may be
133:
25:
2539:
2508:Telecommunications infrastructure
857:Space Mission Analysis and Design
658:controllers, telemetry analysts,
642:software will typically generate
231:(RF) band. The RF signal is then
185:monitored and controlled remotely
2481:
2471:
2470:
1267:"Earth Stations/Teleports - Hub"
927:
907:
888:
873:
183:Ground station equipment may be
1942:Space launch market competition
1689:
1538:Springer Science+Business Media
1530:TirrĂł, Sebastiano, ed. (1993).
705:Integration and test facilities
553:Mission planning and scheduling
366:List of mission control centers
340:properly, and must account for
2179:Health threat from cosmic rays
1396:Spacecraft Systems Engineering
1371:Spacecraft Systems Engineering
1343:Summer Session. Archived from
1217:Spacecraft Systems Engineering
855:Based on a model described in
829:Delft University of Technology
474:, hardware degradation in the
425:Time-ordering and gap-checking
235:to high power and carried via
160:Ground stations provide radio
13:
1:
990:International. Archived from
970:
481:
256:low-noise block downconverter
2513:Spaceflight ground equipment
1241:"Radio Frequency Components"
1071:Handbook of Space Technology
7:
2295:Self-replicating spacecraft
2131:International Space Station
942:
897:Goddard Space Flight Center
817:intrusion detection systems
605:
223:(IF) carrier, before being
128:
90:, used by support personnel
10:
2544:
1809:Space Liability Convention
955:Radiocommunication service
899:, during servicing of the
443:Conversion of raw data to
363:
195:Transmission and reception
137:
75:Ground (or Earth) stations
2465:
2432:
2385:
2337:
2223:
2172:Space adaptation syndrome
2159:
2064:
1984:
1975:
1863:
1697:
1430:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1330:Wood, Lloyd (July 2006).
1310:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1132:"Ground Segment Overview"
880:Antenna belonging to the
866:
771:Delay-tolerant networking
626:of a mission, and during
376:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
374:Control center at NASA's
317:. The Space Network uses
300:
288:delay-tolerant networking
2523:Spacecraft communication
1905:Communications satellite
822:
755:virtual private networks
399:configuration management
276:identified and corrected
258:. The IF signal is then
189:Continuity of Operations
2409:reusable launch systems
2026:Extravehicular activity
1937:Commercial use of space
1841:Militarisation of space
1814:Registration Convention
1730:Accidents and incidents
773:protocols may be used.
610:Control centers may be
600:on board the spacecraft
360:Mission control centers
348:; ranging tones may be
336:spacecraft in order to
2518:Spaceflight technology
2457:Mission control center
2419:Non-rocket spacelaunch
1853:Billionaire space race
1271:SKY Perfect JSAT Group
1245:SKY Perfect JSAT Group
1020:Elbert, Bruce (2014).
988:SKY Perfect JSAT Group
964:On-board data handling
901:Hubble Space Telescope
378:
221:intermediate frequency
157:
44:
36:
2307:Spacecraft propulsion
1757:European Space Agency
1494:"Operations Staffing"
1453:Spacecraft Operations
1422:Basics of Spaceflight
1302:Basics of Spaceflight
1136:European Space Agency
1111:European Space Agency
959:ITU Radio Regulations
786:mean time to recovery
685:customers, including
672:system administrators
562:Short- and long-term
373:
332:Ground stations must
268:frame synchronization
147:
42:
33:
2528:Spaceflight concepts
1932:Satellite navigation
1107:"ERS Ground Segment"
994:on 20 September 2015
711:integration and test
695:satellite television
676:software development
517:Analysis and support
409:Telemetry processing
338:point their antennas
328:Tracking and ranging
219:, typically onto an
95:integration and test
2317:Electric propulsion
2004:Life-support system
1888:Imagery and mapping
1848:Private spaceflight
1651:10.2514/6.1996-1111
1579:(Excel spreadsheet)
1456:. Springer-Verlag.
