502:
container manufacture is also a geographical business; the product is heavy and large in volume, and the major raw materials (sand, soda ash and limestone) are generally readily available. Therefore production facilities need to be located close to their markets. A typical glass furnace holds hundreds of tonnes of molten glass, and so it is simply not practical to shut it down every night, or in fact in any period short of a month. Factories therefore run 24 hours a day 7 days a week. This means that there is little opportunity to either increase or decrease production rates by more than a few percent. New furnaces and forming machines cost tens of millions of dollars and require at least 18 months of planning. Given this fact, and the fact that there are usually more products than machine lines, products are sold from stock. The marketing/production challenge is therefore to predict demand both in the short 4- to 12-week term and over the 24- to 48-month-long term. Factories are generally sized to service the requirements of a city; in developed countries there is usually a factory per 1â2 million people. A typical factory will produce 1â3 million containers a day. Despite its positioning as a mature market product, glass does enjoy a high level of consumer acceptance and is perceived as a "premium" quality packaging format.
273:
234:
456:
impart a destructive element to the final glass product. For example, since these materials can withstand large amounts of thermal energy, they can cause the glass product to sustain thermal shock resulting in explosive destruction when heated. Other defects include bubbles in the glass called "blisters" and excessively thin walls. Another defect common in glass manufacturing is referred to as a "tear". In the "press and blow" forming, if a plunger and mould are out of alignment, or heated to an incorrect temperature, the glass will stick to either item and become torn. In addition to rejecting faulty containers, inspection equipment gathers statistical information and relays it to the forming machine operators in the hot end. Computer systems collect fault information and trace it to the mould that produced the container. This is done by reading the mould number on the container, which is encoded (as a numeral, or a binary code of dots) on the container by the mould that made it. Operators carry out a range of checks manually on samples of containers, usually visual and dimensional checks.
369:. This is usually accomplished through the injection of a sulfur- or fluorine-containing gas mixture into bottles at high temperatures. The gas is typically delivered to the container either in the air used in the forming process (that is, during the final blow of the container), or through a nozzle directing a stream of the gas into the mouth of the bottle after forming. The treatment renders the container more resistant to alkali extraction, which can cause increases in product pH, and in some cases container degradation.
522:, and in developing countries this is common, however the environmental impact of washing containers as against remelting them is uncertain. Factors to consider here are the chemicals and fresh water used in the washing, and the fact that a single-use container can be made much lighter, using less than half the glass (and therefore energy content) of a multiuse container. Also, a significant factor in the developed world's consideration of reuse are producer concerns over the risk and consequential
556:
297:
256:-fired, and operate at temperatures up to 1,575 °C (2,867 °F). The temperature is limited only by the quality of the furnaceâs superstructure material and by the glass composition. Types of furnaces used in container glass making include "end-port" (end-fired), "side-port", and "oxy-fuel". Typically, furnace size is classified by metric tons per day (MTPD) production capability.
77:). Whether automated or manual, the batch house measures, assembles, mixes, and delivers the glass raw material recipe (batch) via an array of chutes, conveyors, and scales to the furnace. The batch enters the furnace at the "dog house" or "batch charger". Different glass types, colours, desired quality, raw material purity/availability, and furnace design will affect the batch recipe.
642:. How this noise is carried into the local neighborhood depends heavily on the layout of the factory. Another factor in noise production is truck movements. A typical factory will process 600 T of material a day. This means that some 600 T of raw material has to come onto the site and the same off the site again as finished product.
