25:
1075:
477:
disputes, characterized as "minor matters" in the Qing Code. Moreover, in practice, magistrates frequently tempered the application of the code by taking prevalent local customs into account in their decisions. Filed complaints were often settled among the parties before they received a formal court hearing, sometimes under the influence of probable action by the court.
556:
In 1912, the collapse of the Qing dynasty ended their 268 years of imperial rule over China, along with 2,000 years of
Chinese imperial history. The Qing court was replaced by the Republic of China government. While some parts of the Qing Code and other late Qing statutes were adopted for "temporary
476:
state. In practice, however, large sections of the code and its sub-statutes dealt with matters that would properly be characterized as civil law. The populace made extensive use (perhaps a third of all cases) of the local magistrate courts to bring suits or threaten to sue on a whole range of civil
647:, it incorporates certain aspects of the Qing Code, most notably the notion that offenders should be shamed into repentance. This took the form of the practice of parading condemned criminals in public from 1927 (the beginning of the Agrarian Revolutionary War) to 1988, when "the declaration of the
586:
government attempted to develop
Western-style legal and penal systems. Few of the Kuomintang codes, however, were implemented nationwide. Although government leaders strove for a Western-inspired codified law system, the traditional Chinese preference for collective social sanctions over impersonal
433:
During the Qing dynasty, criminal justice was based on a highly detailed criminal code. One element of the traditional
Chinese criminal justice system is the notion that criminal law has a moral purpose: to get the convicted to repent and see the error of his ways. In the traditional Chinese legal
683:
kim-t'iu marriages permitted by the Qing Code, a situation that ended only with the passing of the
Marriage Reform Ordinance 1970 (Cap. 178), which came into force on 7 October 1971. Until that point, the Great Qing Legal Code had been enforced in some form for 327 years (from 1644 to 1971).
577:
adopted the existing German-based legal codes from the Qing era, but these codes were not immediately put into practice. Following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1912, China came under the control of rival warlords and had no government strong enough to establish a legal code to replace the
587:
legalism hindered constitutional and legal development. The spirit of the new rules never penetrated to the grass-roots level or provided hoped-for stability. Ideally, individuals were to be equal before the law, but this premise proved more rhetorical than substantive.
548:
In the early 20th century, with the advent of the "Constitutional
Movement", the imperial government was forced by various pressures to modernize its legal system quickly. While the Qing Code remained law, it was qualified and supplemented in quick succession by the
520:
in China, which included being exempted from the Great Qing Legal Code. According to historian Ronald C. Po, foreign exemption from
Chinese laws resulted from the unequal treaties "substantially challenged" Chinese control over its maritime border.
691:
married before the
Marriage Reform Ordinance (Cap. 178), and their rights (of inheritance, and the inheritance rights of their sons and daughters) are respected by the Hong Kong legal system (even after the 1997
892:
S.P. Ong, Jurisdictional
Politics in Canton and the First English Translation of the Qing Penal Code (1810), Winner of the 2nd Sir George Staunton Award, 20 J. ROYAL ASIATIC SOC'Y GR. BRIT. & IR. 141, 148-51
1584:
594:
today is based on the German-based legal system brought by the
Kuomintang. The influence of the Qing Code manifests itself in the form of an exceptionally detailed penal code, with many offenses punishable by
465:. More recent studies have demonstrated that most of the magistrates' legal work was in civil disputes and that there was an elaborate system of civil law which used the Qing Code to establish
327:
The Great Qing Code comprises 436 articles divided into seven parts, further subdivided into chapters. The first part (Names and
General Rules) is a General Part, similar to that of Germany's
346:
Second part (Laws relating to the Board of Personnel), Articles 47–74 – includes laws on the System of Offices (ch. 1) and Official Rules for Carrying Public Administration (ch. 2)
472:
The Qing Code was in the form of exclusively a criminal code. Its statutes throughout stated prohibitions and restrictions, violations of which were subject to a range of punishments by a
355:
Fifth part (Laws relating to the Board of War), Articles 183–253 – includes laws on Guarding the Palace (ch. 1; art. 183–198) and Military Affairs (ch. 2; art. 199–219)
277:
and sub-statutes, the Qing Code contained 1,907 statutes across over 30 revisions between 1644 and 1912. One of the earliest of these revisions was in 1660, completed by the Qing official
1648:
611:)), as well as "piracy causing death" and "piracy with arson, rape, kidnapping or murder" (both entail mandatory death penalty under Section 3 of Article 333 and Article 334 of the
2204:
1482:
349:
Third part (Laws relating to the Board of Revenue), Articles 75–156 – includes laws on Marriage (ch. 3–4; art. 101–107) and Taxes (ch.7; art. 141–148)
2243:
667:
in 1841, the Great Qing Legal Code remained in force for the local Chinese population. Until the end of the 19th century, Chinese offenders were still executed by
288:. By the end of the Qing dynasty, it had been the only legal code enforced in China for nearly 270 years. Even with the fall of the imperial Qing in 1912, the
1577:
2248:
2084:
315:
The code resulted from a complex legal culture and occupied the central position of the Qing legal system. It showed a high level of continuity with the
553:(1908) and the Nineteen Important Constitutional Covenants (1911), as well as various specialist laws, such as the Great Qing Copyright Code (1910).