1350:on 21 February 2019
936:Guiana Space Centre
670:personnel, such as
548:collision avoidance
534:Orbit determination
496:closed-loop control
354:orbit determination
252:low-noise amplifier
148:Radio dishes at an
2270:Robotic spacecraft
2196:Space and survival
2051:Space colonization
1947:Space architecture
1799:Outer Space Treaty
1581:on 26 January 2016
882:Deep Space Network
813:Antivirus software
681:Terminals used by
620:flight controllers
379:
170:Near Earth Network
158:
45:
37:
2495:
2494:
2442:Flight controller
2219:
2218:
1977:Human spaceflight
1952:Space exploration
1878:Earth observation
1508:on 6 October 2016
1463:978-3-7091-1802-3
1033:978-1-60807-673-4
723:launch facilities
717:Launch facilities
571:, in the case of
558:memory management
476:space environment
152:earth station in
101:Launch facilities
16:(Redirected from
2535:
2485:
2474:
2473:
2184:Space psychology
2009:Animals in space
1982:
1981:
1962:Space technology
1804:Rescue Agreement
1684:
1677:
1670:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1618:
1612:. Archived from
1607:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1580:
1574:, archived from
1565:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1527:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1504:. Archived from
1490:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1349:
1338:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1296:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1212:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1169:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1065:
1038:
1037:
1017:
1004:
1003:
1001:
999:
984:"Ground Segment"
980:
957:, as defined by
931:
911:
892:
877:
860:
853:
833:RAND Corporation
809:network security
778:critical systems
699:satellite phones
650:Remote terminals
588:remote terminals
573:planetary rovers
415:virtual channels
395:software updates
342:Doppler shifting
322:relay satellites
227:to the assigned
21:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2461:
2428:
2400:Escape velocity
2381:
2333:
2300:Space telescope
2253:Reentry capsule
2215:
2155:
2060:
2031:Overview effect
2014:Bioastronautics
1971:
1859:
1693:
1688:
1658:
1635:
1631:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1528:
1521:
1511:
1509:
1492:
1491:
1478:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1392:
1388:
1381:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1351:
1347:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1314:
1312:
1298:
1297:
1286:
1276:
1274:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1248:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1213:
1182:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1150:
1140:
1138:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1115:
1113:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1066:
1041:
1034:
1018:
1007:
997:
995:
982:
981:
977:
973:
945:
938:
932:
923:
912:
903:
893:
884:
878:
869:
864:
863:
854:
850:
839:Ground segment
825:
735:
733:Ground networks
719:
707:
652:
608:
596:flight software
592:computing power
580:flight dynamics
546:assessment and
527:data processing
519:
484:
411:
368:
362:
330:
303:
229:radio frequency
205:network packets
197:
142:
136:
134:Ground stations
131:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2541:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2478:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2447:Ground station
2444:
2438:
2436:
2434:Ground segment
2430:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2402:
2397:
2391:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2367:Interplanetary
2364:
2363:
2362:
2360:Geosynchronous
2357:
2347:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2327:Gravity assist
2324:
2319:
2314:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2258:Service module
2255:
2250:
2248:Orbital module
2240:
2235:
2233:Launch vehicle
2229:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2211:Space sexology
2208:
2203:
2201:Space medicine
2198:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2116:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2036:Weightlessness
2033:
2028:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1988:
1986:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1957:Space research
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1893:Reconnaissance
1890:
1885:
1875:
1869:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1762:European Union
1759:
1754:
1749:
1739:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1707:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1687:
1686:
1679:
1672:
1664:
1657:
1656:
1629:
1591:
1560:
1546:
1519:
1476:
1462:
1442:
1411:
1404:
1386:
1379:
1361:
1322:
1284:
1258:
1232:
1225:
1180:
1148:
1123:
1098:
1085:978-0470742419
1084:
1039:
1032:
1005:
974:
972:
969:
968:
967:
961:
952:
944:
941:
940:
939:
933:
926:
924:
913:
906:
904:
894:
887:
885:
879:
872:
868:
865:
862:
861:
847:
846:
824:
821:
799:protocols and
734:
731:
727:launch vehicle
718:
715:
706:
703:
651:
648:
607:
604:
576:
575:
566:
564:trend analysis
560:
554:
551:
541:
518:
515:
492:ground station
483:
480:
463:
462:
451:
448:
441:
432:
422:
410:
407:
361:
358:
329:
326:
305:The timing of
302:
299:
245:parabolic dish
199:Signals to be
196:
193:
140:Ground station
138:Main article:
135:
132:
130:
127:
111:
110:
103:
98:
91:
84:
78:
49:ground segment
26:
18:Ground Segment
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2540:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2477:
2468:
2467:
2464:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2395:Direct ascent
2393:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2378:
2377:Intergalactic
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2312:Rocket engine
2310:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2243:Space capsule
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2206:Space nursing
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2160:Health issues
2158:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2114:Space Shuttle
2112:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2046:Space tourism
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1967:Space weather
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1831:Space command
1829:
1828:
1827:
1826:Space warfare
1824:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1787:United States
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1705:Astrodynamics
1703:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1666:
1665:
1662:
1652:
1648:
1645:: 1416–1421.