514:
and the glass industries in many countries have a policy, sometimes required by government regulations, of maintaining a high price on cullet to ensure high return rates. Return rates of 95% are not uncommon in the Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark and
Finland). Return rates of less than 50%
356:
which are generally cooled by water. Hot glass which is not used in the forming machine is diverted and this diverted glass (called "cullet") is generally cooled by water, and sometimes even processed and crushed in a water bath arrangement. Often cooling requirements are shared over banks of cooling
316:
The container is then picked up from the mould by the "take-out" mechanism, and held over the "deadplate", where air cooling helps cool down the still-soft glass. Finally, the bottles are swept onto a conveyor by the "push out paddles" that have air pockets to keep the bottles standing after landing
683:
The raw materials for glass-making are all dusty material and are delivered either as a powder or as a fine-grained material. Systems for controlling dusty materials tend to be difficult to maintain, and given the large amounts of material moved each day, only a small amount has to escape for there
501:
Glass container manufacture in the developed world is a mature market business. World demand for flat glass was approximately 52 million tonnes in 2009. The United States, Europe and China account for 75% of demand, with China's consumption having increased from 20% in the early 1990s to 50%. Glass
455:
brick lining of the melting furnace that break off and fall into the pool of molten glass, or more commonly oversized silica granules (sand) that have failed to melt and which subsequently are included in the final product. These are especially important to select out due to the fact that they can
288:
The "rings" are sealed from below by a short plunger. After the "settleblow" finishes, the plunger retracts slightly, to allow the skin that's formed to soften. "Counterblow" air then comes up through the plunger, to create the parison. The baffle rises and the blanks open. The parison is inverted
268:
In both methods, a stream of molten glass at its plastic temperature (1,050â1,200 °C ) is cut with a shearing blade to form a solid cylinder of glass, called a "gob". The gob is of predetermined weight just sufficient to make a bottle. Both processes start with the gob falling, by gravity, and
280:
In the "blow and blow" process, the glass is first blown through a valve in the baffle, forcing it down into the three-piece "ring mould" which is held in the "neckring arm" below the blanks, to form the "finish". The term "finish" describes the details (such as cap sealing surface, screw threads,
630:
As with all highly concentrated industries, glassworks suffer from moderately high local environmental impacts. Compounding this is that because they are mature market businesses, they often have been located on the same site for a long time and this has resulted in residential encroachment. The
492:
with between 1000 and 4000 containers each. This is carried out by automatic machines (palletisers) which arrange and stack containers separated by layer sheets. Other possibilities include boxes and even hand-sewn sacks. Once packed, the new "stock units" are labelled, warehoused, and ultimately
284:
Containers are made in two major stages. The first stage moulds all the details ("finish") around the opening, but the body of the container is initially made much smaller than its final size. These partly manufactured containers are called "parisons", and quite quickly, they are blow-molded into
394:
The role of the cold end of glass container production is to complete the final tasks in the manufacturing process: spray on a polyethylene coating for abrasion resistance and increased lubricity, inspect the containers for defects, label the containers, and package the containers for shipment.
292:
As the neckring arm reaches the end of its arc, two mould halves close around the parison. The neckring arm opens slightly to release its grip on the "finish", then reverts to the blank side. "Final blow", applied through the "blowhead", blows the glass out, expanding into the mould, to make the
72:
Batch processing is one of the initial steps of the glass-making process. The batch house simply houses the raw materials in large silos (fed by truck or railcar), and holds anywhere from 1â5 days of material. Some batch systems include material processing such as raw material screening/sieve,
312:
process, the parison is formed by a long metal plunger which rises up and presses the glass out, in order to fill the ring and blank moulds. The process then continues as before, with the parison being transferred to the final-shape mould, and the glass being blown out into the mould.
645:
Water is used to cool the furnace, compressor and unused molten glass. Water use in factories varies widely; it can be as little as one tonne water used per melted tonne of glass. Of the one tonne, roughly half is evaporated to provide cooling, the rest forms a wastewater stream.
442:. The resultant invisible combined coating gives a virtually unscratchable surface to the glass. Due to reduction of in-service surface damage, the coatings often are described as strengtheners, however a more correct definition might be strength-retaining coatings.
349:(totaling 30kâ60k cfm) to provide the necessary compressed air. However in recent times servo drives have been implemented in the machines which achieve a better digital control of the forming process. It is one step to initialize industries 2.0 in this branch.
281:
retaining rib for a tamper-proof cap, etc.) at the open end of the container. Then compressed air is blown through the glass, which results in a hollow and partly formed container. Compressed air is then blown again at the second stage to give final shape.
450:
Glass containers are 100% inspected; automatic machines, or sometimes persons, inspect every container for a variety of faults. Typical faults include small cracks in the glass called "checks" and foreign inclusions called "stones" which are pieces of the
338:. Sections make either one, two, three or four containers simultaneously (referred to as "single", "double", "triple" and "quad" gob). In the case of multiple gobs, the "shears" cut the gobs simultaneously, and they fall into the blank moulds in parallel.