1923:
361:
Seventh part (Laws relating to the Board of Works), Articles 424–436 – includes laws pertaining to Construction (ch. 1) and Dikes (ch. 2)
1663:
352:
Fourth part (Laws relating to the Board of Rites), Articles 157–182 – includes laws on Sacrifices (ch. 1) and Rules of Demeanor (ch. 2)
319:, which indicated an active legal tradition at the highest level of Imperial Chinese bureaucracy that had existed for at least a thousand years.
343:
First part (Names and General Rules), Articles 1–46 – includes laws on the Five Punishments (art. 1) and the Ten Great Wrongs (art. 2)
2068:
2039:
1658:
1114:
335:, which contains the general legal rules, principles, and concepts applied to the rest of the Code. The other six parts are named after the
1740:
631:—which allowed for life imprisonment or the death penalty against minors committing crimes under Section 1 of Article 272—on July 1, 2006.
1279:
497:
in 1810. It was the first time the Qing Code had been translated into a European language. The French translation was published in 1812.
603:, there are also "piracy causing grievous bodily harm" (punishable by death or life imprisonment under Section 3 of Article 333 of the
358:
Sixth part (Laws relating to the Board of Punishments), Articles 254–423 – includes laws on Homicide (ch. 8–10; art. 282–301)
1621:
675:. Even long into the 20th century and well after the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, Chinese men in Hong Kong could still practice
1728:
1713:
696:), the Great Qing Legal Code is still admissible in evidence when handling legal cases relating to events that occurred before 1971.
1415:
715:
655:
and the Ministry of Public Security on resolutely stopping the street display of convicted and unconvicted criminals" was issued.
273:
legal code, the Great Ming Code, which was kept largely intact. Compared to the Ming Code, which had no more than several hundred
2451:
1790:
430:
dynasties. The Confucian foundations of the Tang Code were retained throughout the centuries, with some aspects strengthened.
2482:
1723:
1952:
1703:
1616:
1340:
608:
447:
336:
524:
In the late Qing dynasty, there was a concerted effort to establish legal codes based on European models as a part of the
1525:
1355:
2168:
1537:
1410:
1234:
2457:
2298:
2173:
1530:
1107:
1038:
652:
574:
439:
438:, to extract the necessary confession. An example of the use of torture and the risk of false confession was seen in
297:
68:
46:
39:
2268:
494:
1082:
Life among the Chinese: with characteristic sketches and incidents of missionary operations and prospects in China
2518:
2385:
1628:
1315:
1201:
1969:
1835:
1603:
1350:
1289:
1259:
1249:
982:
829:
163:
2403:
2178:
2034:
1718:
1708:
1693:
1688:
1520:
1470:
1450:
1390:
1224:
640:
473:
305:
536:
was used as the model for political and legal reform, the adopted legal code was modeled closely on that of
2523:
2162:
1940:
1807:
1673:
1567:
1177:
1167:
1100:
2079:
2062:
1572:
1547:
1510:
1420:
1380:
1132:
525:
627:. This applied even to minors under 18 years old, until the abolition of Section 2 of Article 63 of the
2462:
1908:
908:
787:
220:
330:
2528:
2472:
2191:
2120:
1913:
1445:
1370:
1239:
1157:
648:
414:(624 CE), which was regarded as a model of precision and clarity in terms of drafting and structure.
