Unification of Germany

3832: 3659: 3722: 3693: 3664: 3720: 3828: 3682: 3678: 3831: 3807: 2672:. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty; and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary. 3703: 3685: 2487:. Instead, modern historians claim 1848 saw specific achievements by the liberal politicians. Many of their ideas and programs were later incorporated into Bismarck's social programs (e.g., social insurance, education programs, and wider definitions of suffrage). In addition, the notion of a distinctive path relies upon the underlying assumption that some other nation's path (in this case, the United Kingdom's) is the accepted norm. This new argument further challenges the norms of the British-centric model of development: studies of national development in Britain and other "normal" states (e.g., France or the United States) have suggested that even in these cases, the modern nation-state did not develop evenly. Nor did it develop particularly early, being rather a largely mid-to-late-19th-century phenomenon. Since the end of the 1990s, this view has become widely accepted, although some historians still find the 3740: 3382:

create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first, thus forcing states allied with the "victim" of external aggression to come to the leader's aid. Finally, as Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria, Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation (or among the German states generally) capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression. In 1866, most mid-sized German states had opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia. If a European state declared war on one of their members, then they all would come to the defense of the attacked state. With skilful manipulation of European politics, Bismarck created a situation in which France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs, while Prussia would play that of the protector of German rights and liberties.

3721: 3717: 3710: 3667: 3496: 3670: 3742: 3695: 3815: 3719: 763: 181: 3725: 3805: 3113: 4126: 4701: 1980: 380: 2396: 241: 3783: 253: 4615:(bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the imperial chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. The Imperial Diet had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills, but it could not initiate legislation. (The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor.) The other states retained their own governments, but the military forces of the smaller states came under Prussian control. The militaries of the larger states (such as the Kingdoms of 4014: 2771:"iron and blood" (or "blood and iron", as often attributed), have often been misappropriated as evidence of a German lust for blood and power. First, the phrase from his speech "the great questions of time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions" is often interpreted as a repudiation of the political process—a repudiation Bismarck did not himself advocate. Second, his emphasis on blood and iron did not imply simply the unrivaled military might of the Prussian army but rather two important aspects: the ability of the assorted German states to produce iron and other related war materials and the willingness to use those war materials if necessary. 3840: 3811: 4273: 4245: 4217: 2096: 3823: 277: 2657:

path of duty, to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed." Garibaldi looked to Germany for the "kind of leadership , in the true tradition of medieval chivalry, would devote itself to redressing wrongs, supporting the weak, sacrificing momentary gains and material advantage for the much finer and more satisfying achievement of relieving the suffering of our fellow men. We need a nation courageous enough to give us a lead in this direction. It would rally to its cause all those who are suffering wrong or who aspire to a better life and all those who are now enduring foreign oppression."

3702: 289: 4336: 157: 145: 120: 4360: 133: 4811: 3594:, the impact of the 1848 liberals, the importance of von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's strategic brilliance all played a part in political unification. "Einheit – unity – was achieved at the expense of Freiheit – freedom. The German Empire became," in Karl Marx's words, "a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police." Indeed, many historians would see Germany's "escape into war" in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870. 392: 1818: 1613: 4798:, in schools and education- and language-related policies. The Catholic Centre Party remained particularly well entrenched in the Catholic strongholds of Bavaria and southern Baden, and in urban areas that held high populations of displaced rural workers seeking jobs in the heavy industry, and sought to protect the rights not only of Catholics, but other minorities, including the Poles, and the French minorities in the Alsatian lands. The May Laws of 1873 brought the appointment of priests, and their education, under the control of the state, resulting in the closure of many seminaries, and a shortage of priests. The 4551: 3951: 1968: 301: 2504: 3438: 95: 4084: 4063: 4035: 368: 229: 325: 313: 2172:– in 1834 with Brunswick and with Oldenburg in 1836. The external tariffs on finished goods and overseas raw materials were below the rates of the Zollverein. Brunswick joined the Zollverein Customs Union in 1842, while Hanover and Oldenburg finally joined in 1854 After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were annexed by Prussia and thus annexed also to the Customs Union, while the two Mecklenburg states and the city states of Hamburg and Bremen joined late because they were reliant on international trade. The Mecklenburgs joined in 1867, while Bremen and 4426: 4405: 428: 3729: 3652: 4384: 3979: 3537:. "In the days after Sedan, Prussian envoys met with the French and demanded a large cash indemnity as well as the cession of Alsace and Lorraine. All parties in France rejected the terms, insisting that any armistice be forged "on the basis of territorial integrity." France, in other words, would pay reparations for starting the war, but would, in Jules Favre's famous phrase, "cede neither a clod of our earth nor a stone of our fortresses". The German High Command expected an overture of peace from the French, but the new republic refused to surrender. The Prussian army 1952: 1262: 3671: 4521: 1021: 2685: 356: 217: 47: 3413:, a prince of the Catholic cadet Hohenzollern line. The ensuing furor has been dubbed by historians as the Hohenzollern candidature. Over the next few weeks, the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe. Bismarck encouraged Leopold to accept the offer. A successful installment of a Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen king in Spain would mean that two countries on either side of France would both have German kings of Hohenzollern descent. This may have been a pleasing prospect for Bismarck, but it was unacceptable to either Napoleon III or to 3762: 169: 3895: 3680: 3147: 1726: 3923: 265: 4189: 3673: 4632: 4315: 3707: 337: 3417:, his minister of foreign affairs. Gramont wrote a sharply formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm, as head of the Hohenzollern family, stating that if any Hohenzollern prince should accept the crown of Spain, the French government would respond—although he left ambiguous the nature of such response. The prince withdrew as a candidate, thus defusing the crisis, but the French ambassador to Berlin would not let the issue lie. He approached the Prussian king directly while Wilhelm was vacationing in 205: 4447: 3724: 4168: 4105: 3570:

Schleswig-Holstein Question, they both proved equally diligent in doing so. After the victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia began internally asserting its authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests, while Austria began directing more and more of its attention to possessions in the Balkans. The victory over France in 1871 expanded Prussian hegemony in the German states (aside from Austria) to the international level. With the proclamation of Wilhelm as

2383:, a permanent national parliament, and a unified Germany, possibly under the leadership of the Prussian king. This seemed to be the most logical course since Prussia was the strongest of the German states, as well as the largest in geographic size. Meanwhile, center-right revolutionaries sought some kind of expanded suffrage within their states and potentially, a form of loose unification. Finally, the Polish majority living in the share of Polish territory annexed by Prussia 2907:, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the three independent duchies. The German Confederation could use the ethnicities of the area as a rallying cry: Holstein and Lauenburg were largely of German origin and spoke German in everyday life, while Schleswig had a significant Danish population and history. Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the 2955: 2304: 2802: 193: 3698: 404: 416: 4505: 2535:—a federation of German states, excluding Austria—by the free agreement of the German princes. This limited union under Prussia would have almost eliminated Austrian influence on the other German states. Combined diplomatic pressure from Austria and Russia (a guarantor of the 1815 agreements that established European spheres of influence) forced Prussia to relinquish the idea of the Erfurt Union at a meeting in the small town of 9444: 4968: 4489: 3674: 3451:

allies—particularly the southern German states of Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria—would join in the cause. This hope would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states militarily—if not happily—to fight against France. Instead of a war of revenge against Prussia, supported by various German allies, France engaged in a war against all of the German states without any allies of its own.

3709: 3801: 7127:(The Foundation of the Empire, 1871), Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online, accessed 2008-12-22. German text translated: on the wishes of Wilhelm I, on the 170th anniversary of the elevation of the House of Brandenburg to princely status on January 18, 1701, the assembled German princes and high military officials proclaimed Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Versailles Palace. 4865:

German cities in the thousands; considerably less educated and less affluent, their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews. Many of the problems related to poverty (such as illness, overcrowded housing, unemployment, school absenteeism, refusal to learn German, etc.) emphasized their distinctiveness for not only the Christian Germans, but for the local Jewish populations as well.

3658: 3727: 2603:": Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria, with each power having a geographic sphere of influence. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. Russia's included the eastern regions of Central Europe and a balancing influence in the Balkans. Austria's sphere expanded throughout much of the Central European territories formerly held by the 2065:: the focus of German nationalism lay in the education of the people; once the populace was educated as to what was needed, they would accomplish it. The Hambach rhetoric emphasized the overall peaceable nature of German nationalism: the point was not to build barricades, a very "French" form of nationalism, but to build emotional bridges between groups. As he had done in 1819, after the 3734: 2087:(the people), if properly educated, would bring about unification on their own. Grand speeches, flags, exuberant students, and picnic lunches did not translate into a new political, bureaucratic, or administrative apparatus. While many spoke about the need for a constitution, no such document appeared from the discussions. In 1848, nationalists sought to remedy that problem. 2433:

held a fundamental distaste for the idea of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament: he would not accept a crown of "clay". Despite franchise requirements that often perpetuated many of the problems of sovereignty and political participation liberals sought to overcome, the Frankfurt Parliament did manage to draft a constitution and reach an agreement on the

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Rail travel changed how cities looked and how people traveled. Its impact reached throughout the social order, affecting the highest born to the lowest. Although some of the outlying German provinces were not serviced by rail until the 1890s, the majority of the population, manufacturing centers, and production centers were linked to the rail network by 1865.

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Natural factors included widespread drought in the early 1830s, and again in the 1840s, and a food crisis in the 1840s. Further complications emerged as a result of a shift in industrialization and manufacturing; as people sought jobs, they left their villages and small towns to work during the week in the cities, returning for a day and a half on weekends.

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guarantee the future stability of the international community. Let us hope, then, that you can use your energy to overcome your moth-eaten thirty tyrants of the various German states. Let us hope that in the center of Europe you can then make a unified nation out of your fifty millions. All the rest of us would eagerly and joyfully follow you."

4895:(1817–1895), to name two. Dahlmann himself died before unification, but he laid the groundwork for the nationalist histories to come through his histories of the English and French revolutions, by casting these revolutions as fundamental to the construction of a nation, and Dahlmann himself viewed Prussia as the logical agent of unification. 3787: 2188:, the military roads previously maintained for the ease of moving troops. As German states ceased to be a military crossroads, however, the roads improved; the length of hard–surfaced roads in Prussia increased from 3,800 kilometers (2,400 mi) in 1816 to 16,600 kilometers (10,300 mi) in 1852, helped in part by the invention of 1329:, who established control of the Romanized and Frankish population of Gaul in the 5th century, and began a new process of conquering the peoples east of the Rhine. In subsequent centuries the power of the Franks grew considerably. By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Europe had been united under the rule of the Frankish leader 3662: 1587:. Following the formal secession from the Empire of the majority of its constituent states, the Emperor dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. In his abdication, Francis released all former estates from their duties and obligations to him, and took upon himself solely the title of Emperor of Austria, which had been established since 1804. 4914:

nation-state; only Prussia could protect German liberties from being crushed by French or Russian influence. The story continues by drawing on Prussia's role in saving Germans from the resurgence of Napoleon's power in 1815, at Waterloo, creating some semblance of economic unity, and uniting Germans under one proud flag after 1871.

3797: 3561:); paid an indemnity, calculated (on the basis of population) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807; and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France, with "German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment". 2798:

more short-term opportunism and cynicism in Bismarck's manipulation of the circumstances to create a war, rather than a grand scheme to unify a nation-state. Regardless of motivation, by manipulating events of 1866 and 1870, Bismarck demonstrated the political and diplomatic skill that had caused Wilhelm to turn to him in 1862.

3814: 3421:, demanding that the King release a statement saying he would never support the installation of a Hohenzollern on the throne of Spain. Wilhelm refused to give such an encompassing statement, and he sent Bismarck a dispatch by telegram describing the French demands. Bismarck used the king's telegram, called the 3686: 2024:, which hampered intellectual leadership of the nationalist movement. Metternich was able to harness conservative outrage at the assassination to consolidate legislation that would further limit the press and constrain the rising liberal and nationalist movements. Consequently, these decrees drove the 5130:

Within the boundaries of present-day Germany... Germanic peoples such as the eastern Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, Alemanni, and Bavarians—all speaking West Germanic dialects—had merged Germanic and borrowed Roman cultural features. It was among these groups that a German language and ethnic

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combined against France to great effect. The speed of Prussian mobilization astonished the French, and the Prussian ability to concentrate power at specific points—reminiscent of Napoleon I's strategies seventy years earlier—overwhelmed French mobilization. Utilizing their efficiently laid rail grid,

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began to focus attention on geographic space, not limiting "Germanness" to a common language. Schneckenburger wrote "The Watch on the Rhine" in a specific patriotic response to French assertions that the Rhine was France's "natural" eastern boundary. In the refrain, "Dear fatherland, dear fatherland,

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Valley without having to unload and reload. Railway lines encouraged economic activity by creating demand for commodities and by facilitating commerce. In 1850, inland shipping carried three times more freight than railroads; by 1870, the situation was reversed, and railroads carried four times more.