59:
Broadly, modern glass container factories are three-part operations: the "batch house", the "hot end", and the "cold end". The batch house handles the raw materials; the hot end handles the manufacture properâthe forehearth, forming machines, and
333:
machine (or IS machine). This machine has a bank of 5â20 identical sections, each of which contains one complete set of mechanisms to make containers. The sections are in a row, and the gobs feed into each section via a moving chute, called the
377:
As glass cools, it shrinks and solidifies. Uneven cooling may make glass more susceptible to fracture due to internal stresses: the surface cools first, then as the interior cools and contracts it creates tension. Even cooling is achieved by
264:
There are currently two primary methods of making glass containers: the "blow and blow" method for narrow-neck containers only, and the "press and blow" method used for jars and tapered narrow-neck containers.
671:
are a natural product of the burning of gas in air and are produced in large quantities by gas-fired furnaces. Some factories in cities with particular air pollution problems will mitigate this by using
329:(high pressure â 3.2 bar and low pressure â 2.8 bar), the mechanisms are electronically timed to coordinate all movements of the mechanisms. The most widely used forming machine arrangement is the
365:
After the forming process, some containersâparticularly those intended for alcoholic spiritsâundergo a treatment to improve the chemical resistance of the inside, called "internal treatment" or
85:
The hot end of a glassworks is where the molten glass is manufactured into glass products. The batch enters the furnace, then passes to the forming process, internal treatment, and annealing.
272:
233:
680:
are produced as a result of the glass melting process. Manipulating the batch formula can effect some limited mitigation of this; alternatively exhaust plume scrubbing can be used.
427:
or organo titanates can also be used. In all cases the coating renders the surface of the glass more adhesive to the cold end coating. At the cold end a layer of typically,
325:
The forming machines hold and move the parts that form the container. The machine consists of 19 basic mechanisms in operation to form a bottle and generally powered by
990:
1039:
676:, however the logic of this given the cost in carbon of (1) not using regenerators and (2) having to liquefy and transport oxygen is highly questionable.
1409:
823:
B. H. W. S. de Jong, "Glass"; in "Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"; 5th edition, vol. A12, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1989,
932:
799:
The dilatometric softening point is not identical with the deformation point as sometimes presumed. For reference see experimental data for T
464:
Sometimes container factories will offer services such as "labelling". Several labelling technologies are available. Unique to glass is the
269:
guided, through troughs and chutes, into the blank moulds, two halves of which are clamped shut and then sealed by the "baffle" from above.
1682:
386:) heats the container to about 580 °C (1,076 °F), then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20 â 60 minute period.
438:. This makes the glass slippery, protecting it from scratching and stopping containers from sticking together when they are moved on a
1032:
972:
688:(broken or waste glass) is also moved about in a glass factory and tends to produce fine glass particles when shovelled or broken.
17:
1326:
783:
Werner Vogel: "Glass
Chemistry"; Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K; 2nd revised edition (November 1994),
1805:
1402:
1025:
1687:
1258:
1000:
902:
828:
812:
788:
1727:
1395:
661:. This oil-laden water mixes with the water outflow stream, thus polluting it. Factories usually have some kind of
160:
Littleton
Softening point (glass deforms visibly under its own weight. Standard procedures ASTM C338, ISO 7884-3)
662:
638:
Noise is created by the forming machines. Operated by compressed air, they can produce noise levels of up to 106
560:
1592:
589:
alloys were used in the past. This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern
1707:
1371:
894:
807:; Eds.: Thomas P. Seward III and Terese Vascott; The American Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio, 2005,
1936:
1203:
1120:
936:
2125:
605:
glass are also produced using the float glass process. The float glass process is also known as the
2064:
1572:
1527:
1318:
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1100:
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961:
865:
28:
1836:
1821:
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748:
1891:
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920:
738:
424:
844:
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in an arc to the "mould side" by the "neckring arm", which holds the parison by the "finish".
1901:
1742:
1637:
1080:
713:
534:
245:
47:
that produces bottles and other containers. It has been done in a variety of ways during the
631:
main impacts on residential housing and cities are noise, fresh water use, water pollution,
1876:
1787:
1537:
1472:
1452:
1273:
1193:
1090:
957:
186:
Deformation point (Glass deforms under its own weight on the ÎŒm-scale within a few hours.)