2393:
2213:
1947:
1918:
1668:
462:
33:
1989:
1455:
1440:
1274:
1172:
710:
2370:
2258:
2139:
1964:
1182:
50:
821:
817:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China
815:
339:
of government, and each part contains laws that are perceived as applicable to each ministry.
2444:
2303:
2263:
1930:
1892:
1780:
1760:
1477:
1460:
1325:
1294:
1229:
550:
434:
system, a person could not be convicted of a crime unless confessed. This often led to using
2513:
2375:
2342:
2308:
2253:
2133:
2115:
1825:
1755:
1562:
1345:
693:
561:
of the Republic of China, as a general legal position, the Qing Code ceased to have effect
289:
8:
2428:
2278:
2218:
2150:
1830:
1683:
1638:
1385:
1264:
1244:
1152:
529:
517:
1028:
1020:
2313:
2024:
2019:
1845:
1785:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1589:
1435:
1254:
615:). One legacy from that bygone era is the offense of "murder of a family member" (e.g.
596:
558:
443:
485:
The Great Qing Legal Code was the first written Chinese work directly translated into
2323:
2318:
2293:
2238:
2233:
2156:
2104:
2009:
1840:
1745:
1643:
1542:
1505:
1430:
1360:
1330:
1284:
1034:
988:
978:
951:
912:
825:
664:
516:
by the Chinese government, which granted subjects of the foreign nations in question
309:
1030:
China, a history of the laws, manners, and customs of the people, ed. by W.G. Gregor
292:
of social control enshrined in the Qing Code remained influential in the subsequent
2477:
2360:
2283:
2223:
2029:
1750:
1611:
1557:
1400:
1365:
1269:
1194:
1162:
943:
749:
730:
725:
505:
486:
415:
371:
121:
98:
623:), which entails life imprisonment or death under Section 1 of Article 272 of the
2492:
2438:
2288:
2273:
2097:
1552:
1515:
1465:
1425:
1375:
1320:
1189:
1056:
767:
579:
533:
501:
200:
2355:
2228:
1994:
1957:
1405:
1395:
1335:
513:
285:
142:
947:
461:, which led to the now discredited belief that traditional Chinese law had no
2507:
2467:
2433:
2398:
2014:
2004:
1820:
1211:
1085:
955:
931:
720:
644:
537:
509:
458:
252:
992:
2487:
2184:
2126:
1815:
1797:
1653:
1123:
668:
427:
423:
419:
270:
266:
128:
1058:
China: A History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the People, Volume 1
2423:
2144:
1865:
1860:
705:
688:
403:
278:
2091:
1935:
1885:
1855:
1698:
916:
583:
454:
446:
were reported to the capital and required the personal approval of the
301:
293:
262:
1092:
442:. These elements still influence modern Chinese views toward law. All
1880:
1870:
676:
620:
616:
411:
407:
316:
156:
2365:
2110:
2057:
1999:
1875:
1850:
680:
402:
A traditional Chinese legal system was largely in place during the
274:
177:
2350:
672:
435:
1084:, by Robert Samuel Maclay, a publication from 1861, now in the
1008:
Law in Imperial China: Exemplified by 190 Ch'ing dynasty Cases.
905:
The Blue Frontier: Maritime Vision and Power in the Qing Empire
757:
600:
591:
379:
977:. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press.
2074:
1633:
466:
2244:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
1733:
410:
worldview and a legal code was considered complete by the
182:
168:
862:
543:
671:, whereas British offenders would be put to death by
147:
133:
1055:
Gray, John Henry (1878). Gregor, William Gow (ed.).
1027:
Gray, John Henry (1878). Gregor, William Gow (ed.).
813:
2249:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
932:"A Requiem for Chinese Customary Law in Hong Kong"
874:
850:
838:
2505:
1649:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
1010:Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.
418:continued to be the state orthodoxy under the
2069:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
2040:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
1108:
634:
599:. For example, in addition to the offense of
103:
771:
328:
936:International and Comparative Law Quarterly
643:was, and to some extent still is, based on
384:Punishment of beating with the heavy bamboo
1115:
1101:
565:due to the dissolution of the Qing state.