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assassination, Metternich used the popular demonstration at Hambach to push conservative social policy. The "Six Articles" of 28 June 1832 primarily reaffirmed the principle of monarchical authority. On 5 July, the Frankfurt Diet voted for an additional 10 articles, which reiterated existing rules on

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laid the groundwork for additional scholarship on the study of the German nation, expanding the notion of "Germany" to mean other areas beyond Prussia. A liberal professor, historian, and theologian, and generally a titan among late 19th-century scholars, Mommsen served as a delegate to the Prussian

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By the years of unification, German Jews played an important role in the intellectual underpinnings of the German professional, intellectual, and social life. The expulsion of Jews from Russia in the 1880s and 1890s complicated integration into the German public sphere. Russian Jews arrived in north

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Opposition to Prussia's strong-armed tactics surfaced in other social and political groups. Throughout the German states, city councils, liberal parliamentary members who favored a unified state, and chambers of commerce—which would see great benefits from unification—opposed any war between Prussia

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to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies on 30 September 1862, shortly after he became Minister President: "The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood." Bismarck's words,

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disrupted relations among Great Britain, France, Austria, and Russia. In the aftermath of this disarray, the convergence of von Moltke's operational redesign, von Roon and Wilhelm's army restructure, and Bismarck's diplomacy influenced the realignment of the European balance of power. Their combined

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Crucially, both the Wartburg rally in 1817 and the Hambach Festival in 1832 had lacked any clear-cut program of unification. At Hambach, the positions of the many speakers illustrated their disparate agendas. Held together only by the idea of unification, their notions of how to achieve this did not

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provided for expressions of German unity. Military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly in the

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Victory in the Franco-Prussian War proved the capstone of the unification process. In the first half of the 1860s, Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states; both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German interests at home. In responding to the

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Valley—continued to support Austria. By late spring, most important states opposed Berlin's effort to reorganize the German states by force. The Prussian cabinet saw German unity as an issue of power and a question of who had the strength and will to wield that power. Meanwhile, the liberals in the

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in 1870. Historians have long debated Bismarck's role in the events leading up to the war. The traditional view, promulgated in large part by late 19th- and early 20th-century pro-Prussian historians, maintains that Bismarck's intent was always German unification. Post-1945 historians, however, see

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in 1859. This shuffling of authority within the Prussian military establishment would have important consequences. Von Roon and William (who took an active interest in military structures) began reorganizing the Prussian army, while Moltke redesigned the strategic defense of Prussia by streamlining

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the next month. He refused for a variety of reasons. Publicly, he replied that he could not accept a crown without the consent of the actual states, by which he meant the princes. Privately, he feared opposition from the other German princes and military intervention from Austria or Russia. He also

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In contrast, the coastal states already had barrier free access to international trade and did not want consumers and producers burdened with the import duties they would pay if they were within the Zollverein customs border. Hanover on the north coast formed its own customs union – the "Tax Union"

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on the heights above the small town of Hambach, in the Palatinate province of Bavaria. Carrying flags, beating drums, and singing, the participants took the better part of the morning and mid-day to arrive at the castle grounds, where they listened to speeches by nationalist orators from across the

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A common language may have been seen to serve as the basis of a nation, but as contemporary historians of 19th-century Germany noted, it took more than linguistic similarity to unify these several hundred polities. The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony

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held important gatherings in Frankfurt and Berlin during which German intellectuals developed their own form of republican intellectualism. Throughout the subsequent decades, beginning almost immediately after the defeat of the French, reaction against the mixing of Jews and Christians limited the

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River (Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia's sphere of influence. Austria's influence over the German states may have been broken, but the war also splintered the spirit of pan-German unity, as

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This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states, not their consolidation. Consequently, a German nation united under one banner presented significant questions. There was no readily applicable definition for who the German people would be or how far

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wrote that roads were the "veins and arteries of the body politic..." and predicted that they would promote freedom, independence and prosperity.As people moved around, they came into contact with others, on trains, at hotels, in restaurants, and for some, at fashionable resorts such as the spa in

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valleys. States more distant from the coast joined the Customs Union earlier. Not being a member mattered more for the states of south Germany, since the external tariff of the Customs Union prevented customs-free access to the coast (which gave access to international markets). Thus, by 1836, all

2125:. No amount of censorship, fines, imprisonment, or banishment, it seemed, could stem the criticism. Furthermore, it was becoming increasingly clear that both Austria and Prussia wanted to be the leaders in any resulting unification; each would inhibit the drive of the other to achieve unification. 2108:

in the German states. The man-made factors included political rivalries between members of the German confederation, particularly between the Austrians and the Prussians, and socio-economic competition among the commercial and merchant interests, and the old land-owning and aristocratic interests.

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The first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of

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or "Greater German Solution", which would have included Austria. Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories, however much these might have boosted morale. It also required a rethinking of political, social, and cultural behaviors and the construction of new

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in 1871. While the conditions of the treaties binding the various German states to one another prohibited Bismarck from taking unilateral action, the politician and diplomat in him realized the impracticality of this. To get the German states to unify, Bismarck needed a single, outside enemy that

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on 10 April 1865, "The progress of humanity seems to have come to a halt, and you with your superior intelligence will know why. The reason is that the world lacks a nation possesses true leadership. Such leadership, of course, is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the

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often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation, but his regime did not create German nationalism: it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day. Furthermore, this argument maintains, the

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territories. Over the ensuing thirty years (and more) other German states joined. The Union helped to reduce protectionist barriers between the German states, especially improving the transport of raw materials and finished goods, making it both easier to move goods across territorial borders and

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Bismarck had "cut his teeth" on German politics, and German politicians, in Frankfurt: a quintessential politician, Bismarck had built his power-base by absorbing and co-opting measures from throughout the political spectrum. He was first and foremost a politician, and in this lied his strength.

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By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro-Prussian war had become apparent. The first lesson was that, through force of arms, a powerful state could challenge the old alliances and spheres of influence established in 1815. Second, through diplomatic maneuvering, a skilful leader could

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signed a secret agreement with the Italian government, committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria. The next day, the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a national constitution, a directly elected national Diet, and universal suffrage.

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nearly ruined the Central European economy. The invasion of Russia included nearly 125,000 troops from German lands, and the loss of that army encouraged many Germans, both high- and low-born, to envision a Central Europe free of Napoleon's influence. The creation of student militias such as the

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The remainder of the letter exhorts the Germans to unification: "This role of world leadership, left vacant as things are today, might well be occupied by the German nation. You Germans, with your grave and philosophic character, might well be the ones who could win the confidence of others and

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in 1835. Although it was 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) long and only operated in daylight, it proved both profitable and popular. Within three years, 141 kilometers (88 mi) of track had been laid, by 1840, 462 kilometers (287 mi), and by 1860, 11,157 kilometers (6,933 mi). Lacking a

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If the Wartburg and Hambach rallies had lacked a constitution and administrative apparatus, that problem was addressed between 1867 and 1871. Yet, as Germans discovered, grand speeches, flags, and enthusiastic crowds, a constitution, a political reorganization, and the provision of an imperial

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hypothesis attributed their power to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the middle classes, or by peasants in combination with the urban workers, in 1848 and again in 1871. Recent research into the role of the Grand Bourgeoisie—which included bankers, merchants, industrialists, and

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is a simple alternative between Prussia and Austria. In these states, German life has its positive and negative poles—in the former, all the interests are national and reformative, in the latter, all that are dynastic and destructive. The German question is not a constitutional question but a

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the day before, helped to turn the tide of combat against the French. The Prussian cavalry pursued the defeated French in the evening of 18 June, sealing the allied victory. From the German perspective, the actions of Blücher's troops at Waterloo, and the combined efforts at Leipzig, offered a

4902:, published in 1879, has perhaps a misleading title: it privileges the history of Prussia over the history of other German states, and it tells the story of the German-speaking peoples through the guise of Prussia's destiny to unite all German states under its leadership. The creation of this 3221:

There is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, and each separately ruled by an independent sovereign with all the machinery of State. Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a

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The economic, social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people, the economic hardship of an economy in transition, and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe. The failure of most of the governments to deal with the food crisis of the

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Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th-century emergence in Imperial politics. This impractical solution did not reflect the new status of Prussia in the overall scheme. Although the Prussian army had been dramatically defeated in the 1806

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is the Latin name for Prussia) established Prussia as Germany's savior; it was the destiny of all Germans to be united, this myth maintains, and it was Prussia's destiny to accomplish this. According to this story, Prussia played the dominant role in bringing the German states together as a

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argued that national character reflected geographic influence, linking landscape to people. Concurrent with this idea, movements to preserve old fortresses and historic sites emerged, and these particularly focused on the Rhineland, the site of so many confrontations with France and Spain.

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The humiliating capture of the French emperor and the loss of the French army itself, which marched into captivity at a makeshift camp in the Saarland ("Camp Misery"), threw the French government into turmoil; Napoleon's energetic opponents overthrew his government and proclaimed the

4607:, the federal council of deputies from the states, in and over which Prussia had a powerful influence; Prussia could appoint 17 of 58 delegates with only 14 votes needed for a veto. Prussia thus exercised influence in both bodies, with executive power vested in the Prussian King as 3450:

Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial concessions from both sides before and after the Austro-Prussian War, but despite his role as mediator during the peace negotiations, he ended up with nothing. He then hoped that Austria would join in a war of revenge and that its former

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wrote guidebooks to different cities and regions of Central Europe, indicating places to stay, sites to visit, and giving a short history of castles, battlefields, famous buildings, and famous people. His guides also included distances, roads to avoid, and hiking paths to follow.

3749: 3668: 3855: 3002:, Bismarck created a diplomatic environment in which Austria declared war on Prussia. The dramatic prelude to the war occurred largely in Frankfurt, where the two powers claimed to speak for all the German states in the parliament. In April 1866, the Prussian representative in 1160:

took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia (Kingdom of Prussia) would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. This

1502:, outside of those ruled by the emperor directly, identified themselves mainly with their prince rather than with the Empire or the nation as a whole. However, by the 19th century, transportation and communications improvements started to bring these regions closer together. 3825: 3824: 3689: 4611:, who appointed the federal chancellor. The chancellor was accountable solely to, and served entirely at the discretion of, the Emperor. Officially, the chancellor functioned as a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the 2201:. Water transportation also improved. The blockades on the Rhine had been removed by Napoleon's orders, but by the 1820s, steam engines freed riverboats from the cumbersome system of men and animals that towed them upstream. By 1846, 180 steamers plied German rivers and 2121:) and several seasons of bad weather, encouraged many to think that the rich and powerful had no interest in their problems. Those in authority were concerned about the growing unrest, political and social agitation among the working classes, and the disaffection of the 3857: 3786: 3775: 3706: 4742:(1872–78) that followed political, economic, and administrative unification attempted to address, with a remarkable lack of success, some of the contradictions in German society. In particular, it involved a struggle over language, education, and religion. A policy of 3737: 4834:, Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges that their counterparts in other German-speaking territories did not: they could own land, for example, and they did not have to live in a Jewish quarter (also called the 3672: 1599:(1804–1814), popular German nationalism thrived in the reorganized German states. Due in part to the shared experience, albeit under French dominance, various justifications emerged to identify "Germany" as a potential future single state. For the German philosopher 3696: 3687: 3091:

and Austria. They believed any such conflict would only serve the interests of royal dynasties. Their own interests, which they understood as "civil" or "bourgeois", seemed irrelevant. Public opinion also opposed Prussian domination. Catholic populations along the

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geographically central organizing feature (such as a national capital), the rails were laid in webs, linking towns and markets within regions, regions within larger regions, and so on. As the rail network expanded, it became cheaper to transport goods: in 1840, 18

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underground, restricted the publication of nationalist materials, expanded censorship of the press and private correspondence, and limited academic speech by prohibiting university professors from encouraging nationalist discussion. The decrees were the subject of

3808: 3657: 3716: 3318:

offered lenient terms to Austria but its relationship with the new nation-state of Italy underwent major restructuring. Although the Austrians were far more successful in the military field against Italian troops, the monarchy lost the important province of

3071:), supported complete demobilization within the Confederation. These individual governments rejected the potent combination of enticing promises and subtle (or outright) threats Bismarck used to try to gain their support against the Habsburgs. The Prussian 1797:), meaning that large portions of both Prussia and Austria were left outside. In recognition of the imperial position traditionally held by the Habsburgs, the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament. Despite the nomenclature of 3747: 3663: 3741: 3635:

Though often characterized as a federation of monarchs, the German Empire, strictly speaking, federated a group of 26 constituent entities with different forms of government, ranging from the main four constitutional monarchies to the three republican

3441:

Emperor Napoleon III (left) at Sedan, on 2 September 1870, seated next to Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, holding Napoleon's surrendered sword. The defeat of the French army destabilized Napoleon's regime; a revolution in Paris established the

3675: 3691: 1935:, shifted political, social, and cultural relationships within the German states. In this context, one can detect its roots in the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period. Furthermore, implicit and sometimes explicit promises made during the 3791: 3769: 2753:

agendas established Prussia as the leading German power through a combination of foreign diplomatic triumphs—backed up by the possible use of Prussian military might—and an internal conservatism tempered by pragmatism, which came to be known as

2452:

Scholars of German history have engaged in decades of debate over how the successes and failures of the Frankfurt Parliament contribute to the historiographical explanations of German nation building. One school of thought, which emerged after

2647:

Other nationalists had high hopes for the German unification movement, and the frustration with lasting German unification after 1850 seemed to set the national movement back. Revolutionaries associated national unification with progress. As

1425:. Among the German-speaking states, the Holy Roman Empire's administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords, between jurisdictions, and within jurisdictions. Through the organization of 3326:

The end of Austrian dominance of the German states shifted Austria's attention to the Balkans. The reality of defeat for Austria also caused a reevaluation of internal divisions, local autonomy, and liberalism. In 1867, the Austrian emperor

2475:(distinctive path) of 20th-century German history. Failure to achieve unification in 1848, this argument holds, resulted in the late formation of the nation-state in 1871, which in turn delayed the development of positive national values. 2074:

led half of the Bavarian army to the Palatinate to "subdue" the province. Several hapless Hambach speakers were arrested, tried and imprisoned; one, Karl Heinrich Brüggemann (1810–1887), a law student and representative of the secretive

2008:

in 1817 the first real movements among the students were formed – fraternities and student organizations emerged. The colors black, red and gold were symbolic of this. Agitation by student organizations led such conservative leaders as

3202:

and his troops arrived late, and in the wrong place. Once he arrived, however, he ordered his troops immediately into the fray. The battle was a decisive victory for Prussia and forced the Habsburgs to end the war with the unfavorable

4840:, or "Jews' alley"). They could also attend universities and enter the professions. During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, many of the previously strong barriers between Jews and Christians broke down. Napoleon had ordered the 3827: 3826: 3700: 3011:(State Parliament), a relationship characterized by Bismarck's cajoling and riding roughshod over the representatives. These skeptics saw the proposal as a ploy to enhance Prussian power rather than a progressive agenda of reform. 3780: 3135:. France promised aid, but it came late and was insufficient. Complicating the situation for Austria, the Italian mobilization on Austria's southern border required a diversion of forces away from battle with Prussia to fight the 3812: 3796: 1530:

secularized the ecclesiastical principalities and abolished most free imperial cities and these territories along with their inhabitants were absorbed by dynastic states. This transfer particularly enhanced the territories of

1489:

and the non-German-speaking entire territory of the Prussian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) as well as the German-speaking Swiss cantons were outside of the Imperial borders. This became known as the practice of

3750: 3745: 3683: 1498:("small-statery") As a further consequence, there was no German national identity in development as late as 1800, mainly due to the highly autonomous or semi-independent nature of the princely states; most inhabitants of the 1244:

Despite undergoing in the later years several further changes of its name and borders, overhauls of its constitutional system, periods of limited sovereignty and interrupted unity of its territory or government, and despite

2437:

solution. While the liberals failed to achieve the unification they sought, they did manage to gain a partial victory by working with the German princes on many constitutional issues and collaborating with them on reforms.