1652:
8:
2130:
1954:
1881:
1747:
1667:
1602:
1557:
969:
614:
594:
2074:
1964:
1826:
1647:
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1562:
1507:
1462:
1457:
1341:
1130:
708:
602:
383:
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1921:
1911:
1906:
1767:
1757:
1662:
1248:
1233:
1178:
1173:
996:
956:
Not all flat panel display glass is produced by the float glass process. The company
898:
824:
808:
784:
523:
379:
61:
1846:
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1567:
1163:
743:
420:
48:
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1989:
1931:
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1492:
1447:
1376:
1218:
1125:
1115:
976:
511:
473:
469:
1762:
665:
equipment that removes this emulsified oil to various degrees of effectiveness.
64:
ovens; and the cold end handles the product-inspection and packaging equipment.
1959:
1772:
1717:
1697:
1622:
1607:
1482:
1467:
1432:
1355:
1350:
1308:
1208:
1148:
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526:
of using a component (the reused container) of unknown and unqualified safety.
366:
346:
326:
93:
1532:
1017:
2119:
2069:
2039:
2019:
2004:
1969:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1841:
1777:
1677:
1632:
1617:
1512:
1298:
1283:
1223:
1213:
1110:
1105:
1070:
728:
703:
673:
586:
416:
248:
at a slow, controlled rate by the batch processing system. The furnaces are
2044:
2034:
2014:
1974:
1926:
1871:
1851:
1722:
1642:
1497:
1442:
1437:
1303:
1278:
1243:
1238:
1228:
1168:
965:
677:
598:
519:
428:
423:. Tin based systems are not the only ones used, although the most popular.
44:
1387:
488:
Glass containers are packaged in various ways. Popular in Europe are bulk
1999:
1984:
1896:
1886:
1782:
1542:
1253:
1188:
1183:
1065:
758:
733:
723:
550:
352:
Furnaces, compressors, and forming machines generate large quantities of
249:
237:
40:
2029:
1692:
1597:
1263:
1085:
610:
555:
541:) is hard to say; conclusive lifecycle studies are yet to be produced.
452:
353:
342:
92:
fixpoints, applicable to large-scale glass production and experimental
2084:
2009:
1994:
1752:
1737:
1657:
1577:
1552:
1502:
1345:
1336:
1198:
1158:
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718:
538:
477:
89:
403:
Glass containers typically receive two surface coatings, one at the
1293:
763:
650:
439:
435:
296:
253:
805:
High temperature glass melt property database for process modeling
577:
made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically
476:
paint, which is then baked on. An example of this is the original
2104:
2079:
1979:
1612:
1522:
1517:
1487:
698:
639:
530:
1732:
1627:
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489:
74:
2089:
2049:
2024:
1672:
1547:
1477:
574:
419:
is applied either using a safe organic compound or inorganic
211:
Annealing point (Stress is relieved within several minutes.)
27:"Glassworks" redirects here. For the Philip Glass work, see
1331:
582:
578:
431:
357:
towers arranged to allow for backup during maintenance.
222:
Strain point (Stress is relieved within several hours.)
67:
529:
How glass containers compare to other packaging types (
317:
on the "deadplate"; they're now ready for annealing.
127:
Melting point (glass melt homogenization and fining)
345:and a typical glass works will have several large
2117:
382:. An annealing oven (known in the industry as a
1047:
613:, who pioneered the technique (invented by Sir
593:are made from float glass. Most float glass is
138:Working point (pressing, blowing, gob forming)
1403:
1033:
609:, named after the British glass manufacturer
597:, but relatively minor quantities of special
54:
472:of the decoration onto the container with a
1417:
992:Industrial Chemistry: For Advanced Students
1410:
1396:
1040:
1026:
1683:Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano
988:
888:
620:
554:
341:Forming machines are largely powered by
295:
271:
232:
649:Most factories use water containing an
518:Of course glass containers can also be
459:
445:
407:, just before annealing and one at the
43:process that produces sheet glass, and
14:
2118:
995:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
989:Benvenuto, Mark Anthony (2015-02-24).
839:
837:
544:
1806:List of defunct glassmaking companies
1391:
1021:
360:
68:Batch processing system (batch house)
1075:
968:uses the float glass technique (see
916:
914:
884:
882:
858:
777:
834:
505:
320:
24:
1081:Extrusion / Drawing (glass fibers)
259:
25:
2142:
1076:Blowing and pressing (containers)
1013:
911:
891:Fundamentals of Inorganic Glasses
879:
635:and SOx air pollution, and dust.