1644:
1640:
1633:
1619:on 2005-05-09
1615:
1611:
1604:
1603:
1595:
1577:
1573:
1572:
1564:
1549:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1534:
1526:
1524:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1465:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1446:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1423:
1415:
1407:
1405:9780470750124
1401:
1397:
1390:
1382:
1380:9780470750124
1376:
1372:
1365:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1334:
1326:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1273:International
1272:
1268:
1262:
1247:International
1246:
1242:
1236:
1228:
1226:9780470750124
1222:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1170:on 2020-07-09
1166:
1162:
1155:
1153:
1137:
1133:
1127:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1087:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
993:
989:
985:
979:
975:
965:
962:
960:
956:
953:
950:
947:
946:
937:
930:
925:
921:
917:
910:
905:
902:
898:
891:
886:
883:
876:
871:
870:
858:
852:
848:
845:
842:
837:
834:
830:
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
793:
791:
787:
783:
779:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
730:
728:
724:
714:
712:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
647:
645:
644:notifications
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
574:
570:
569:Path planning
567:
565:
561:
559:
555:
552:
549:
545:
542:
539:
535:
532:
531:
530:
528:
524:
514:
512:
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
479:
477:
473:
468:
465:A spacecraft
460:
459:flow diagrams
456:
452:
449:
446:
442:
440:
436:
435:Decommutation
433:
430:
426:
423:
420:
419:
418:
416:
406:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
377:
372:
367:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
325:
323:
320:
319:geostationary
316:
312:
308:
298:
296:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
192:
190:
186:
181:
179:
175:
174:Space Network
171:
167:
163:
155:
151:
146:
141:
126:
124:
120:
116:
108:
104:
102:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
82:
79:
76:
73:
72:
71:
69:
65:
61:
60:space segment
57:
54:
50:
41:
32:
19:
2433:
2387:Space launch
2372:Interstellar
2338:Destinations
2107:Apollo–Soyuz
2056:Space diving
2041:Space toilet
1865:Applications
1782:Soviet Union
1742:Space policy
1737:Space launch
1638:
1632:
1621:. Retrieved
1614:the original
1601:
1594:
1583:, retrieved
1576:the original
1570:
1563:
1551:. Retrieved
1532:
1510:. Retrieved
1506:the original
1497:
1467:. Retrieved
1452:
1445:
1433:. Retrieved
1421:
1414:
1395:
1389:
1370:
1364:
1352:. Retrieved
1345:the original
1332:
1325:
1313:. Retrieved
1301:
1275:. Retrieved
1261:
1249:. Retrieved
1235:
1216:
1172:. Retrieved
1165:the original
1139:. Retrieved
1126:
1114:. Retrieved
1101:
1089:. Retrieved
1070:
1022:
996:. Retrieved
992:the original
978:
918:facility in
856:
851:
841:cost drivers
838:
826:
794:
775:
751:leased lines
736:
720:
708:
697:systems and
680:
653:
624:early phases
612:continuously
609:
577:
520:
508:
500:housekeeping
485:
464:
427:of received
412:
385:, and issue
380:
331:
304:
292:
249:
225:up-converted
198:
182:
178:time-sharing
159:
112:
64:payload data
48:
46:
2345:Sub-orbital
2280:Space probe
2146:New Shepard
2124:Shuttle–Mir
1883:Archaeology
1836:Space force
1819:Moon Treaty
1691:Spaceflight
1512:28 December
1469:28 December
1435:28 December
1354:17 November
1315:28 December
1091:30 December
805:information
803:to provide
759:reliability
666:teams, and
618:staffed by
544:Conjunction
350:multiplexed
272:degradation
260:demodulated
93:Spacecraft
35:resources.)