3545:, with the city being "ineffectually bombarded". Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells, 300–400 grenades daily into the city. On January 18, 1871, the German princes and senior military commanders 3733: 3704: 2358:

put your mind to rest / The watch stands true on the Rhine", and in such other patriotic poetry as Nicholaus Becker's "Das Rheinlied" ("The Rhine"), Germans were called upon to defend their territorial homeland. In 1807,

1781:. Its borders resembled those of its predecessor, the Holy Roman Empire (though there were some deviations e.g. Prussian territory in the Confederation was extended to include also the formerly Polish territories of the 1140:, reduced competition between and within states. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict between and among German-speakers from throughout 3676: 3027:

in the southern regions; the Italians responded by ordering full mobilization. Despite calls for rational thought and action, Italy, Prussia, and Austria continued to rush toward armed conflict. On 1 May, Wilhelm gave

2099:

This drawing offered a satirical commentary on the prevalence of toll barriers in the many German states, circa 1834. Some states were so small that transporters loaded and reloaded their cargoes two and three times a

3821: 3819: 3818: 3817: 1919:

sought unification under nationalist principles, promoted the transition to capitalism, sought the expansion of male suffrage, among other issues. Their "radicalness" depended upon where they stood on the spectrum of

3401:, and the throne remained empty while Isabella lived in sumptuous exile in Paris. The Spanish, looking for a suitable Catholic successor, had offered the post to three European princes, each of whom was rejected by 1022: 2611:

the borders of a German nation would stretch. There was also uncertainty as to who would best lead and defend "Germany", however it was defined. Different groups offered different solutions to this problem. In the

1801:(Assembly or Parliament), this institution should in no way be construed as a broadly, or popularly, elected group of representatives. Many of the states did not have constitutions, and those that did, such as the 1665:. In October 1813, more than 500,000 combatants engaged in ferocious fighting over three days, making it the largest European land battle of the 19th century. The engagement resulted in a decisive victory for the 3813: 3715: 3669: 1963:

had sought refuge over three centuries earlier, to demonstrate in favor of national unification. Wartburg was chosen for its symbolic connection to German national character. Contemporary colored wood engraving

3822: 3820: 3816: 3694: 1461:

which effectively thwarted for centuries any serious attempts to reinforce the imperial central authority and petrified fragmentation, resulting in the German-speaking territories comprising on the eve of the

3806: 3788: 3711: 3708: 3660: 3834: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3830: 3829: 3690: 3684: 4692:

power had a counterweight in the western provinces in the form of the Grand Bourgeoisie and in the growing professional class of bureaucrats, teachers, professors, doctors, lawyers, scientists, etc.

1457:. Although they initially sought to restore central Imperial power, preserving a weak and fragmented Empire was convenient for France and Sweden, and therefore, their ensuing intervention led to the 3746: 3463:

Prussian troops were delivered to battle areas rested and prepared to fight, whereas French troops had to march for considerable distances to reach combat zones. After a number of battles, notably

2932:

two years later. The rifle enabled a Prussian soldier to fire five shots while lying prone, while its muzzle-loading counterpart could only fire one shot and had to be reloaded while standing. The

2546:

Although seemingly minor events, the Erfurt Union proposal and the Punctation of Olmütz brought the problems of influence in the German states into sharp focus. The question became not a matter of

4603:

of all males who had reached the age of 25. Furthermore, elections were generally free of chicanery, engendering pride in the national parliament. However, legislation required the consent of the

3810: 3389:. Over the following forty years, the great powers supported the Spanish monarchy, but events in 1868 would further test the old system, finally providing the external trigger needed by Bismarck. 3276:

lost some territory but kept its statehood. At the same time, the original East Prussian cradle of the Prussian statehood as well as the Prussian-held Polish- or Kashubian-speaking territories of

4762:), and the attempted creation of standardized curricula for those schools to promote and celebrate the idea of a shared past. Finally, it extended to the religion of the new Empire's population. 3127:

Although several German states initially sided with Austria, they stayed on the defensive and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops. The Austrian army therefore faced the

2539:

in Moravia. In November 1850, the Prussians—specifically Radowitz and Frederick William—agreed to the restoration of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. This became known as the

2061:

conservative to radical political spectrum. The overall content of the speeches suggested a fundamental difference between the German nationalism of the 1830s and the French nationalism of the

3809: 3842: 3785: 3784: 3744: 1915:("before March"), referring to March 1848. During this period, European liberalism gained momentum; the agenda included economic, social, and political issues. Most European liberals in the 3736: 3701: 2070:

censorship, restricted political organizations, and limited other public activity. Furthermore, the member states agreed to send military assistance to any government threatened by unrest.

3425:, as a template for a short statement to the press. With its wording shortened and sharpened by Bismarck—and further alterations made in the course of its translation by the French agency 1677:

came to an end. Success encouraged the Coalition forces to pursue Napoleon across the Rhine; his army and his government collapsed, and the victorious Coalition incarcerated Napoleon on

1124:

models of social and political organization; its German manifestation emphasized the importance of tradition, education, and linguistic unity. Economically, the creation of the Prussian

3699: 3697: 1653:

The debacle in Russia loosened the French grip on the German princes. In 1813, Napoleon mounted a campaign in the German states to bring them back into the French orbit; the subsequent

3804: 3798: 3853: 3848: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3739: 3714: 2151:

less costly to buy, transport, and sell raw materials. This was particularly important for the emerging industrial centers, most of which were located in the Prussian regions of the

1971:

Pro-nationalist participants march to the ruins of Hambach Castle in 1832. Students and some professionals, and their spouses, predominated. They carried the flag of the underground

3728: 3705: 2379:, for a parliamentary assembly that would have the responsibility to draft a constitution. Ultimately, many of the left-wing revolutionaries hoped this constitution would establish 3803: 3802: 2483:

More recent scholarship has rejected this idea, claiming that Germany did not have an actual "distinctive path" any more than any other nation, a historiographic idea known as

2134:, an institution key to unifying the German states economically, helped to create a larger sense of economic unification. Initially conceived by the Prussian Finance Minister 3856: 3792: 3743: 3738: 1842:

at the beginning of that century, their domains had steadily increased through inheritance and war. Prussia's consolidated strength had become especially apparent during the

3768: 3748: 3661: 2480:"failure" of 1848 reaffirmed latent aristocratic longings among the German middle class; consequently, this group never developed a self-conscious program of modernization. 2173: 4786:

in particular came under scrutiny; some Germans, and especially Bismarck, feared that the Catholics' connection to the papacy might make them less loyal to the nation. As

3586:, he had not done it alone. Unification was achieved by building on a tradition of legal collaboration under the Holy Roman Empire and economic collaboration through the 2733:

beginning in 1860 because both parliament and William—via his minister of war—wanted control over the military budget. William, crowned King Wilhelm I in 1861, appointed

799: 2782:. Bismarck sought to link a unified state to the Hohenzollern dynasty, which for some historians remains one of Bismarck's primary contributions to the creation of the 1884:" among common folk. Even after the end of the Holy Roman Empire, this competition influenced the growth and development of nationalist movements in the 19th century. 3841: 3782: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3776: 3765: 3753: 2349:"), Fallersleben called upon sovereigns throughout the German states to recognize the unifying characteristics of the German people. Such other patriotic songs as " 2411:, which weighted votes based on the amount of taxes paid and therefore gave some electoral groups—chiefly the wealthier, landed ones—greater representative power. 4623:) retained some autonomy, but they underwent major reforms to coordinate with Prussian military principles and came under federal government control in wartime. 985: 3835: 3833: 3295:

Through military victory, Prussia under Bismarck's influence had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany. The states south of the

3666: 2184:

By the early 19th century, German roads had deteriorated to an appalling extent. Travelers, both foreign and local, complained bitterly about the state of the

3849: 3847: 3846: 3723: 3766: 3839: 3772: 3718: 3851: 3836: 4879:

Another important element in nation-building, the story of the heroic past, fell to such nationalist German historians as the liberal constitutionalist

2668:

In the spring of 1834, while at Berne, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of

1433:), groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests, including economic cooperation and military protection. 3844: 3843: 3767: 3732: 3731: 3730: 2041:) (1820), in which he concluded that it was both impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures. 1571:, provided for the mediatization of over a hundred petty princes and counts and the absorption of their territories, as well as those of hundreds of 4802:

of 1875 abolished religious orders, ended state subsidies to the Catholic Church, and removed religious protections from the Prussian constitution.

3852: 1830:, it had made a spectacular comeback at Waterloo. Consequently, Prussian leaders expected to play a pivotal role in German politics. Ever since the 8940: 3838: 3837: 3795: 2936:

resulted in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria, and the two countries won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding

9623: 9479: 3582:

of 10 May 1871), which formally ended the war. Although Bismarck had led the transformation of Germany from a loose confederation into a federal

1370: 1098: 685: 4818:

towers 40 meters (131 ft) above the town of Rüdesheim. She holds a crown in her right hand and carries a sword at her side. The Niederwald

2252:

a few hours faster, and Metternich refused to ride in one at all. Others wondered if the railways were an "evil" that threatened the landscape:

5202: 2224:

called the railways and the Customs Union "Siamese Twins", emphasizing their important relationship to one another. He was not alone: the poet

3854: 3845: 3794: 3793: 3712: 2375:

sought unification of Germany under a single constitution. The revolutionaries pressured various state governments, particularly those in the

3770: 3735: 1185:, the greater Germany solution (Germany with Austria or its German-speaking part), ultimately settled in favor of the former solution in the 5175:. Studies Presented to International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions. Vol. LII. Bruxelles. 3007:

German liberals were justifiably skeptical of this plan, having witnessed Bismarck's difficult and ambiguous relationship with the Prussian

2861:

could guarantee Austria's sphere of influence in Central Europe, thus achieving Prussian hegemony in Germany and ending the dualism debate.

9537: 5070:

Furthermore, since he trusted neither Moltke nor Roon, he was reluctant to enter a military enterprise over which he would have no control.

4736:

is the creation of a national culture, frequently—although not necessarily—through deliberate national policy. In the new German nation, a

762: 9532: 4857:

in which they intentionally adopted German modes of dress and speech, working to insert themselves into the emerging 19th-century German

4787: 2056:, its participants celebrated fraternity, liberty, and national unity. Celebrants gathered in the town below and marched to the ruins of 1755:

Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the

1745: 1249:, the polity resulting from the unification process continues its existence, surviving until today in its contemporary form known as the 978: 4654:

hypothesis attributed Germany's difficult 20th century to the weak political, legal, and economic basis of the new empire. The Prussian

2307:

German linguistic area (green) and political boundaries around 1841 (grey) in comparison to the text's geographic references (bold blue)

5117: 3351:("Revenge for Sadova"), illustrating anti-Prussian sentiment in France—a problem that would accelerate in the months leading up to the 2896: 3771: 3627:

metaphors about "us" and "them". Who were the new members of this new nation? What did they stand for? How were they to be organized?

9633: 9230: 3764: 3574:, Prussia assumed the leadership of the new empire. The southern states became officially incorporated into a unified Germany at the 3104:

Frankfurt assembly saw German unity as a process of negotiation that would lead to the distribution of power among the many parties.

2688:

The convergence of leadership in politics and diplomacy by Bismarck, left, reorganization of the army and its training techniques by

2332: 2225: 949: 329: 4677:

and the industrial leadership (the latter particularly important in the Rhineland) in the ongoing development of the Second Empire.

3367:

in exchange for its neutrality in the war. These annexations did not happen, resulting in animosity from Napoleon towards Bismarck.

2232:, which he began with a list of commodities that had contributed more to German unity than politics or diplomacy. Historians of the 1991:

Despite considerable conservative reaction, ideas of unity joined with notions of popular sovereignty in German-speaking lands. The

1608:

continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole.

2899:

which replaced The Law of Sjælland and The Law of Jutland, which meant the new constitution applied to the Duchy of Schleswig. The

2875:

The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the Schleswig-Holstein Question. On 15 November 1863,

1773: 1690: 9488: 4684:

did, indeed, continue to control the officer corps, they did not dominate social, political, and economic matters as much as the

2323:, also assembled a compendium of folk tales and fables, which highlighted the story-telling parallels between different regions. 1366: 4830:

remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation-state. Since 1780, after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor

3429:—the Ems Dispatch raised an angry furor in France. The French public, still aggravated over the defeat at Sadová, demanded war. 2920:, but this proved futile. The Danes were no match for the combined Prussian and Austrian forces and their modern armaments. The 2623: 1097:'s foundation, although the legally meaningful events relevant to the accomplishment of unification occurred on 1 January 1871 ( 971: 317: 8144: 1073:

The process symbolically concluded when most of south German states joined the North German Confederation with the ceremonial

9828: 8875: 8850: 8816: 8798: 8770: 8714: 8510: 8411: 8299: 8275: 8240: 8210: 8188: 8154: 8021: 7994: 7967: 7937: 7910: 7840: 7820: 7801: 7741: 7691: 7672: 7532: 7498: 6969: 6908: 6646: 6586: 6525: 6420: 6255: 6187: 5562: 5481: 5295: 5221: 4986: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3075:

understood that its only supporters among the German states against the Habsburgs were two small principalities bordering on

2584: 2010: 1617: 811: 4680:

Additional studies of different groups in Wilhelmine Germany have all contributed to a new view of the period. Although the

4669:

entrepreneurs—in the construction of the new state has largely refuted the claim of political and economic dominance of the

4599:, which—in contrast to the parliament of Prussia—gave citizens representation on the basis of elections by direct and equal 1943:

and widespread participation in the political process, promises that largely went unfulfilled once peace had been achieved.

1220:

to reorganize their political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century. Reaction to Danish and

8933: 2588: 1552: 1109: 3800: 3799: 432: 10087: 9472: 9124: 4453: 4090: 4069: 3363:, Bismarck had let it be understood (or Napoleon had thought he understood) that France might annex parts of Belgium and 3332: 3309: 3199: 3117: 3084: 3080: 2635:

debate that had dominated the politics of the German states and Austro-Prussian diplomacy since the 1701 creation of the

1475: 817: 491: 341: 185: 161: 156: 149: 144: 6876: 10077: 9909: 9785: 9000: 3385:

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Metternich and his conservative allies had reestablished the Spanish monarchy under

2749: 576: 420: 17: 5673: 3495: 3222:

national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit.