88:The following table lists common
625:
240:feed doghouse of a glass furnace
39:involves two main methods â the
982:
434:, is applied via a water based
197:Glass transition temperature, T
171:Dilatometric softening Point, T
94:glass melting in the laboratory
950:
925:
817:
793:
653:oil to cool and lubricate the
561:Crystal Palace railway station
515:are usual in other countries.
13:
1:
1743:Sterlite Optical Technologies
1593:Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works
770:
411:just after annealing. At the
73:drying, or pre-heating (i.e.
1259:Machine drawn cylinder sheet
895:Harcourt Brace & Company
510:Glass containers are wholly
496:
483:
372:
7:
1372:Glossary of glass art terms
962:overflow downdraw technique
691:
398:
389:
10:
2147:
845:"The Blow and Blow Method"
548:
244:The batch is fed into the
228:
80:
55:Glass container production
26:
1945:
1814:
1796:
1423:
1364:
1317:
1139:
1056:
466:Applied Ceramic Labelling
304:container forming process
1533:Firozabad glass industry
1528:Fenton Art Glass Company
1289:Satsuma Kiriko cut glass
1101:Overflow downdraw method
1096:Precision glass moulding
1091:Drawing (optical fibers)
889:Varshneya, Arun (1994).
29:Glassworks (composition)
18:Glass container industry
1837:Irving Wightman Colburn
1418:Glass makers and brands
1342:Shock metamorphic glass
866:"Glass-Forming Machine"
754:Packaging and labelling
749:Irving Wightman Colburn
468:process (ACL). This is
293:final container shape.
276:Glass container forming
684:to be a dust problem.
567:
559:Use of float glass at
425:Titanium tetrachloride
415:a very thin layer of
305:
277:
241:
1902:Henry William Stiegel
1633:Mats Jonasson MÄlerÄs
1573:Holmegaard Glassworks
714:Boston round (bottle)
621:Environmental impacts
558:
299:
275:
236:
1877:Michael Joseph Owens
1453:Aurora Glass Foundry
1204:Cylinder blown sheet
460:Secondary processing
446:Inspection equipment
175:, depending on load
1965:Bomex/Duran/Endural
1882:Alastair Pilkington
1558:Guardian Industries
1463:Barovier & Toso
1327:Radiative processes
1142:historic techniques
1066:Float glass process
739:Glassmakers' symbol
615:Alastair Pilkington
545:Float glass process
1827:Richard M. Atwater
1648:Nippon Sheet Glass
1588:Kingdom of Crystal
1508:Dartington Crystal
1121:Chemical polishing
975:2008-02-01 at the
933:"Schott Borofloat"
803:and viscosity in:
709:Borosilicate glass
607:Pilkington process
603:flat panel display
568:
361:Internal treatment
331:individual section
306:
278:
242:
2113:
2112:
1922:Tomasz Urbanowicz
1912:Lino Tagliapietra
1907:S. Donald Stookey
1758:Val Saint Lambert
1653:NiĆŸbor glassworks
1568:Hardman & Co.
1385:
1384:
1319:Natural processes
1234:Fourcault process
893:. San Diego, CA:
524:product liability
226:
225:
16:(Redirected from
2138:
2126:Glass production
1862:Edward D. Libbey
1832:Frederick Carder
1412:
1405:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1049:Glass production
1042:
1035:
1028:
1019:
1018:
1007:
1006:
986:
980:
954:
948:
947:
945:
944:
935:. Archived from
929:
923:
918:
909:
908:
886:
877:
876:
874:
873:
862:
856:
855:
853:
852:
841:
832:
821:
815:
797:
791:
781:
744:History of glass
663:water processing
617:) in the 1950s.
585:and various low
506:Lifecycle impact
421:stannic chloride
321:Forming machines
99:
98:
49:history of glass
37:Glass production
21:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2109:
1947:
1941:
1932:John M. Whitall
1917:W. E. S. Turner
1810:
1798:
1792:
1773:Watts & Co.
1493:Caithness Glass
1425:
1419:
1416:
1386:
1381:
1377:Glass recycling
1360:
1313:
1219:Enamelled glass
1141:
1135:
1126:Diamond turning
1116:Flame polishing
1058:
1052:
1046:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1003:
987:
983:
977:Wayback Machine
955:
951:
942:
940:
931:
930:
926:
919:
912:
905:
897:. p. 518.