1729:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
663:In Hong Kong, after the establishment of
480:
308:. Part of the Qing Code was also used in
284:The Qing Code was the last legal code of
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
16:Legal code of the Qing empire (1644–1912)
1578:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
374:in the Code contained in Article 1 are:
32:This article includes a list of general
2185:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
1122:
1006:Bodde, Derk, and Clarence Morris, eds.
269:(1644–1912). The code was based on the
2506:
975:The Great Qing Code: A New Translation
807:
605:Criminal Code of the Republic of China
2483:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
1724:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
1096:
972:
929:
880:
868:
856:
844:
716:Law of the People's Republic of China
512:led to the forced signing of several
508:between the Qing dynasty and several
397:
378:Punishment of beating with the light
1704:Ministry of Posts and Communications
1080:This article incorporates text from
1054:
1026:
568:
551:Outline of the Imperial Constitution
18:
2452:History of Qing (People's Republic)
792:Daicing gurun-i fafun-i bithe kooli
544:End of the Qing Code and its legacy
528:. Due to the German victory in the
493:was completed by English traveller
365:
13:
2169:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
1538:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
1531:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
1411:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
1235:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
1000:
902:
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2540:
2458:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
2299:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
2174:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
1326:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
1014:
440:The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768
225:Daiqing guruni fafuni bithe kooli
2269:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1585:Articles of Favourable Treatment
1341:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
1073:
590:Law in the Republic of China on
23:
1316:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
1202:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
1061:. London: Macmillan and Company
687:Because there are still living
183:
169:
1970:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
1260:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
966:
923:
896:
886:
762:
743:
653:Supreme People's Procuratorate
639:While the legal system in the
148:
134:
104:
1:
2404:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
2179:Islam during the Qing dynasty
2035:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
1719:Provincial military commander
1709:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1694:Imperial Household Department
1521:Preparative Constitutionalism
1225:Sino-Russian border conflicts
814:Frederic Wakeman Jr. (1985).
800:
578:Qing Code. Finally, in 1927,
2163:Researches on Manchu Origins
1568:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
1178:Transition from Ming to Qing
1168:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
1033:. London: MACMILLAN AND CO.
658:
489:. The translation, known as
322:
7:
2063:Changzhou School of Thought
1573:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
1548:Railway Protection Movement
1526:1909 Parliamentary election
1511:British expedition to Tibet
1421:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
1381:Self-Strengthening Movement
1356:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
930:Lewis, D. J. (April 1983).
699:
526:Self-Strengthening Movement
296:-based legal system of the
10:
2545:
2463:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
1351:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
1290:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
1280:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
1250:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
973:Jones, William C. (1994).
909:Cambridge University Press
772:
641:People's Republic of China
635:People's Republic of China
306:People's Republic of China
205:
2473:Names of the Qing dynasty
2416:
2384:
2341:
2334:
2203:
2121:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
2048:
1980:
1901:
1806:
1602:
1493:
1451:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
1446:Gongche Shangshu movement
1391:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
1303:
1240:Chinese Rites controversy
1210:
1140:
1131:
753:
491:Fundamental Laws of China
229:
219:
199:
194:
176:
162:
155:
141:
127:
120:
115:
111:
97:
92:
88:
83:
2394:Great Qing Treasure Note
2214:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
1924:Administrative divisions
1741:Administrative divisions
1669:Flag of the Qing dynasty
736:
1990:Chengde Mountain Resort
1791:Three Eastern Provinces
1441:First Sino-Japanese War
1416:Northern Chinese Famine
1275:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
1173:Qing invasion of Joseon
948:10.1093/iclqaj/32.2.347
711:Traditional Chinese law
331:Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch
53:more precise citations.
2519:Legal history of China
2371:Great Qing Copper Coin
2259:Convention of Tientsin
2192:Annotated Bibliography
2140:Qing official headwear
1183:Battle of Shanhai Pass
1023:, Wallace Johnson, ed.
903:Po, Ronald C. (2018).
649:Supreme People's Court
481:Qing Code and the West
329:
281:and the noble Bahana.
241:Great Ching Legal Code
184:daai6 cing1 leot6 lai6
170:daaih chīng leuht laih
2445:Draft History of Qing
2304:Treaty of Shimonoseki
2085:performance criticism
1689:Imperial Commissioner
1679:Great Qing Legal Code
1478:Eight-Nation Alliance
1461:Third plague pandemic
1371:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
1295:White Lotus Rebellion
1088:in the United States.