10107: 9964: 9892: 9858: 8784: 8750: 8696: 8675: 8650: 8636: 8622: 8608: 8580: 8566: 8552: 8538: 8524: 8487: 8468: 8446: 8370: 8343: 8325: 8123: 8071: 7855: 7771: 7644: 7625: 7343: 7302: 7158: 6142: 6084: 6017: 5995: 5381: 5254: 4592: 3760: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3751: 3527: 3376: 3253: 3252:. Its former leading state, the Austrian Empire, was along with the majority of its allies excluded from the ensuing 3136: 2826: 1752:, which, in some cases, suppressed the aspirations of the various nationalities, including the Germans and Italians. 1102: 1074: 1048: 704: 691: 80: 76: 5109: 2020:

in March 1819 by a radical student seeking unification was followed on 20 September 1819 by the proclamation of the

1625:

contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands. The

9260: 4937: 4390: 3515:

appears in white. The Grand Duke of Baden stands beside Wilhelm, leading the cheers. Crown Prince Friedrich, later

1705:(18 June 1815). The critical role played by Blücher's troops, especially after having to retreat from the field at 1205: 835: 496: 305: 300: 7124: 6044: 5114: 1698: 9423: 9265: 8926: 5037:

crushed the pride many Prussians felt in their soldiers. During their Russian exile, several officers, including

3406: 3320: 2870: 2519:

in Frankfurt, during the meeting of the Parliament there, March 1848–49. The sword was intended to symbolize the

2220:

As important as these improvements were, they could not compete with the impact of the railway. German economist

1789:, while Austrian part was extended to include in the years 1818–1850 also the formerly Polish territories of the 3335:) in which he gave his Hungarian holdings equal status with his Austrian domains, creating the Dual Monarchy of 2240:, wrote: "The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway..." Not everyone greeted the 10082: 9802: 9797: 9465: 9250: 9145: 4874: 4827: 3542: 2408: 2384: 2372: 1906: 1877: 1847: 1556: 245: 1809:

on strict property requirements which effectively limited suffrage to a small portion of the male population.

1112:

in 1806, the German-speaking people of the old Empire had a common linguistic, cultural, and legal tradition.

9812: 9275: 9033: 4919: 4831: 3755: 3754: 3516: 2845:

of 1866. Finally, France—fearing Hohenzollern encirclement—declared war on Prussia in 1870, resulting in the

2738: 2447: 1905:

The period of Austrian and Prussian police-states and vast censorship between the Congress of Vienna and the

1863: 1385:). The states of the Holy Roman Empire ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely 1197: 1121: 516: 408: 4844:

throughout territories under French hegemony. Like their French counterparts, wealthy German Jews sponsored

9873: 9718: 9592: 5001: 4880: 3575: 3459: 2854: 2713: 2693: 2660:

German unification had also been viewed as a prerequisite for the creation of a European federation, which

1620:, erected for the centennial in 1913, honors the efforts of the German people in the victory over Napoleon. 1241:, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. 859: 2778:

had shifted from the liberal and democratic character of 1848 to accommodate Bismarck's more conservative

1866:

tried to restore Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick countered with the creation of the

9989: 9748: 9679: 9270: 9214: 8667: 4673:

as a social group. This newer scholarship has demonstrated the importance of the merchant classes of the

4366: 3190:

A quick peace was essential to keep Russia from entering the conflict on Austria's side. In the day-long

2818: 2407:

Their pressure resulted in a variety of elections, based on different voting qualifications, such as the

2001:

Castle in October 1817, contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe.

1626: 1515: 1250: 1082: 1047:' multi-ethnic Austria or its German-speaking part). It commenced on 18 August 1866 with adoption of the 293: 51: 9235: 6847: 3112: 2030: 1782: 1204:

of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the

550: 10102: 10097: 9780: 9753: 9305: 9043: 9016: 7898: 4342: 3579: 3550: 3285: 3019:

The debate over the proposed national constitution became moot when news of Italian troop movements in

1670: 1654: 1564: 1544: 1394: 1377:

to the south and west by the late 15th century, but also to emphasize the new importance of the German

1226: 1201: 1052: 713: 281: 99: 94: 1156:

leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiators at

9618: 9340: 9255: 9165: 7875:

The History of Europe from 1862–1914: From the Accession of Bismarck to the Outbreak of the Great War

4596: 4588: 4432: 3774: 3773: 3328: 3292:, the new state obtained its own constitution, flag, and governmental and administrative structures. 3289: 3191: 3121: 2705: 2290:. The effects of the railway were immediate. For example, raw materials could travel up and down the 1876:

lay firmly rooted in old Imperial politics. Those balance of power manoeuvers were epitomized by the

1638: 1548: 1067: 695: 8995: 8051: 7721: 5050:

They traced the roots of the German language, and drew its different lines of development together..

3985: 3483:

and the French capital of Paris. They captured Napoleon III and took an entire army as prisoners at

3468: 2774:

By 1862, when Bismarck made his speech, the idea of a German nation-state in the peaceful spirit of

2575:

Unification under these conditions raised a basic diplomatic problem. The possibility of German (or

1539:. In 1806, after a successful invasion of Prussia and the defeat of Prussia at the joint battles of 1532: 1132:(customs union) in 1818, and its subsequent expansion to include other states of the Austria (under 372: 367: 10092: 9979: 9645: 9580: 9418: 9295: 6852: 5834: 5469: 4111: 3546: 3410: 3023:

and near the Venetian border reached Vienna in April 1866. The Austrian government ordered partial

2830: 2725: 2571:

question of power; and the Prussian monarchy is now wholly German, while that of Austria cannot be.

1827: 1821:

Boundaries of the German Confederation. Prussia is blue, Austria-Hungary yellow, and the rest grey.

1540: 1015: 907: 173: 168: 2914:

Initially, the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall known as the

2135: 787: 10042: 10032: 9974: 9914: 9760: 9587: 9570: 9361: 9240: 9174: 9116: 8913: 7665:

The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany

4924:

House of Representatives from 1863 to 1866 and 1873 to 1879; he also served as a delegate to the

4884: 3029: 2937: 2876: 2834: 2767: 2498: 2335:

expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity. In

2268: 1936: 1349:, along with some adjacent lands, had been in existence for over a thousand years; dating to the 1325:", based upon these ethnic designations, under the dominance of the western Franks starting with 901: 871: 853: 847: 533: 257: 233: 228: 197: 9154: 4991: 4799: 3616: 2540: 1422: 1208:

of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's

10072: 9770: 9553: 9310: 9285: 9196: 5331: 4700: 4411: 3472: 3414: 3386: 3315: 3269: 3245: 3204: 2904: 2858: 2717: 2583:

system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. The principal architects of this convention,

2527:

After the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded, Frederick William IV, under the influence of General

2420: 2359: 2341: 2236:

later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state; the patriotic novelist,

2118: 2114: 2071: 1790: 1710:

rallying point of pride and enthusiasm. This interpretation became a key building block of the

1600: 1281:(blue), besides a large number of small states (many of them too small to be shown on the map). 1186: 823: 500: 453: 8109: 4527: 1523: 427: 9919: 9775: 9597: 9507: 9290: 7734:

The Nation as a Local Metaphor: Württemberg, Imperial Germany, and National Memory, 1871–1918

6901:

Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the Nineteenth Century Habsburg Empire

6448: 6444: 4929: 4795: 4791: 4321: 4251: 3538: 3534: 3443: 3355:. The Austro-Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government. At a meeting in 2888: 2730: 2618: 2592: 2559: 2311:

As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors

2245: 2198: 1931:, stimulated by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period and initially allied with 1575:, by the Confederation's member-states. Several states were promoted to kingdoms such as the 1418: 1390: 1152:

in 1814–1815 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through

913: 895: 723: 520: 269: 240: 8908: 5104: 4643: 2627:("Greater Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the 9924: 9843: 9838: 9558: 9413: 9335: 9315: 9300: 9183: 9136: 9021: 4132: 4041: 4020: 3508: 3476: 3398: 3323:. The Habsburgs ceded Venetia to France, which then formally transferred control to Italy. 3273: 3249: 3052: 3048: 3032:

command over the Prussian armed forces, and the next day he began full-scale mobilization.

2933: 2900: 2701: 2617:("Lesser Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the 2429: 2415: 1979: 1843: 1802: 1786: 1760: 1730: 1536: 1527: 1373:(new title was adopted partly because the Empire lost most of its territories in Italy and 1246: 1145: 1137: 805: 793: 554: 541: 485: 396: 391: 384: 379: 180: 31: 9392: 2696:(right) placed Prussia among the most powerful states in European affairs after the 1860s. 1647: 8: 9904: 9713: 9667: 9638: 9356: 9280: 9205: 9192: 8617:, Contributions to the study of world history, no. 50. Westport, Conn., Greenwood, 1995. 7987:

The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service, Liberalism, and Social Reform in Baden, 1800–1850

5038: 5026: 4981: 4841: 4595:. With this constitution, the new Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the 4557: 3558: 3464: 3405:, who served as regional power-broker. Finally, in 1870 the Regency offered the crown to 3352: 3261: 3128: 2999: 2949: 2929: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2794: 2580: 2576: 2528: 2395: 2354: 2193: 2066: 2017: 1940: 1881: 1855: 1851: 1749: 1633:) at the cost of also Prussian-conquered Polish territories, as well as his campaigns on 1511: 1458: 1230: 1113: 781: 719: 709: 8559:

Blood and Iron: From Bismarck to Hitler the Von Moltke Family's Impact On German History

8441:. American university studies. Series IX, History, vol. 84. New York, Peter Lang, 1990. 7794:

Rethinking German History: Nineteenth-Century Germany and the Origins of the Third Reich

7525:

Germany's Transient Pasts: Preservation and the National Memory in the Twentieth Century

7458: 5939: 2857:'s military strategy, Prussia demonstrated that none of the European signatories of the 1261: 1099:

accession of South German states and constitutional adoption of the name "German Empire"

10037: 10004: 9969: 9848: 9765: 9743: 9723: 9689: 9381: 9068: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8172: 8039: 7709: 6857: 6232: 6224: 6207:(January 1988). "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg". 6130: 5196: 4892: 4616: 4600: 4195: 3929: 3901: 3257: 3230: 2998:

The second episode in Bismarck's unification efforts occurred in 1866. In concert with

2880: 2810: 2649: 2636: 2492: 2380: 2350: 1967: 1921: 1741: 1702: 1642: 1584: 1576: 1519: 1482: 1454: 1414: 1413:; ecclesiastical territories, also of varying sizes and influence, such as the wealthy 1402: 1398: 1361:

took power to rule East Francia in 919. The realm later in 962 made up the core of the

1346: 1278: 1221: 1149: 1086: 1063: 883: 841: 668: 572: 360: 355: 221: 216: 124: 119: 9457: 7930:

The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany

6641:(New ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 90–108, 324–333. 6517: 5335: 3432: 510: 54:

when the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg was merged into the Kingdom of Prussia on 1 July 1876

10024: 10009: 9885: 9853: 9807: 9325: 9245: 9088: 8990: 8881: 8871: 8846: 8822: 8812: 8794: 8780: 8766: 8746: 8710: 8692: 8671: 8646: 8632: 8618: 8604: 8590: 8576: 8562: 8548: 8534: 8520: 8506: 8498: 8483: 8464: 8442: 8407: 8376: 8366: 8339: 8321: 8295: 8271: 8246: 8236: 8206: 8184: 8150: 8119: 8067: 8017: 7990: 7963: 7933: 7906: 7878: 7851: 7836: 7816: 7797: 7767: 7737: 7687: 7668: 7640: 7621: 7565: 7538: 7528: 7494: 7349: 7339: 7308: 7298: 7154: 6965: 6904: 6642: 6582: 6521: 6416: 6251: 6236: 6183: 6148: 6138: 6080: 6013: 5991: 5615: 5568: 5558: 5487: 5477: 5387: 5377: 5291: 5260: 5250: 5217: 5176: 4845: 4783: 4639: 4620: 3957: 3512: 3455: 3277: 2925: 2884: 2850: 2814: 2734: 2729:

operational command. Prussian army reforms (especially how to pay for them) caused a

2721: 2689: 2628: 2604: 2005: 1778: 1686: 1662: 1658: 1580: 1499: 1471: 1467: 1446: 1362: 1270: 1266: 1193: 1056: 937: 925: 877: 829: 605: 580: 137: 132: 4853:

intellectual impact of these salons. Beyond the salons, Jews continued a process of

3479:, the Prussians defeated the main French armies and advanced on the primary city of 2271:, which was the first passenger or freight rail line in the German lands, connected 1629:(1806–07) resulting in his decision to re-establish a form of Polish statehood (the 10019: 9899: 9694: 9628: 9575: 9517: 9106: 9097: 8804: 8228: 8198: 8176: 8140: 7789: 7656: 7613: 7331: 7295:

Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change After Bismarck

6639:

Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany

6376: 6349: 6216: 6072: 5168: 4674: 4660: 4117: 3637: 3520: 3140: 3020: 2661: 2613: 2461:, maintains that the failure of German liberals in the Frankfurt Parliament led to 2045: 2021: 1984: 1486: 1450: 1426: 1374: 1358: 1350: 1286: 889: 865: 8689:

Schooling and Society: The Politics of Education in Prussia and Bavaria, 1750–1900

2825:

Three episodes proved fundamental to the unification of Germany. First, the death

2079:, was sent to Prussia, where he was first condemned to death, but later pardoned. 9999: 9994: 9662: 9522: 9502: 9408: 9387: 9374: 8968: 8963: 8889: 8830: 8720: 8707:

The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867

8439:

Modernizing Germany: Karl Biedermann's career in the kingdom of Saxony, 1835–1901

8417: 8384: 8349: 8305: 8287: 8254: 8216: 8160: 8113: 8094: 8077: 8027: 8000: 7973: 7955: 7943: 7916: 7886: 7861: 7777: 7759: 7747: 7697: 7573: 7546: 7504: 7357: 7316: 7164: 6975: 6914: 6652: 6592: 6426: 6408: 6261: 6243: 6193: 6156: 6121: 6090: 6023: 5623: 5576: 5495: 5395: 5301: 5268: 5227: 5184: 4888: 4755: 4612: 4174: 3622: 3504: 3484: 3336: 3068: 2596: 2567: 2062: 1956: 1839: 1764: 1756: 1706: 1666: 1630: 1612: 1572: 1463: 1382: 1378: 1334: 1274: 1273:(HRE) in 1789. The two biggest lands of the HRE were the German-speaking part of 1238: 1234: 1166: 1133: 1003: 505: 467: 459: 209: 46: 6380: 6360: 6337: 6204: 6175: 4948:

and the vitriolic text that Treitschke often employed in the publication of his

3146: 2441: 1717:

expounded by the pro-Prussian nationalist historians later in the 19th century.