887:
880:
871:
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863:
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850:
848:
843:
842:
835:
822:
818:
802:
798:
794:
782:
778:
773:
768:
694:
669:Nitrogen oxides
628:
623:
595:sodaâlime glass
553:
547:
508:
499:
486:
474:vitreous enamel
470:screen-printing
462:
448:
401:
392:
375:
363:
336:gob distributor
323:
262:
260:Forming process
231:
200:
174:
112:
105:
83:
70:
57:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2144:
2134:
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2111:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2065:Satsuma Kiriko
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
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1718:Royal Brierley
1715:
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1698:PPG Industries
1695:
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1623:Johns Manville
1620:
1615:
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1608:Liuli Gongfang
1605:
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1483:Bormioli Rocco
1480:
1475:
1470:
1468:Berengo Studio
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1433:Anchor Hocking
1429:
1427:
1421:
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1415:
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1407:
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1392:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1379:
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1368:
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1362:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1356:Volcanic glass
1353:
1351:Vitrified sand
1348:
1339:
1334:
1332:Opal formation
1329:
1323:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1309:Tempered glass
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1274:Polished plate
1271:
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1015:
1014:External links
1012:
1009:
1008:
1001:
981:
970:Schott website
949:
924:
910:
903:
878:
857:
833:
831:, pp. 365â432.
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573:is a sheet of
549:Main article:
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367:dealkalization
362:
359:
343:compressed air
327:compressed air
322:
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310:press and blow
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2018:
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2011:
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1937:Caspar Wistar
1935:
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1867:Dante Marioni
1865:
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1858:
1857:Deming Jarves
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
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1843:
1842:Henry Crimmel
1840:
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1778:World Kitchen
1776:
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1678:Owens Corning
1676:
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1299:Stained glass
1297:
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1284:Rippled glass
1282:
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1224:Flashed glass
1222:
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1097:
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1072:
1071:Fritted glass
1069:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1061:
1055:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1004:
1002:9783110351705
998:
994:
993:
985:
978:
974:
971:
967:
963:
960:is using the
959:
953:
939:on 2009-05-05
938:
934:
928:
922:
921:zbindendesign
917:
915:
906:
904:0-12-714970-8
900:
896:
892:
885:
883:
867:
861:
846:
840:
838:
830:
829:3-527-20112-2
826:
820:
814:
813:1-57498-225-7
810:
806:
796:
790:
789:3-540-57572-3
786:
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762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
729:Glass disease
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
704:Blow moulding
702:
700:
697:
696:
689:
687:
681:
679:
678:Sulfur oxides
675:
674:liquid oxygen
670:
666:
664:
660:
656:
652:
647:
643:
641:
636:
634:
626:Local impacts
618:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
587:melting point
584:
580:
576:
572:
566:
562:
557:
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542:
540:
536:
532:
527:
525:
521:
516:
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481:
479:
475:
471:
467:
457:
454:
443:
441:
437:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
417:tin(IV) oxide
414:
410:
406:
396:
387:
385:
381:
370:
368:
358:
355:
350:
348:
344:
339:
337:
332:
328:
318:
314:
311:
303:
302:blow and blow
300:Steps during
298:
294:
290:
286:
285:final shape.