304:-based system of the
243:), also known as the
237:Great Qing Legal Code
84:Great Qing Legal Code
2376:Great Qing Gold Coin
2309:Treaty of Tarbagatai
2254:Convention of Peking
2134:Pentaglot Dictionary
2116:Literary inquisition
1826:Ever Victorious Army
1659:Deliberative Council
1563:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
1516:1905 Batang uprising
1456:Hundred Days' Reform
1346:Small Swords Society
557:application" by the
406:. Amalgamation of a
290:Confucian philosophy
2524:Law in Qing dynasty
2429:Anti-Qing sentiment
2279:Treaty of the Bogue
2219:Treaty of Nerchinsk
2151:Complete Tang Poems
1831:Green Standard Army
1714:Provincial governor
1684:Imperial Clan Court
1664:Diplomatic missions
1639:Consultative Bureau
1386:Tongzhi Restoration
1265:Afaqi Khoja revolts
1245:Ten Great Campaigns
1153:Jurchen unification
530:Franco-Prussian War
518:extraterritoriality
495:Sir George Staunton
390:Punishment of exile
149:Ta4-ch'ing1 Lü4-li4
2314:Treaty of Tientsin
2025:Western Qing tombs
2020:Eastern Qing tombs
1846:Peking Field Force
1590:Manchu Restoration
1483:Declaration of war
1436:Jindandao incident
1255:Lhasa riot of 1750
871:, pp. ix–xxx.
573:The newly founded
559:Beiyang Government
457:separate from the
398:Nature of the Code
2501:
2500:
2412:
2411:
2324:Treaty of Whampoa
2319:Treaty of Wanghia
2294:Treaty of Nanking
2264:Li–Lobanov Treaty
2239:Chefoo Convention
2234:Burlingame Treaty
2105:Kangxi Dictionary
2010:Old Summer Palace
1841:Firearm Battalion
1644:Cup of Solid Gold
1598:
1597:
1543:Manchurian plague
1506:Late Qing reforms
1497:(1901–1912)
1431:Sikkim expedition
1361:Panthay Rebellion
1331:Taiping Rebellion
1307:(1801–1900)
1285:Sino-Nepalese War
1230:Dzungar–Qing Wars
1216:(1683–1799)
1144:(1616–1683)
575:Republic of China
569:Republic of China
506:Second Opium Wars
310:British Hong Kong
300:, and later, the
298:Republic of China
233:
232:
190:
189:
164:Yale Romanization
122:Standard Mandarin
79:
78:
71:
2536:
2529:Law of Hong Kong
2478:New Qing History
2361:Qianlong Tongbao
2339:
2338:
2284:Treaty of Canton
2224:Unequal treaties
2030:Fuling Mausoleum
1629:Advisory Council
1558:Wuchang Uprising
1498:
1401:Tianjin Massacre
1366:Second Opium War
1308:
1270:Sino-Burmese War
1217:
1195:Battle of Penghu
1163:Seven Grievances
1145:
1138:
1137:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1094:
1093:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1051:
1049:
1047:
996:
960:
959:
927:
921:
920:
900:
894:
890:
884:
878:
872:
866:
860:
854:
848:
842:
836:
835:
811:
794:
785:
784:
783:
764:
755:
747:
731:Ten Abominations
726:Five Punishments
514:unequal treaties
416:Neo-Confucianism
393:Penalty of death
372:Five Punishments
366:Five Punishments
334:
261:(大清律例), was the
258:Ta Tsing Leu Lee
215:
186:
185:
172:
171:
151:
150:
137:
136:
113:
112:
107:
106:
81:
80:
74:
67:
63:
60:
54:
49:this article by
40:inline citations
27:
26:
19:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2493:Willow Palisade
2439:Chuang Guandong
2408:
2380:
2330:
2289:Treaty of Kulja
2274:Treaty of Aigun
2207:
2199:
2098:History of Ming
2050:
2044:
1982:
1976:
1902:Special regions
1897:
1836:Imperial Guards
1802:
1594:
1553:1911 Revolution
1499:
1496:
1489:
1466:Boxer Rebellion
1426:Sino-French War
1376:Amur Annexation
1321:First Opium War
1309:
1306:
1299:
1218:
1215:
1206:
1190:Great Clearance
1146:
1143:
1127:
1121:
1074:
1064:
1062:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1017:
1003:
1001:Further reading
985:
969:
964:
963:
928:
924:
901:
897:
891:
887:
879:
875:
867:
863:
855:
851:
843:
839:
832:
812:
808:
803:
798:
797:
781:
779:
778:ᡶᠠᡶᡠᠨ ᡳ
777:
776:ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ
775:
773:
748:
744:
739:
702:
661:
637:
580:Chiang Kai-shek
571:
546:
483:
444:death sentences
400:
387:Penal servitude
368:
325:
317:Tang Legal Code
213:
211:
210:ᡶᠠᡶᡠᠨ ᡳ
209:
208:ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ
207:
75:
64:
58:
55:
45:Please help to
44:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2542:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2448:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2390:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2356:Kangxi Tongbao
2353:
2347:
2345:
2336:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2229:Boxer Protocol
2221:
2216:
2210:
2208:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2159:
2154:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2130:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2101:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2077:
2072:
2065:
2060:
2054:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1995:Forbidden City
1992:
1986:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1958:General of Ili
1955:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1941:List of ambans
1938:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1916:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1812:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1743:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1625:
1624:
1619:
1608:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1406:Margary Affair
1403:
1398:
1396:Mudan incident
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1336:Nian Rebellion
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1221:
1219:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1120:
1119:
1112:
1105:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1071:
1052:
1039:
1024:
1016:
1015:External links
1013:
1012:
1011:
1002:
999:
998:
997:
983:
968:
965:
962:
961:
942:(2): 347–379.
922:
911:. p. 85.
895:
885:
873:
861:
849:
837:
830:
805:
804:
802:
799:
796:
795:
741:
740:
738:
735:
734:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
701:
698:
660:
657:
636:
633:
570:
567:
545:
542:
534:Imperial Japan
510:Western powers
482:
479:
399:
396:
395:
394:
391:
388:
385:
382:
367:
364:
363:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
344:
337:Six Ministries
324:
321:
286:Imperial China
231:
230:
227:
226:
223:
217:
216:
203:
197:
196:
192:
191:
188:
187:
180:
174:
173:
166:
160:
159:
157:Yue: Cantonese
153:
152:
145:
139:
138:
131:
125:
124:
118:
117:
116:Transcriptions
109:
108:
101:
95:
94:
90:
89:
86:
85:
77:
76:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2541:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2468:Manchu people
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2434:Canton System
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2399:Hubu Guanpiao
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2049:Society &
2047:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2015:Summer Palace
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2005:Mukden Palace
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1981:Palaces &
1979:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1821:Eight Banners
1819:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1674:Grand Council
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1494:20th century
1492:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1304:19th century
1302:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1106:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1089:
1087:
1086:public domain
1081:
1072:
1060:
1059:
1053:
1042:
1040:9780404569303
1036:
1032:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1021:The Qing Code
1019:
1018:
1009:
1005:
1004:
994:
990:
986:
980:
976:
971:
970:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
926:
918:
914:
910:
906:
899:
889:
883:, p. 33.
882:
877:
870:
865:
859:, p. 12.
858:
853:
847:, p. 24.
846:
841:
833:
827:
823:
819:
818:
810:
806:
793:
789:
769:
765:
763:Dà Qīng lǜ lì
759:
751:
746:
742:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
721:Law of Taiwan
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
703:
697:
695:
690:
685:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
656:
654:
650:
646:
645:socialist law
642:
632:
630:
629:Criminal Code
626:
625:Criminal Code
622:
618:
614:
613:Criminal Code
610:
606:
602:
598:
593:
588:
585:
581:
576:
566:
564:
560:
554:
552:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
492:
488:
478:
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
459:criminal code
456:
453:There was no
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
431:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
392:
389:
386:
383:
381:
377:
376:
375:
373:
360:
357:
354:
351:
348:
345:
342:
341:
340:
338:
333:
332:
320:
318:
313:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
259:
254:
253:Hong Kong law
250:
246:
242:
238:
228:
224:
222:
218:
204:
202:
201:Manchu script
198:
193:
181:
179:
175:
167:
165:
161:
158:
154:
146:
144:
140:
132:
130:
126:
123:
119:
114:
110:
102:
100:
96:
91:
87:
82:
73:
70:
62:
59:November 2015
52:
48:
42:
41:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2488:Treaty ports
2450:
2443:
2417:Other topics
2190:
2183:
2161:
2149:
2132:
2127:Peiwen Yunfu
2125:
2103:
2096:
2067:
1816:Beiyang Army
1798:Zongli Yamen
1678:
1654:Da-Qing Bank
1471:Red Lanterns
1124:Qing dynasty
1083:
1079:
1063:. Retrieved
1057:
1044:. Retrieved
1029:
1007:
974:
939:
935:
925:
904:
898:
888:
876:
864:
852:
840:
816:
809:
791:
761:
745:
686:
669:decapitation
665:British rule
662:
638:
628:
624:
612:
604:
589:
572:
562:
555:
547:
532:and because
523:
499:
490:
484:
471:
452:
432:
401:
369:
326:
314:
312:until 1971.