1337:(Francia) in several directions including east of the Rhine, where he conquered 1093:

on 18 January 1871; the event was later celebrated as the customary date of the

9943: 9790: 9672: 9657: 9565: 9527: 9448: 9403: 9367: 8863: 8453:

German History, 1789–1871: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Bismarckian Reich.

8331: 7175: 6634: 6220: 4973: 4903: 4725:

superstructure; and the revised Customs Union of 1867–68, still did not make a

4495: 4279: 4223: 3265: 3060: 2892: 2632: 2484: 2403:

in Frankfurt, where they laid the groundwork for electing a National Parliament

2316: 2253: 2221: 2202: 2122: 2057: 1993: 1873: 1831: 1794: 1711: 1634: 1493: 1442: 1410: 1369:

and was called the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512 with the

1172: 1162: 1141: 1040: 919: 699: 664: 448: 403: 252: 6510: 5842:

Economic and Social History Series, Nuffield College, Oxford, Nuffield College

3044: 2558:

was contingent upon strength. One of the former Frankfurt Parliament members,

2499:

Problem of spheres of influence: The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz

1951: 1868: 1357:

from eastern Frankish Empire in east of the Rhine in 843, especially when the

10066: 9936: 9931: 9602: 9512: 9399: 9048: 8702: 8399: 8316:

Victoria and Albert Museum, Dept. of Prints and Drawings, and Susan Lambert.

8115:

One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups

6363:(February 1999). "Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: The Case of the German 5619: 5572: 5550: 5491: 5100: 4996: 4858: 4854: 4810: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4717: 4709: 4438: 3603: 3500: 2908: 2793:

to rally all Germans behind. This opportunity arose with the outbreak of the

2783: 2775: 2709: 2324: 2264:) bemoaned the way trains destroyed the pristine quietude of German forests. 2237: 2233: 2164:

states to the south of Prussia had joined the Customs Union, except Austria.

2139: 1960: 1946: 1859: 1674: 1596: 1180: 1094: 1090: 931: 731: 727: 676: 672: 647: 643: 634: 613: 609: 592: 588: 562: 558: 529: 479: 8885: 8834: 8826: 8380: 8250: 8081: 8031: 7781: 7577: 7542: 7361: 7168: 6353: 6160: 5399: 5391: 5272: 4664:, retained a substantial share of political power in the unified state. The 2704:

suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule. This led to his brother

2664:

and other European patriots had been promoting for more than three decades:

2599:), had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four " 2503: 9320: 9038: 8793:, Studies in Jewish history. New York, Wayne State University Press, 1987. 8724: 8421: 8388: 8309: 8268:

Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849

8258: 8220: 8164: 8098: 8004: 7977: 7947: 7920: 7890: 7882: 7865: 7751: 7729: 7701: 7589: 7508: 7353: 7320: 7312: 6979: 6918: 6656: 6596: 6430: 6265: 6197: 6094: 6027: 5627: 5607: 5580: 5499: 5305: 5264: 5188: 5180: 4941: 4733: 4655: 4208: 3583: 3422: 3402: 3360: 3296: 3281: 3079:

that had little military strength or political clout: the Grand Duchies of

3024: 2669: 2600: 2532: 2512: 2476: 2458: 2169: 2160: 2147: 1682: 1641:

in 1812 disillusioned many Germans, princes and peasants alike. Napoleon's

1560: 1479: 1354: 1322: 1078: 1028: 584: 525: 8743:

Railroads and Rifles: Soldiers, Technology, and the Unification of Germany

8353: 7569: 7550: 6687: 6152: 5231: 5173:

The Swabian Kreis: Institutional Growth in the Holy Roman Empire 1648–1715

4396: 3620:("Lesser German Solution", with the exclusion of Austria) as opposed to a 2849:. Through a combination of Bismarck's diplomacy and political leadership, 1817: 1108:

Despite the legal, administrative, and political disruption caused by the

10051: 10014: 9984: 9948: 9879: 9864: 9708: 9330: 8918: 8893: 8629:

The Berlin Jewish Community: Enlightenment, Family, and Crisis, 1770–1830

8519:. Contributions in military studies, no. 123. New York: Greenwood, 1992. 5209: 4861:. The religious reform movement among German Jews reflected this effort. 4773: 4738: 4713: 4096: 3549:

in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. Under the subsequent

3437: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3056: 2789: 2755: 2745: 2516: 2462: 2454: 2400: 2105: 2053: 2052:) in May 1832 was attended by a crowd of more than 30,000. Promoted as a 1928: 1835: 1330: 1290: 1285:

Germans emerged in medieval times among the descendants of the Romanized

1211: 955: 943: 754: 739: 471: 8594: 8517:

For King and Kaiser!: The Making of the Prussian Army Officer, 1860–1914

4631: 2954: 2801: 2303: 2083:

include specific plans but instead rested on the nebulous idea that the

1997:

student organizations and popular demonstrations, such as those held at

1725: 1478:

and the Austrian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) or of the

1466:

still more than 300 political entities, most of them being parts of the

9684: 9650: 9027: 8843:

The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics, 1866–1914

7660: 7290: 4626: 4570: 4417: 3364: 2921: 2653: 2156: 2130: 1932: 1127: 1036: 596: 566: 545: 475: 9078: 8664:

Germany's Rude Awakening: Censorship in the Land of the Brothers Grimm

8631:. Studies in Jewish history. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994. 8149:. Translated by Nolan, Daniel. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 7813:

Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910

6248:

Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century

6228: 5247:

Reich and Nation. The Holy Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763–1806

2787:

would declare war on one of the German states first, thus providing a

2692:(center), and the redesign of operational and strategic principles by 2366: 1911: 1900: 1559:

from the nominal reign over it. Napoleon established instead a German

9699: 9429: 8645:. Cambridge, New York & Paris, Cambridge University Press, 1989. 8059: 7557: 6450:

Modern History Sourcebook: Documents of German Unification, 1848–1871

5079:

Many modern historians describe this myth, without subscribing to it.

5034: 4292: 4236: 4054: 4026: 3991: 3239: 2928:

to be used in conflict, aided the Prussians in both this war and the

2916: 2684: 2471: 2376: 2272: 2152: 2095: 1386: 1318: 1310: 1044: 656: 625: 617: 537: 463: 8205:. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6137:(in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 10–14. 4790:, Bismarck tried without much success to limit the influence of the 3597: 3195: 2741:

in 1862. Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister.

1744:

established a new European political-diplomatic system based on the

1720: 528:

cradle of Prussian statehood made part of Germany under intensified

8573:

Nineteenth-Century German Protestantism: The Church As Social Model

7422: 6306: 4814:

In this close-up of the Niederwald Monument (see long shot above),

4695: 4075: 3606:

included 26 political entities: twenty-five constituent states (or

3564: 3433:

Open hostilities and the disastrous end of the Second French Empire

3356: 3003: 2607:. Britain's sphere was the rest of the world, especially the seas. 2543:, but among Prussians it was known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz." 1998: 1806: 1406: 1342: 1326: 1314: 1302: 1217: 1153: 1117: 660: 651: 8811:. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge University Press. 8505:

Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 2009.

5653: 5651: 5649: 5519: 5214:

German Home Towns: Community, State, and General Estate, 1648–1871

3087:. They also understood that Prussia's only ally abroad was Italy. 2523:

and to mark the renewal of the people and their triumphant spirit.

2276: 1669:

of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. As a result, the

7903:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German invasion of France, 1870–1871

6318: 5557:. Translated by Simpson, C.A. New York: Longman. pp. 96–97. 4705: 4511: 4466: 4327: 3970: 3418: 3096: 3040: 2806: 2536: 2282: 2249: 2189: 1694: 1518:(1798–1802) resulted in crushing the Empire and allied forces by 1389:

family branches to sizable, well-defined territories such as the

1032: 630: 601: 415: 27:

1866–1871 unification of most German states into the German Reich

8587:

German Student Jargon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

7833:

Remembering the Alamo: Memory, Modernity, and the Master Symbol.

7618:

Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bismarckian Germany

6615: 6603: 6294: 3553:, France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions ( 3303: 8657:

Germany: A New Social and Economic History Volume 3: Since 1800

8404:

Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna

7848:

Crises of Political Development in Europe and the United States

7491:

The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772

6581:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 16–18. 5646: 4836: 4746:

of non-German people of the empire's population, including the

4726: 4264: 4180: 4145: 3942: 3914: 3554: 3132: 2466: 2206: 1338: 1306: 1298: 1157: 621: 204: 8318:

The Franco-Prussian War and the Commune in Caricature, 1870–71

8011: 7686:(New ed.). Columbia, South Carolina: Camden House Press. 7595: 7470: 7410: 7396: 7377: 7250: 7187: 7403:

Alexandre Escudier, Brigitte Sauzay, and Rudolf von Thadden.

6792: 6558: 6476: 6102: 6053: 5698: 5696: 5683: 5681: 4375: 3426: 3347:

The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded

3092: 2642: 2442:

The aborted 1848–1849 German Empire in retrospective analysis

2424:(Constitution of St. Paul's Church) and offered the title of 2210: 1975:, which later became the basis of the flag of modern Germany. 1116:

offered an intellectual basis for unification by challenging

680: 638: 7637:

The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918

7405:

Gedenken im Zwiespalt: Konfliktlinien europäischen Erinnerns

6546: 5290:. Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 221. 5025:

Although the Prussian army had gained its reputation in the

4956:), which encouraged assimilation and Germanization of Jews. 1777:, an assembly of appointed leaders) that met in the city of 1590: 6464: 5030: 4351: 3480: 3100: 2465:

compromise with conservatives (especially the conservative

2291: 2214: 1678: 1294: 1177:, the small Germany solution (Germany without Austria), or 8777:

Politics and the Sciences of Culture in Germany, 1840–1920

8503:

Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947.

7238: 7106: 7070: 7058: 6941: 6828: 6768: 5920: 5872: 5744: 5693: 5678: 5531: 5430: 5406: 2676: 2639:, would come to a head during the following twenty years. 1947:

Emergence of liberal nationalism and conservative response

1924:: the wider the definition of suffrage, the more radical. 1689:, including an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the 1441:

Since the 15th century, with few exceptions, the Empire's

1436: 1321:. The region was divided into long-lasting divisions, or " 7873:

Holt, Lucious Hudson; Chilton, Alexander Wheeler (1917).

6962:

The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914

6731: 6534: 5780: 5136: 3211:(little Germany) solution, or "Germany without Austria." 1759:'s sphere of influence. The Congress established a loose 30:

For the 1990 reunification of East and West Germany, see

8709:. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. 8691:. Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press, 1989. 7684:

Heimat: A Critical Theory of the German Idea of Homeland

7046: 7034: 7022: 7010: 5974:. Band 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 1953, p. 516 f. 5634: 5131:

identity would gradually develop during the Middle Ages.

3035:

In the Diet, the group of middle-sized states, known as

2943: 1955:

In October, 1817, approximately 500 students rallied at

1474:(exclusively its large non-German-speaking territories: 1066:

which was subsequently deepened through adoption of the

9487: 8575:. Washington, D.C., University Press of America, 1982. 8014:

The role of historical memory in (ethno)nation-building

7989:. Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses. 7216: 7214: 6998: 6816: 6699: 6675: 6394:

For a representative analysis of this perspective, see

5041:, contemplated reorganization and new training methods. 1681:. During the brief Napoleonic restoration known as the 8363:

The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France

7130: 7094: 6986: 6864: 6804: 6780: 5908: 5896: 5884: 5860: 5848: 5756: 5732: 5720: 5708: 5418: 4754:

minorities, started with language, in particular, the

2469:

landholders), which subsequently led to the so-called

7199: 7082: 6498:, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969, p. 76. 5835:"The Zollverein and the Formation of a Customs Union" 5353: 3300:

many German states resented Prussian power politics.

2993: Under joint administration (Schleswig-Holstein) 2298: 2228:

wrote a poem in which he extolled the virtues of the

7434: 7211: 6663: 5768: 5476:. London & New York: Longman. pp. 329–361. 4963: 4627:

Historical arguments and the Empire's social anatomy

4582: 3490: 1247:

dissolution of its dominant founding federated state

1101:) and 4 May 1871 (entry into force of the permanent 7736:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 7527:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 7493:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 7446: 7226: 5822:. Boulder: University of Colorado. pp. 10, 18. 5588: 4887:(1834–1896), and others less conservative, such as 4805: 3630: 2367:

German revolutions and Polish uprising of 1848–1849

1289:in the area of modern western Germany, between the 587:) annexed into the German Empire under intensified 7667:. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. 6509: 6012:. Bloomington: Indiana University. pp. 3–41. 4868: 3240:Peace of Prague and the North German Confederation 3120:ordering his enthusiastic troops to attack at the 2958:Situation at the time of the outbreak of the war: 2864: 722:") eventually annexed into the German Empire from 8763:Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815–1918 8233:Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany 5312: 4591:became (with some semantic adjustments) the 1871 3598:Internal political and administrative unification 3185: Neutral members of the German Confederation 2987: Neutral members of the German Confederation 1721:Congress of Vienna and the rise of German dualism 10064: 8064:Deutsche Geschichte des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts 7407:, Genshagener Gespräche; vol. 4. Göttingen: 2001 5818:Keller, Wolfgang; Shiue, Carol (March 5, 2013). 4696:Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation 3578:(signed 26 February 1871; later ratified in the 3565:War as ″the capstone of the unification process″ 2841:provided Prussia an ally against Austria in the 2491:analysis helpful in understanding the period of 2090: 1763:(1815–1866), headed by Austria, with a "Federal 1505: 1405:, also of different sizes, such as the powerful 1229:of 1813–1814. By establishing a Germany without 8845:. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994. 8171: 8012:Llobera, Josep R.; Goldsmiths' College (1996). 7276: 5507: 3654: 686:Constitution of the German Confederation (1871) 8603:. London & New York, Edward Arnold, 1988. 7655: 7476: 7268: 6609: 6324: 6312: 6300: 6288: 6180:Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth Century Europe 5448: 5249:. Indiana University Press. pp. 278–279. 2712:of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1858. Meanwhile, 2104:Several other factors complicated the rise of 1872:(Union of Princes) in 1785. Austrian-Prussian 9473: 8934: 8791:The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840 8461:Moltke, Schlieffen, and Prussian War Planning 6174: 3304:Unified Italy and Austro-Hungarian Compromise 2579:) unification would overturn the overlapping 2319:, who compiled a massive dictionary known as 2248:saw no advantage in traveling from Berlin to 1812: 979: 8547:. Harlow, England, New York: Longman, 2001. 8146:Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1866 6959: 6413:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 4900:History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century 4562: 4539: 4477: 4458: 4303: 4284: 4256: 4228: 4200: 4156: 4137: 4046: 4002: 3962: 3934: 3906: 3883: 3519:, stands on his father's right. Painting by 3256:sponsored by Prussia which directly annexed 3095:—especially in such cosmopolitan regions as 2631:. This controversy, the latest phase of the 2205:, and a network of canals extended from the 1491: 1209: 1178: 1170: 1125: 8779:. New York, Oxford University Press, 1991. 8601:Nationalism and Society: Germany, 1800–1945 8533:. New York, Oxford University Press, 1990. 7872: 7338:. London and New York: Barnes & Noble. 7153:. New York: The Viking Press. p. 299. 6737: 6725: 6552: 6540: 5817: 3214: 1167:two solutions to the problem of unification 9480: 9466: 8948: 8941: 8927: 8529:Cocks, Geoffrey and Konrad Hugo Jarausch. 8181:Germany: A New Social and Economic History 7758: 7634: 7612: 7428: 7416: 7383: 7336:Society and politics in Wilhelmine Germany 7256: 7244: 7193: 7184:, pp. 432–456, Chapter XI: the Peace. 6882: 6564: 6507: 6482: 6340:(February 2003). "Comparison and Beyond". 6108: 6059: 5802: 5786: 5762: 5555:A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700–1918 5201:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3499:January 18, 1871: The proclamation of the 3288:, thus Germany. Following adoption of the 2821:was about the status of those territories. 2643:External expectations of a unified Germany 2566:We cannot conceal the fact that the whole 2013:, to fear the rise of national sentiment. 986: 972: 45: 8740: 8731: 8365:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8139: 7583: 7488: 7367: 7148: 5813: 5811: 5640: 5452: 5372:Walter, Jakob (1996). Raeff, Marc (ed.). 5288:History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918 5244: 2399:Pre-parliament delegates processing into 2333:August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben 2226:August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben 1637:, in western Germany, and his disastrous 1591:Rise of German nationalism under Napoleon 1510:Invasion of the Holy Roman Empire by the 1401:. Their governance varied: they included 1347:A confederated realm of German princedoms 1277:(orange) and the German-speaking part of 330:Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 8868:Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914 8615:Frederick III: Germany's Liberal Emperor 8398: 7845: 7467:, in particular, pp. 4–7 and Conclusion. 6903:. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 199–200. 6898: 6576: 6470: 6242: 6170: 6043:Badische Heimat/Landeskunde online 2006 6007: 5549: 5525: 4809: 4699: 4630: 3494: 3436: 3145: 3111: 2953: 2805:From north to south: The Danish part of 2800: 2683: 2502: 2457:and gained momentum in the aftermath of 2394: 2302: 2286:per ton per kilometer and in 1870, five 2094: 1987:, which suppressed freedom of expression 1978: 1966: 1950: 1816: 1724: 1611: 1260: 8914:Bismarck and the Unification of Germany 8803: 8701: 8477: 8458: 8265: 8227: 8197: 8107: 7954: 7728: 7681: 7440: 7371: 7272: 7220: 6947: 6931: 6870: 6834: 6786: 6774: 6758: 6717: 6166: 6071: 5926: 5914: 5902: 5890: 5878: 5866: 5854: 5832: 5798: 5774: 5750: 5738: 5726: 5714: 5702: 5687: 5669: 5657: 5594: 5537: 5464: 5436: 5424: 5412: 5359: 5154: 5142: 2515:, was created to hide the organ of the 2390: 1437:Early modern era and Eighteenth century 14: 10065: 8655:Ogilvie, Sheilagh, and Richard Overy. 8643:Police and State in Prussia, 1815–1850 8286: 7927: 7897: 7846:Grew, Raymond; Bien, David D. (1978). 7596:Llobera & Goldsmiths' College 1996 7522: 7464: 7452: 7397:Llobera & Goldsmiths' College 1996 7181: 7136: 7112: 7100: 7076: 7064: 7052: 7040: 7028: 7016: 7004: 6992: 6822: 6705: 6693: 6669: 6407: 6129: 5808: 5606: 5374:The diary of a Napoleonic foot soldier 5371: 5330: 5208: 5093: 4883:(1785–1860), his conservative student 3454:The reorganization of the military by 2016:The assassination of German dramatist 1748:. This system reorganized Europe into 1027:) was a process of building the first 318:Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 9461: 8922: 8862: 8682:The Unification of Germany, 1848–1871 8589:. Berlin & NY, de Gruyter, 1983. 8360: 8330: 7932:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7815:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7810: 7788: 7639:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7562:German History; Some New German Views 7330: 7326: 7232: 7205: 7088: 6935: 6810: 6798: 6762: 6721: 6395: 6359: 6336: 6203: 6010:The Environmental Movement in Germany 5986:Peter Rühmkorf, Heinz Ludwig Arnold, 5468: 3543:held it under siege until mid-January 3131:Prussian army with support only from 2944:War between Austria and Prussia, 1866 2895:. On 18 November 1863, he signed the 2531:, supported the establishment of the 2179: 2011:Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich 1014: 8480:Moltke and the German Wars 1864–1871 8088: 8058: 7556: 7297:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 7289: 6681: 6633: 6621: 6287:For a summary of this argument, see 5318: 5285: 5216:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 5167: 4794:and of its party-political arm, the 4778:For some Germans, the definition of 4688:theorists had hypothesized. Eastern 3161: Territories annexed by Prussia 1553:dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 1110:dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 9489:International relations (1814–1919) 8809:The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 8585:Henne, Helmut, and Georg Objartel. 8292:Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman 7984: 7835:Austin: University of Texas, 2002. 6960:Bridge, Roy; Bullen, Roger (2004). 6443: 6135:Das Deutsche Kaiserreich, 1871–1918 5614:. New York: Macmillan. p. 34. 5513: 5120:from the original on March 31, 2019 5099: 4928:from 1881 to 1884, for the liberal 3547:proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor" 3333:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 3310:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 3107: 2903:saw this act as a violation of the 2879:became king of Denmark and duke of 2385:pursued their own liberation agenda 2337:Deutschland, Deutschland über Alles 2244:with enthusiasm. The Prussian king 1597:hegemony of the First French Empire 1476:Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen 1470:, though portions of the extensive 1445:had chosen successive heads of the 492:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 342:Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont 186:Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 162:Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz 150:Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 24: 9001:States of the German Confederation 8545:Modern Prussian history, 1830–1947 6516:. Yale University Press. pp. 5820:The Trade Impact of the Zollverein 3650: 3392: 3342: 2762:Bismarck expressed the essence of 2595:(with his foreign secretary Count 2299:Geography, patriotism and language 421:Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg 25: 10119: 8902: 8091:The History of Germany Since 1789 6899:Schjerve, Rosita Rindler (2003). 6577:Hollyday, Frederic B. M. (1970). 6415:. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 37. 5474:The Birth of a Great Power System 5002:Qin's wars of Chinese unification 4593:Constitution of the German Empire 4583:Political structure of the Empire 3610:) and one Imperial Territory (or 3528:Proclamation of the German Empire 3491:Proclamation of the German Empire 3377:Causes of the Franco-Prussian War 3254:North German Confederation Treaty 3137:Third Italian War of Independence 3014: 1909:later became widely known as the 1485:(both the German-speaking former 1216:led a collection of early modern 1200:—had a master plan to expand the 1103:Constitution of the German Empire 1075:proclamation of the German Empire 1049:North German Confederation Treaty 705:Constitution of the German Empire 692:Proclamation of the German Empire 433:Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck 9442: 8482:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. 7764:Society and Democracy in Germany 7515: 7482: 7389: 7282: 7262: 7142: 7118: 6496:Garibaldi (Great Lives Observed) 5833:Ploeckl, Florian (August 2010). 5073: 4966: 4848:; in particular, several Jewish 4806:Integrating the Jewish community 4549: 4519: 4503: 4487: 4445: 4424: 4403: 4382: 4358: 4334: 4313: 4271: 4243: 4215: 4187: 4166: 4124: 4103: 4082: 4061: 4033: 4012: 3977: 3949: 3921: 3893: 3631:Constituent states of the Empire 3557:and the German-speaking part of 3458:and the operational strategy of 3397:A revolution in Spain overthrew 3207:, laying the groundwork for the 2891:, which the Danish king held in 2853:'s military reorganization, and 2353:" ("The Watch on the Rhine") by 1983:A German caricature mocking the 1381:in ruling the Empire due to the 1256: 950:Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 761: 426: 414: 402: 390: 378: 366: 354: 335: 323: 311: 306:Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe 299: 287: 275: 263: 251: 239: 227: 215: 203: 191: 179: 167: 155: 143: 131: 118: 93: 8909:Documents of German Unification 8745:. Hamden, Connecticut: Hailer. 7962:. University of Chicago Press. 6953: 6925: 6892: 6885:, pp. 225–269, Chapter V: 6840: 6752: 6743: 6711: 6627: 6570: 6501: 6488: 6437: 6401: 6388: 6330: 6281: 6272: 6209:Journal of Contemporary History 6114: 6077:Revolutionary Europe, 1780–1850 6065: 6034: 6001: 5977: 5957: 5932: 5826: 5792: 5663: 5600: 5543: 5458: 5442: 5365: 5063: 5053: 5044: 5019: 4917:Mommsen's contributions to the 4869:Writing the story of the nation 4782:did not include pluralism, and 4704:Monument to Kaiser Wilhelm, at 3284:were formally annexed into the 2865:The Schleswig-Holstein Question 2428:(Emperor) to the Prussian king 2035:Teutschland und die Revolution 718:The territories (later called " 688:and second phase of unification 8734:The Wars of German Unification 8338:. Cambridge University Press. 8270:. Princeton University Press. 8235:. Princeton University Press. 8183:. London: Arnold Publication. 8118:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 8016:. London: Goldsmiths College. 7850:. Princeton University Press. 6624:, pp. 316–395, Chapter 6. 6278:World Encyclopedia V.3 p. 542. 6250:. Cambridge University Press. 6008:Dominick, Raymond III (1992). 5972:Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB) 5336:"Address to the German Nation" 5324: 5279: 5238: 5160: 5148: 5110:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 4954:Studies of the Jewish Question 4875:Historiography and nationalism 4765: 3248:sealed the dissolution of the 2652:wrote to German revolutionary 2409:Prussian three-class franchise 1907:Revolutions of 1848 in Germany 1878:War of the Bavarian Succession 1848:War of the Austrian Succession 1627:Napoleon's campaigns in Poland 1618:Battle of the Nations monument 1421:; and dynastic states such as 246:Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 13: 1: 9859:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 9813:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 9803:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 9276:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 8732:Showalter, Dennis E. (2015). 