2502:Categories
2414:Launch pad
2405:Expendable
2355:Geocentric
2322:Solar sail
2265:Spaceplane
2225:Spacecraft
2019:Space suit
1997:commercial
1925:Television
1720:Space Race
1623:2016-01-12
1547:1461530067
1277:5 November
1251:5 November
1174:2015-11-06
1141:5 November
1116:5 November
998:5 November
971:References
797:encryption
790:redundancy
660:instrument
482:Commanding
445:calibrated
364:See also:
315:trajectory
280:packetized
162:interfaces
123:scientific
115:commercial
97:facilities
2424:Spaceport
2275:Satellite
1992:Astronaut
1920:Telephone
1873:Astronomy
1794:Space law
1747:Australia
1585:8 January
1553:8 January
966:subsystem
801:firewalls
763:bandwidth
691:end users
636:automated
616:regularly
556:On-board
523:real-time
511:simulator
504:encrypted
488:validated
439:mnemonics
401:and data
383:telemetry
237:waveguide
233:amplified
217:modulated
88:terminals
68:telemetry
2476:Category
2141:Tiangong
2136:Shenzhou
2065:Programs
1910:Internet
1715:Timeline
943:See also
767:security
739:networks
628:critical
606:Staffing
550:planning
540:planning
538:maneuver
472:upgrades
467:database
403:archival
387:commands
213:baseband
201:uplinked
156:, Brazil
150:Embratel
129:Elements
119:military
107:networks
2350:Orbital
2151:Artemis
2082:Voskhod
2077:Mercury
1985:General
1725:Records
1710:History
1698:General
922:, Japan
920:Tsukuba
780:, with
737:Ground
683:service
668:support
664:science
656:payload
640:control
632:eclipse
584:network
391:uploads
389:, data
346:ranging
295:streams
241:antenna
209:encoded
105:Ground
86:Remote
2487:Portal
2480:
2469:
2285:Lander
2238:Rocket
2102:Skylab
2097:Apollo
2087:Gemini
2072:Vostok
1777:Russia
1544:
1460:
1402:
1377:
1223:
1082:
1030:
867:Images
782:uptime
765:, and
429:frames
393:, and
307:passes
301:Passes
274:, are
239:to an
215:, and
191:plan.
154:Tanguá
56:system
2290:Rover
2092:Soyuz
1915:Radio
1772:Japan
1767:India
1752:China
1617:(PDF)
1606:(PDF)
1348:(PDF)
1337:(PDF)
1168:(PDF)
1076:Wiley
823:Costs
455:plots
334:track
311:orbit
284:store
121:, or
53:space
2452:Pass
2407:and
1587:2016
1555:2016
1542:ISBN
1514:2015
1471:2015
1458:ISBN
1437:2015
1427:NASA
1400:ISBN
1375:ISBN
1356:2015
1317:2015
1307:NASA
1279:2015
1253:2015
1221:ISBN
1143:2015
1118:2015
1093:2015
1080:ISBN
1028:ISBN
1000:2015
916:JAXA
815:and
807:and
784:and
745:and
689:and
687:ISPs
674:and
662:and
594:and
582:and
536:and
266:and
172:and
166:NASA
66:and
2119:Mir
1647:doi
1341:ISU
753:or
747:WAN
743:LAN
614:or
313:or
264:bit
211:to
168:'s
2504::
1641:.
1608:.
1540:.
1536:.
1522:^
1496:.
1479:^
1425:.
1339:.
1305:.
1287:^
1269:.
1243:.
1183:^
1151:^
1134:.
1109:.
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1074:.
1042:^
1008:^
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761:,
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525:)
356:.
290:.
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207:,
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1473:.
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1383:.
1358:.
1319:.
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1229:.
1177:.
1145:.
1120:.
1095:.
1036:.
1002:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