283:
257:
256:
248:
244:
240:
236:
234:
129:Hanyu Pinyin
93:Chinese name
65:
56:
37:
2514:Legal codes
2424:Aisin Gioro
2386:Paper money
2145:Qing poetry
1866:Wuwei Corps
1861:Shuishiying
1622:Family tree
967:Works cited
788:Möllendorff
706:Chinese law
677:concubinage
404:Qin dynasty
279:Wei Zhouzuo
267:Qing empire
195:Manchu name
135:Dàqīng lǜlì
51:introducing
2508:Categories
2092:Four Wangs
1983:mausoleums
1936:Golden Urn
1909:Inner Asia
1886:Xiang Army
1856:Hushenying
1781:Liangguang
1761:Liangjiang
1699:Lifan Yuan
1604:Government
984:0198257945
917:B07DXY9X3S
881:Jones 1994
869:Jones 1994
857:Jones 1994
845:Jones 1994
831:0520048040
820:. p.
801:References
689:concubines
681:polygamous
584:Kuomintang
455:civil code
294:German law
263:legal code
249:Ching Code
143:Wade–Giles
34:references
1914:Manchuria
1881:Huai Army
1871:Yong Ying
1756:Shaan-Gan
1212:High Qing
1158:Later Jin
956:0020-5893
659:Hong Kong
621:matricide
617:patricide
463:civil law
412:Tang Code
408:Confucian
323:Structure
255:, as the
251:) or, in
245:Qing Code
2366:Hongqian
2335:Currency
2205:Treaties
2111:Kaozheng
2058:Booi Aha
2000:Hetu Ala
1953:Timeline
1948:Xinjiang
1919:Mongolia
1876:Chu Army
1851:New Army
1808:Military
1746:Viceroys
1065:24 April
1046:24 April
993:28337540
786:,
700:See also
694:handover
474:legalist
275:statutes
178:Jyutping
2351:Zhiqian
2343:Coinage
2080:Economy
2051:culture
1786:Yun-Gui
1776:Min-Zhe
1771:Sichuan
1766:Huguang
1612:Emperor
1133:History
774:ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ
750:Chinese
673:hanging
563:de jure
538:Germany
487:English
448:emperor
436:torture
265:of the
206:ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ
99:Chinese
47:improve
1965:Taiwan
1141:Early
1126:topics
1078:
1037:
991:
981:
954:
915:
893:(2010)
828:
770::
768:Manchu
760::
758:pinyin
754:《大清律例》
752::
651:, the
609:中華民國刑法
601:piracy
592:Taiwan
426:, and
380:bamboo
302:Soviet
36:, but
2157:Queue
2075:Dibao
1931:Tibet
1751:Zhili
1634:Amban
782:ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ
780:ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ
737:Notes
597:death
502:First
467:torts
221:Abkai
214:ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ
212:ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ
1893:Navy
1734:Ejen
1617:List
1067:2014
1048:2014
1035:ISBN
989:OCLC
979:ISBN
952:ISSN
913:ASIN
826:ISBN
679:and
619:and
504:and
500:The
428:Qing
424:Ming
420:Song
370:The
271:Ming
239:(or
235:The
105:大清律例
944:doi
822:418
766:;
582:'s
469:.
2510::
987:.
950:.
940:32
938:.
934:.
907:.
824:.
790::
756:;
540:.
450:.
422:,
1116:e
1109:t
1102:v
1069:.
1050:.
995:.
958:.
946::
919:.
834:.
607:(
247:(
72:)
66:(
61:)
57:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.