8531:German Professions, 1800–1950 5115:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 5007: 4920:Monumenta Germaniae Historica 3370: 3099:and in the heavily populated 2940:, signed on 30 October 1864. 2739:Minister-President of Prussia 2554:unification would occur, and 2371:The widespread—mainly German— 2146:linked the many Prussian and 2091:Economy and the customs union 1939:engendered an expectation of 1740:After Napoleon's defeat, the 1506:Dissolution of the Old Empire 1198:Minister President of Prussia 517:Minister President of Prussia 409:Free Hanseatic City of Bremen 9719:Second Industrial Revolution 9593:League of the Three Emperors 8684:(1979), essays by historians 6887:From Reaction to Unification 5990:Göttingen: Wallstein, 2001, 5029:, its humiliating defeat at 4642:, was erected in 1877–83 at 3576:Treaty of Versailles of 1871 2897:Danish November Constitution 2677:Prussia's growing strength: 860:Anglo-German naval arms race 7: 9749:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 9424:Schleswig–Holstein question 9271:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 8668:Ohio State University Press 8406:. New York: HarperCollins. 7277:Scribner & Ogilvie 1996 6696:, Chapter 1 and Conclusion. 6381:10.1111/0018-2656.751999075 6182:. Oxford University Press. 5940:"The Brothers Grimm online" 5674:German Historical Institute 5245:Gagliardo, John G. (1980). 4959: 4950:Studien über die Judenfrage 4934:Deutsche Fortschrittspartei 3331:accepted a settlement (the 2871:Schleswig–Holstein question 2819:Schleswig-Holstein Question 2766:in his subsequently famous 1650:exemplified this tendency. 1516:War of the Second Coalition 1251:Federal Republic of Germany 294:Principality of Reuss-Greiz 52:States of the German Empire 10: 10124: 10088:North German Confederation 9798:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 9306:Karl August von Hardenberg 9044:North German Confederation 9017:Confederation of the Rhine 8561:. New York, Harper, 1995. 7960:The German Idea of Freedom 7477:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 7269:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 7149:Crankshaw, Edward (1981). 6610:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6508:Mack Smith, Denis (1994). 6325:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6313:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6301:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6289:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 6221:10.1177/002200948802300101 6178:; Mitchell, Allan (1993). 5844:(Discussion Paper 84): 23. 5528:, pp. 98–115, 239–40. 5449:Blackbourn & Eley 1984 5105:"Germany: Ancient History" 4898:Heinrich von Treitschke's 4872: 4771: 4716:(lower river), called the 3525: 3374: 3307: 3286:North German Confederation 2947: 2868: 2809:in purple and terracotta, 2445: 2039:Germany and the Revolution 1898: 1892: 1887: 1813:Problems of reorganization 1697:army under the command of 1671:Confederation of the Rhine 1565:Confederation of the Rhine 1551:which included the formal 1545:War of the Third Coalition 1395:Margraviate of Brandenburg 1365:, which at times included 1353:i.e. the establishment of 1202:North German Confederation 1192:Historians debate whether 1144:. The model of diplomatic 1053:North German Confederation 1016:[ˈdɔʏtʃəˈʔaɪnɪɡʊŋ] 482:) did not join new Germany 282:Principality of Reuss-Gera 100:North German Confederation 29: 10078:Modern history of Germany 9957: 9821: 9734: 9619:European balance of power 9611: 9546: 9495: 9439: 9349: 9223: 9057: 9034:German Empire (1848–1849) 9009: 8956: 8765:. London, Longman, 2001. 8066:(in German). S. Fischer. 7489:Friedrich, Karin (2000). 6964:(2nd ed.). Longman. 6848:The Situation of Germany. 6494:Mack Smith, Denis (ed.). 5944:Grimm Brothers' Home Page 4589:North German Constitution 4534: 4525: 4509: 4493: 4474:Free and Hanseatic Cities 4472: 4433:Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 4298: 4151: 3997: 3878: 3870: 3290:North German Constitution 3234:published on July 1, 1866 3143:and on the Adriatic sea. 2562:, summed up the problem: 2529:Joseph Maria von Radowitz 2448:German Empire (1848–1849) 2315:than their language. The 2113:mid-1840s, caused by the 1297:rivers, particularly the 1068:North German Constitution 442: 106: 87: 71: 63: 59: 44: 10108:19th century in politics 9910:Venezuela Naval Blockade 9581:Anglo-Russian Convention 9419:Greater Austria proposal 8203:German History 1770–1866 7431:, pp. 283, 285–300. 6801:, pp. 50–60, 75–79. 6050:. Retrieved 5 June 2009. 5660:, pp. 407–408, 444. 5286:Kann, Robert A. (1974). 4758:, compulsory schooling ( 4712:(upper river) meets the 4258:Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha 3590:The difficulties of the 3446:, and the war continued. 3411:Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 3215:Founding a unified state 3129:technologically superior 2831:Frederick VII of Denmark 2726:Prussian Minister of War 2716:had become chief of the 2031:Johann Joseph von Görres 1828:Battle of Jena-Auerstedt 1783:Lauenburg and Bütow Land 1657:culminated in the great 1547:, Napoleon dictated the 1419:Archbishopric of Cologne 1367:more than 1,000 entities 1039:based on the concept of 908:Anglo-Russian Convention 788:Second Concert of Europe 551:Lauenburg and Bütow Land 519:simultaneously also the 462:being popular or led by 174:Grand Duchy of Oldenburg 9915:Alaska boundary dispute 9588:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 9571:Franco-Russian Alliance 9362:Austro-Prussian rivalry 9175:"Blood and Iron" speech 9146:Greater Poland uprising 9117:Frankfurter Wachensturm 8459:Bucholz, Arden (1991). 8336:The Austro-Prussian War 8108:Minahan, James (2000). 7928:Kaplan, Marion (1991). 7905:. New York: Routledge. 7877:. New York: MacMillan. 7682:Blickle, Peter (2004). 7125:Die Reichsgründung 1871 6738:Holt & Chilton 1917 6726:Holt & Chilton 1917 6553:Holt & Chilton 1917 6541:Holt & Chilton 1917 6354:10.1111/1468-2303.00228 5332:Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 4944:programs of Bismarck's 4885:Heinrich von Treitschke 4139:Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach 3359:in September 1865 with 3047:, the grand duchies of 2905:London Protocol of 1852 2835:Second War of Schleswig 2768:"Blood and Iron" speech 2381:universal male suffrage 2347:The Song of the Germans 2269:Bavarian Ludwig Railway 1937:German Campaign of 1813 1685:of 1815, forces of the 1563:of France known as the 872:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 854:First Sino-Japanese War 848:Franco-Russian Alliance 818:Austro–Serbian Alliance 458:4 German states having 258:Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen 234:Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg 198:Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg 9834:Unification of Germany 9781:Taft–Katsura agreement 9375:Das Lied der Deutschen 9311:Klemens von Metternich 9286:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 8996:Kingdom of Württemberg 8950:Unification of Germany 8627:Lowenstein, Steven M. 8437:Bazillion, Richard J. 6445:Droysen, Johann Gustav 5988:Das Lied der Deutschen 4938:National Liberal Party 4823: 4822:was erected 1877–1883. 4721: 4720:, or the German corner 4647: 4563: 4540: 4478: 4459: 4412:Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 4304: 4285: 4257: 4229: 4201: 4157: 4138: 4047: 4003: 3963: 3935: 3907: 3884: 3860: 3523: 3447: 3415:Agenor, duc de Gramont 3237: 3194:, near the village of 3187: 3179: Austria's allies 3167: Prussia's allies 3150:Aftermath of the war: 3124: 3000:the newly formed Italy 2995: 2981: Austria's allies 2975: Prussia's allies 2822: 2813:in red and brown, and 2718:Prussian General Staff 2697: 2674: 2619:Prussian Hohenzollerns 2573: 2524: 2421:Paulskirchenverfassung 2414:On 27 March 1849, the 2404: 2373:revolutions of 1848–49 2360:Alexander von Humboldt 2342:Das Lied der Deutschen 2308: 2174:Hamburg joined in 1888 2101: 1988: 1976: 1964: 1822: 1737: 1621: 1610: 1601:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 1555:and the abdication of 1492: 1282: 1210: 1179: 1171: 1126: 1007: 1000:unification of Germany 932:Second Moroccan Crisis 776:Unification of Germany 696:William I Hohenzollern 501:Kingdom of Netherlands 454:Peace of Prague (1866) 373:Kingdom of Württemberg 40:Unification of Germany 10083:National unifications 9920:First Moroccan Crisis 9634:Spread of nationalism 9598:Eight-Nation Alliance 9291:Johann Gustav Droysen 9261:Frederick William III 8855:Steinberg, Jonathan. 8841:Stargardt, Nicholas. 8613:Kollander, Patricia. 8294:. Oxford: Clarendon. 7899:Howard, Michael Eliot 7796:. London: Routledge. 7523:Koshar, Rudy (1998). 6749:Sheehan, pp. 900–906. 6128:, (1968), pp. 25–32; 6079:. New York: Longman. 4930:German Progress Party 4873:Further information: 4813: 4796:Catholic Centre Party 4792:Roman Catholic Church 4732:A key element of the 4703: 4634: 4479:Freie und Hansestädte 4252:Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 3859: 3498: 3487:on 1 September 1870. 3444:Third French Republic 3440: 3308:Further information: 3218: 3149: 3139:on a second front in 3115: 3055:, and the duchies of 2957: 2837:in 1864. Second, the 2804: 2731:constitutional crisis 2687: 2666: 2564: 2560:Johann Gustav Droysen 2506: 2446:Further information: 2398: 2306: 2246:Frederick William III 2136:Hans, Count von Bülow 2098: 1982: 1970: 1954: 1820: 1728: 1701:, were victorious at 1615: 1605: 1528:Mediatization of 1803 1453:to hold the title of 1391:Electorate of Bavaria 1264: 914:Young Turk Revolution 896:First Moroccan Crisis 270:Principality of Lippe 9925:Algeciras Conference 9905:Annexation of Hawaii 9844:Great Eastern Crisis 9839:Unification of Italy 9829:Formation of Romania 9646:French–German enmity 9414:German reunification 9336:Wilhelm von Humboldt 9301:John, King of Saxony 9266:Frederick William IV 9215:Treaty of Versailles 9184:Second Schleswig War 9155:Punctation of Olmütz 9137:Frankfurt Parliament 9022:German Confederation 8515:Clemente, Steven E. 8177:Ogilvie, Sheilagh C. 6934:, pp. 909–910; 6720:, pp. 900–904; 6173:, pp. 312–345; 6171:Grew & Bien 1978 6045:Veit's Pauls Church 5801:, pp. 465–467; 5672:, pp. 460–470; 5467:, pp. 398–410; 5340:www.historyman.co.uk 4992:Reichsbürgerbewegung 4987:Formation of Romania 4936:) and later for the 4842:emancipation of Jews 4536:Imperial Territories 4133:Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 4091:Mecklenburg-Strelitz 4070:Mecklenburg-Schwerin 3617:Kleindeutsche Lösung 3509:Palace of Versailles 3349:Revanche pour Sadová 3250:German Confederation 3192:Battle of Königgrätz 3122:Battle of Königgrätz 3085:Mecklenburg-Strelitz 3081:Mecklenburg-Schwerin 2934:Second Schleswig War 2911:on 1 February 1864. 2901:German Confederation 2839:unification of Italy 2817:in lime yellow. The 2702:Frederick William IV 2581:spheres of influence 2541:Punctation of Olmütz 2430:Frederick William IV 2416:Frankfurt Parliament 2391:Frankfurt Parliament 2339:, officially called 1927:The surge of German 1844:Partitions of Poland 1787:Starostwo of Draheim 1761:German Confederation 1750:spheres of influence 1731:German Confederation 1729:Coat of arms of the 1661:, also known as the 1403:free imperial cities 1265:Map of the Austrian 1239:German-speaking part 1173:Kleindeutsche Lösung 1146:spheres of influence 1138:German Confederation 794:Great Eastern Crisis 555:Starostwo of Draheim 542:Prussian Lithuanians 486:German Confederation 397:Grand Duchy of Hesse 385:Grand Duchy of Baden 32:German reunification 9990:Philippine–American 9975:First Sino-Japanese 9808:Racconigi agreement 9754:Treaty of Frankfurt 9714:Great Rapprochement 9668:Scramble for Africa 9281:Heinrich von Gagern 9206:Franco-Prussian War 9193:Austro-Prussian War 8775:Smith, Woodruff D. 8687:Schleunes, Karl A. 8173:Scribner, Robert W. 7985:Lee, Lloyd (1980). 7831:Flores, Richard R. 7620:. New York: Knopf. 7419:, pp. 243–282. 7386:, pp. 240–290. 7259:, pp. 225–301. 7196:, pp. 255–257. 7115:, pp. 357–370. 7079:, pp. 222–230. 7067:, pp. 218–222. 6950:, pp. 905–910. 6837:, pp. 908–909. 6777:, pp. 905–906. 6684:, pp. 390–395. 6567:, pp. 175–179. 6485:, pp. 160–175. 6473:, pp. 100–115. 6327:, pp. 286–293. 6131:Wehler, Hans-Ulrich 6111:, pp. 176–179. 6062:, pp. 138–164. 5929:, pp. 466–467. 5881:, pp. 467–468. 5753:, pp. 610–615. 5705:, pp. 610–613. 5690:, pp. 442–445. 5540:, pp. 398–410. 5439:, pp. 322–323. 5415:, pp. 384–387. 5145:, pp. 288–289. 5039:Carl von Clausewitz 5013:Informational notes 4982:Italian unification 4640:Niederwald Monument 4460:Waldeck und Pyrmont 4454:Waldeck and Pyrmont 3867: 3623:Großdeutsche Lösung 3614:). It realized the 3580:Treaty of Frankfurt 3551:Treaty of Frankfurt 3353:Franco-Prussian War 2950:Austro-Prussian War 2930:Austro-Prussian War 2924:, one of the first 2847:Franco-Prussian War 2843:Austro-Prussian War 2795:Franco-Prussian War 2750:Italian War of 1859 2748:of 1854–55 and the 2737:to the position of 2355:Max Schneckenburger 2194:Heinrich von Gagern 2018:August von Kotzebue 1941:popular sovereignty 1856:Frederick the Great 1699:Gebhard von Blücher 1549:Treaty of Pressburg 1512:First French Empire 1459:Peace of Westphalia 1333:, who expanded the 1181:Großdeutsche Lösung 1148:resulting from the 1114:European liberalism 782:Franco-Prussian War 714:Treaty of Frankfurt 710:Franco-Prussian War 41: 9849:Congress of Berlin 9766:Reinsurance Treaty 9744:Congress of Vienna 9724:Industrial warfare 9690:Scramble for China 9449:Germany portal 9382:Die Wacht am Rhein 9166:Dresden Conference 9069:Congress of Vienna 8986:Kingdom of Prussia 8981:Kingdom of Hanover 8976:Kingdom of Bavaria 8680:Pflanze Otto, ed. 8499:Clark, Christopher 8463:. New York: Berg. 8451:Brose, Eric Dorn. 7564:. Boston: Beacon. 