282:
274:
270:
266:
257:
255:
251:
247:
239:
235:
221:
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210:
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100:
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91:
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78:
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65:
63:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
1975:Chevron bead
1927:Paolo Venini
1872:Antonio Neri
1852:A. H. Heisey
1763:Vallérysthal
1723:Saint-Gobain
1643:Mosser Glass
1473:Blenko Glass
1443:Ardagh Group
1438:Arc Holdings
1304:Studio glass
1279:Porous glass
1244:Glass mosaic
1229:Forest glass
1140:Artistic and
1048:
991:
984:
952:
941:. Retrieved
937:the original
927:
890:
870:. Retrieved
860:
849:. Retrieved
819:
804:
795:
779:
685:
682:
667:
659:shear blades
658:
654:
648:
644:
637:
629:
606:
599:borosilicate
570:
569:
528:
517:
509:
500:
487:
465:
463:
449:
429:polyethylene
412:
408:
404:
402:
393:
376:
364:
351:
340:
335:
330:
324:
315:
309:
307:
301:
291:
287:
283:
279:
267:
263:
243:
116:Description
87:
84:
71:
58:
45:glassblowing
36:
35:
33:
2000:Dragontrail
1985:CorningWare
1897:Otto Schott
1887:Flavio Poli
1815:Glassmakers
1783:Xinyi Glass
1728:Saint-Louis
1638:Moser Glass
1538:Franz Mayer
1254:Lampworking
1194:Crown glass
1189:Cased glass
1184:Caneworking
1179:Broad sheet
1174:Blown plate
847:. Eurotherm
759:Wine bottle
734:Glass Queen
724:Float glass
581:, although
571:Float glass
551:Float glass
347:compressors
250:natural gas
149:Flow point
41:float glass
2131:Containers
2120:Categories
2030:Millefiori
1948:and brands
1946:Trademarks
1822:John Adams
1693:Pilkington
1598:Kosta Boda
1264:Millefiori
1164:Beadmaking
1086:Glass wool
1059:techniques
1057:Commercial
1051:techniques
943:2011-03-26
872:2013-05-20
851:2013-05-20
771:References
651:emulsified
611:Pilkington
512:recyclable
453:refractory
354:waste heat
106:(η, Pa·s)
2095:Waterford
2085:Vitrolite
2060:Ravenhead
2010:Fire-King
1995:Cristallo
1990:Cranberry
1847:Friedrich
1799:companies
1768:Waterford
1753:Swarovski
1688:Phu Phong
1658:O-I Glass
1578:Holophane
1553:Glaverbel
1503:Crystalex
1426:companies
1346:Impactite
1337:Sea glass
1249:Glassware
1209:Engraving
1199:Cut glass
1159:Glass art
1154:Art glass
1149:Äina-kÄri
719:Drinkware
539:aluminium
535:cardboard
497:Marketing
493:shipped.
484:Packaging
478:Coca-Cola
380:annealing
373:Annealing
90:viscosity
62:annealing
1960:Bohemian
1892:Salviati
1703:Preciosa
1668:Orrefors
1563:Hadeland
1458:Baccarat
1294:Slumping
1106:Pressing
973:Archived
964:, while
868:. Farlex
764:Cage cup
692:See also
657:cutting
480:bottle.
440:conveyor
436:emulsion
409:cold end
399:Coatings
390:Cold end
254:fuel oil
194:12â13.3
191:11â12.3
2105:Zerodur
2080:Vitrite
2075:Visions
2070:Tiffany
2040:Opaline
2020:Gorilla
2005:Favrile
1980:Corelle
1970:Burmese
1797:Defunct
1788:Zwiesel
1748:Steuben
1618:Luoyang
1613:Iittala
1523:Fanavid
1518:Duralex
1498:Corning
1488:Borosil
1424:Current
1365:Related
1214:Etching
1169:Blowing
1131:Rolling
1111:Casting
958:Corning
699:Mirrors
591:windows
531:plastic
490:pallets
413:hot end
405:hot end
308:In the
246:furnace
229:Furnace
113:(η, P)
81:Hot end
2100:Wood's
2045:Peking
2035:Murano
2015:Forest
1738:Schott
1733:Seguso
1708:Riedel
1628:Mannok
1603:Libbey
1269:Mirror
1239:Fusing
999:
966:Schott
901:
827:
811:
787:
686:Cullet
565:London
520:reused
75:cullet
2090:Vycor
2050:Pyrex
2025:Macor
1955:Activ
1673:Osram
1663:Ohara
1548:Glava
1543:Fuyao
1478:Bodum
1448:Asahi
575:glass
252:- or
238:Batch
219:14.5
216:13.5
183:11.5
180:10.5
168:9â11
165:8â10
2055:Rona
1713:Rona
1583:Hoya
1513:Daum
997:ISBN
899:ISBN
825:ISBN
809:ISBN
785:ISBN
601:and
583:lead
384:lehr
157:7.6
154:6.6
655:gob
640:dBA
633:NOx
579:tin
432:wax
208:13
205:12
109:log
102:log
2122::
979:).
913:^
881:^
836:^
563:,
537:,
533:,
146:5
143:4
135:4
132:3
124:2
121:1
111:10
104:10
96::
51:.
1411:e
1404:t
1397:v
1344:/
1041:e
1034:t
1027:v
1005:.
946:.
907:.
875:.
854:.
801:d
199:g
173:d
31:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