6858:The New York Times 6369:History and Theory 6342:History and Theory 5805:, pp. 106–107 5612:Avenues of History 5376:. Windrush Press. 5166:See, for example: 5157:, pp. 288–289 4893:Heinrich von Sybel 4881:Friedrich Dahlmann 4824: 4722: 4648: 4638:, also called the 3866: 3861: 3524: 3448: 3387:King Ferdinand VII 3231:The New York Times 3188: 3125: 2996: 2926:bolt action rifles 2827:without male heirs 2823: 2714:Helmuth von Moltke 2698: 2694:Helmuth von Moltke 2650:Giuseppe Garibaldi 2637:Kingdom of Prussia 2629:Austrian Habsburgs 2525: 2507:This depiction of 2493:National Socialism 2405: 2351:Die Wacht am Rhein 2309: 2180:Roads and railways 2119:Great Irish Famine 2102: 1989: 1977: 1965: 1823: 1742:Congress of Vienna 1738: 1733:, also called the 1691:Duke of Wellington 1673:collapsed and the 1643:Continental System 1639:invasion of Russia 1622: 1585:Kingdom of Hanover 1577:Kingdom of Bavaria 1557:Emperor Francis II 1522:. The treaties of 1520:Napoleon Bonaparte 1483:Kingdom of Prussia 1455:Holy Roman Emperor 1415:Abbey of Reichenau 1409:and the minuscule 1399:Kingdom of Bohemia 1283: 1222:French nationalism 1150:Congress of Vienna 1087:Kingdom of Prussia 884:Russo-Japanese War 842:Reinsurance Treaty 800:Campaign in Bosnia 753:Events leading to 726:under intensified 675:under intensified 646:under intensified 633:under intensified 608:under intensified 573:Prussian Partition 557:under intensified 540:, and Powiślans), 521:Federal Chancellor 361:Kingdom of Bavaria 222:Duchy of Brunswick 125:Kingdom of Prussia 39: 18:German unification 10103:Conflicts in 1871 10098:Conflicts in 1866 10060: 10059: 10029:Albanian Revolts 9886:German Naval Laws 9870:Naval arms races 9854:Berlin Conference 9786:Hague Conventions 9455: 9454: 9393:Lützow Free Corps 9326:Otto von Bismarck 9246:Eduard von Simson 9089:Wartburg Festival 8991:Kingdom of Saxony 8877:978-0-4152-1445-2 8851:978-0-5214-6692-9 8818:978-0-5215-4779-6 8805:Sperber, Jonathan 8799:978-0-8143-2828-6 8771:978-0-5823-5666-5 8716:978-0-5213-7759-1 8662:Ohles, Frederik. 8599:Hughes, Michael. 8557:Friedrich, Otto. 8543:Dwyer, Philip G. 8511:978-0-674-03196-8 8413:978-0-0607-7518-6 8301:978-0-3947-0387-9 8277:978-0-6910-0866-0 8242:978-0-6910-5432-2 8229:Sperber, Jonathan 8212:978-0-1982-0432-9 8199:Sheehan, James J. 8190:978-0-3405-1332-3 8156:978-0-6916-3611-5 8141:Nipperdey, Thomas 8023:978-0-9029-8606-0 7996:978-0-8741-3143-7 7969:978-0-2264-5347-7 7939:978-0-1950-9396-4 7912:978-0-4150-2787-8 7841:978-0-2927-2540-9 7822:978-0-1430-3636-4 7803:978-0-0030-2090-8 7790:Evans, Richard J. 7743:978-0-8078-4665-0 7693:978-1-5711-3303-8 7674:978-0-1987-3057-6 7657:Blackbourn, David 7614:Blackbourn, David 7534:978-0-8078-4701-5 7500:978-0-5210-2775-5 7332:Evans, Richard J. 7055:, pp. 64–68. 7043:, pp. 55–59. 7031:, pp. 56–57. 7019:, pp. 55–56. 7007:, pp. 50–57. 6971:978-0-5827-8458-1 6910:978-3-1101-7654-4 6825:, pp. 87–88. 6813:, pp. 57–75. 6765:, pp. 82–84. 6724:, pp. 4–32; 6708:, pp. 40–57. 6648:978-0-8014-7293-0 6588:978-0-1307-7362-3 6555:, pp. 13–14. 6527:978-0-300-05884-0 6422:978-0-1988-1270-8 6257:978-0-5213-4748-8 6189:978-0-8549-6414-7 6073:Sperber, Jonathan 5564:978-0-5820-9007-1 5483:978-0-5822-1717-1 5297:978-0-5200-4206-3 5223:978-0-8014-8508-4 5169:Vann, James Allen 4940:. He opposed the 4800:Congregations Law 4613:State Secretaries 4580: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4564:Elsass-Lothringen 4370: 4346: 4286:Sachsen-Meiningen 4230:Sachsen-Altenburg 3399:Queen Isabella II 3278:Province of Posen 3270:city of Frankfurt 2859:1815 peace treaty 2735:Otto von Bismarck 2722:Albrecht von Roon 2690:Albrecht von Roon 2605:Holy Roman Empire 2128:Formation of the 2006:Wartburg Festival 1838:had made himself 1791:Duchy of Oświęcim 1779:Frankfurt am Main 1774:Bundesversammlung 1687:Seventh Coalition 1663:Battle of Nations 1659:Battle of Leipzig 1655:War of Liberation 1648:Lützow Free Corps 1635:Iberian Peninsula 1581:Kingdom of Saxony 1500:Holy Roman Empire 1472:Habsburg Monarchy 1468:Holy Roman Empire 1447:House of Habsburg 1417:and the powerful 1363:Holy Roman Empire 1271:Holy Roman Empire 1267:Habsburg monarchy 1227:War of Liberation 1194:Otto von Bismarck 1057:military alliance 1051:establishing the 1008:Deutsche Einigung 996: 995: 938:Italo-Turkish War 926:Racconigi Bargain 830:Berlin Conference 748: 747: 581:Province of Posen 571:Remainder of the 138:Kingdom of Saxony 65:Deutsche Einigung 16:(Redirected from 10115: 9980:Spanish–American 9900:Fashoda Incident 9776:Treaty of Björkö 9761:Treaty of Berlin 9695:Open Door Policy 9629:Eastern question 9576:Entente Cordiale 9482: 9475: 9468: 9459: 9458: 9447: 9446: 9445: 9396: 9212: 9203: 9190: 9181: 9172: 9163: 9152: 9143: 9134: 9127: 9113: 9107:Hambach Festival 9104: 9098:Carlsbad Decrees 9095: 9086: 9075: 9066: 8972: 8943: 8936: 8929: 8920: 8919: 8897: 8857:Bismarck: A Life 8838: 8756: 8741:— (1975). 8737: 8728: 8493: 8478:— (2001). 8474: 8425: 8392: 8361:— (2003). 8357: 8320:. London, 1971. 8313: 8288:Taylor, A. J. P. 8281: 8266:— (1993). 8262: 8224: 8194: 8168: 8136: 8134: 8132: 8102: 8089:— (1968). 8085: 8055: 8049: 8045: 8043: 8035: 8008: 7981: 7956:Krieger, Leonard 7951: 7924: 7894: 7869: 7826: 7811:— (2005). 7807: 7785: 7760:Dahrendorf, Ralf 7755: 7725: 7719: 7715: 7713: 7705: 7678: 7650: 7635:— (1998). 7631: 7599: 7593: 7587: 7581: 7554: 7519: 7513: 7512: 7486: 7480: 7474: 7468: 7462: 7456: 7450: 7444: 7438: 7432: 7426: 7420: 7414: 7408: 7402: 7393: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7365: 7324: 7286: 7280: 7266: 7260: 7254: 7248: 7242: 7236: 7230: 7224: 7218: 7209: 7203: 7197: 7191: 7185: 7179: 7173: 7172: 7146: 7140: 7134: 7128: 7122: 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7074: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7050: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6996: 6995:, pp. 4–60. 6990: 6984: 6983: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6939: 6929: 6923: 6922: 6896: 6890: 6880: 6874: 6868: 6862: 6844: 6838: 6832: 6826: 6820: 6814: 6808: 6802: 6796: 6790: 6784: 6778: 6772: 6766: 6756: 6750: 6747: 6741: 6735: 6729: 6715: 6709: 6703: 6697: 6691: 6685: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6660: 6631: 6625: 6619: 6613: 6607: 6601: 6600: 6574: 6568: 6562: 6556: 6550: 6544: 6538: 6532: 6531: 6515: 6505: 6499: 6492: 6486: 6480: 6474: 6468: 6462: 6461: 6459: 6457: 6441: 6435: 6434: 6409:Taylor, A. J. P. 6405: 6399: 6392: 6386: 6384: 6357: 6334: 6328: 6322: 6316: 6310: 6304: 6298: 6292: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6270: 6269: 6244:Berghahn, Volker 6240: 6201: 6164: 6118: 6112: 6106: 6100: 6098: 6069: 6063: 6057: 6051: 6042: 6038: 6032: 6031: 6005: 5999: 5985: 5981: 5975: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5950: 5936: 5930: 5924: 5918: 5912: 5906: 5900: 5894: 5888: 5882: 5876: 5870: 5864: 5858: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5839: 5830: 5824: 5823: 5815: 5806: 5796: 5790: 5784: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5760: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5691: 5685: 5676: 5667: 5661: 5655: 5644: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5584: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5505: 5503: 5470:Scott, Hamish M. 5462: 5456: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5369: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5346: 5328: 5322: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5242: 5236: 5235: 5206: 5200: 5192: 5164: 5158: 5152: 5146: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5127: 5125: 5097: 5080: 5077: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5057: 5051: 5048: 5042: 5027:Seven Years' War 5023: 4976: 4971: 4970: 4969: 4891:(1817–1903) and 4675:Hanseatic cities 4566: 4553: 4552: 4543: 4523: 4522: 4507: 4506: 4491: 4490: 4481: 4462: 4449: 4448: 4428: 4427: 4407: 4406: 4391:Schaumburg-Lippe 4386: 4385: 4368: 4362: 4361: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4317: 4316: 4307: 4288: 4275: 4274: 4260: 4247: 4246: 4232: 4219: 4218: 4204: 4191: 4190: 4170: 4169: 4160: 4141: 4128: 4127: 4107: 4106: 4086: 4085: 4065: 4064: 4050: 4037: 4036: 4016: 4015: 4006: 3981: 3980: 3966: 3953: 3952: 3938: 3925: 3924: 3910: 3897: 3896: 3887: 3868: 3865: 3653: 3646: 3645: 3521:Anton von Werner 3235: 3209:Kleindeutschland 3184: 3178: 3172: 3166: 3160: 3154: 3116:Prussian Prince 3108:Austria isolated 3061:Saxony–Meiningen 2992: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2968: 2962: 2662:Giuseppe Mazzini 2624:Grossdeutschland 2614:Kleindeutschland 2138:, as a Prussian 2117:(related to the 2046:Hambach Festival 2026:Burschenschaften 2022:Carlsbad Decrees 1985:Carlsbad Decrees 1852:Seven Years' War 1746:balance of power 1573:imperial knights 1543:1806 during the 1497: 1487:Duchy of Prussia 1451:Duchy of Austria 1427:imperial circles 1379:Imperial Estates 1359:Ottonian dynasty 1351:Treaty of Verdun 1287:Germanic peoples 1215: 1184: 1176: 1131: 1083:25 member states 1037:federal features 1026: 1025: 1024: 1018: 1013: 988: 981: 974: 890:Entente Cordiale 866:Fashoda Incident 836:Bulgarian Crisis 765: 750: 749: 499:integrated into 497:Duchy of Limburg 431: 430: 419: 418: 407: 406: 395: 394: 383: 382: 371: 370: 359: 358: 340: 339: 338: 328: 327: 326: 316: 315: 314: 304: 303: 292: 291: 290: 280: 279: 278: 268: 267: 266: 256: 255: 244: 243: 232: 231: 220: 219: 208: 207: 196: 195: 194: 184: 183: 172: 171: 160: 159: 148: 147: 136: 135: 127:(leading member) 123: 122: 102: 98: 97: 83: 67: 60:Native name 49: 42: 38: 21: 10123: 10122: 10118: 10117: 10116: 10114: 10113: 10112: 10093:1871 in Germany 10063: 10062: 10061: 10056: 9995:Boxer Rebellion 9953: 9817: 9771:Treaty of Paris 9736: 9730: 9663:New Imperialism 9624:Ottoman decline 9607: 9554:Triple Alliance 9542: 9503:Austria-Hungary 9491: 9486: 9456: 9451: 9443: 9441: 9435: 9409:German question 9390: 9388:Flag of Germany 9357:Alsace–Lorraine 9345: 9231:Baron von Stein 9219: 9210: 9201: 9197:Peace of Prague 9188: 9179: 9170: 9161: 9150: 9141: 9132: 9125: 9111: 9102: 9093: 9084: 9073: 9064: 9053: 9005: 8969:Austria-Hungary 8966: 8964:Austrian Empire 8952: 8947: 8905: 8900: 8878: 8864:Wawro, Geoffrey 8819: 8789:Sorkin, David, 8753: 8736:(2nd ed.). 8717: 8490: 8471: 8431:Further reading 8428: 8414: 8373: 8346: 8332:Wawro, Geoffrey 8302: 8278: 8243: 8213: 8191: 8179:, eds. (1996). 8157: 8130: 8128: 8126: 8074: 8047: 8046: 8037: 8036: 8024: 7997: 7970: 7940: 7913: 7858: 7823: 7804: 7774: 7744: 7717: 7716: 7707: 7706: 7694: 7675: 7647: 7628: 7603: 7602: 7594: 7590: 7535: 7520: 7516: 7501: 7487: 7483: 7475: 7471: 7463: 7459: 7451: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7429:Blackbourn 1998 7427: 7423: 7417:Blackbourn 1998 7415: 7411: 7400: 7394: 7390: 7384:Blackbourn 1998 7382: 7378: 7346: 7305: 7287: 7283: 7267: 7263: 7257:Blackbourn 1998 7255: 7251: 7245:Blackbourn 1998 7243: 7239: 7231: 7227: 7219: 7212: 7204: 7200: 7194:Blackbourn 1998 7192: 7188: 7180: 7176: 7161: 7147: 7143: 7135: 7131: 7123: 7119: 7111: 7107: 7099: 7095: 7087: 7083: 7075: 7071: 7063: 7059: 7051: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7015: 7011: 7003: 6999: 6991: 6987: 6972: 6958: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6930: 6926: 6911: 6897: 6893: 6883:Blackbourn 1998 6881: 6877: 6869: 6865: 6861:, July 1, 1866. 6845: 6841: 6833: 6829: 6821: 6817: 6809: 6805: 6797: 6793: 6785: 6781: 6773: 6769: 6757: 6753: 6748: 6744: 6736: 6732: 6716: 6712: 6704: 6700: 6692: 6688: 6680: 6676: 6668: 6664: 6649: 6635:Hull, Isabel V. 6632: 6628: 6620: 6616: 6608: 6604: 6589: 6575: 6571: 6565:Blackbourn 1998 6563: 6559: 6551: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6528: 6506: 6502: 6493: 6489: 6483:Blackbourn 1998 6481: 6477: 6469: 6465: 6455: 6453: 6442: 6438: 6423: 6406: 6402: 6393: 6389: 6335: 6331: 6323: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6299: 6295: 6286: 6282: 6277: 6273: 6258: 6190: 6145: 6122:Ralf Dahrendorf 6119: 6115: 6109:Blackbourn 1998 6107: 6103: 6087: 6070: 6066: 6060:Blackbourn 1998 6058: 6054: 6040: 6039: 6035: 6020: 6006: 6002: 5983: 5982: 5978: 5968:Baedecker, Karl 5966:Hans Lulfing, 5963: 5962: 5958: 5948: 5946: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5925: 5921: 5913: 5909: 5901: 5897: 5889: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5865: 5861: 5853: 5849: 5837: 5831: 5827: 5816: 5809: 5803:Blackbourn 1998 5797: 5793: 5787:Blackbourn 1998 5785: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5763:Blackbourn 1994 5761: 5757: 5749: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5725: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5701: 5694: 5686: 5679: 5668: 5664: 5656: 5647: 5643:, pp. 1–3. 5639: 5635: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5565: 5548: 5544: 5536: 5532: 5524: 5520: 5512: 5508: 5484: 5463: 5459: 5447: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5423: 5419: 5411: 5407: 5384: 5370: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5344: 5342: 5329: 5325: 5317: 5313: 5298: 5284: 5280: 5257: 5243: 5239: 5224: 5194: 5193: 5165: 5161: 5153: 5149: 5141: 5137: 5123: 5121: 5098: 5094: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5054: 5049: 5045: 5024: 5020: 5010: 4972: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4889:Theodor Mommsen 4877: 4871: 4828:Germanized Jews 4808: 4776: 4770: 4756:German language 4698: 4629: 4585: 4558:Alsace–Lorraine 4550: 4520: 4504: 4488: 4446: 4425: 4404: 4383: 4359: 4335: 4314: 4272: 4244: 4216: 4188: 4167: 4125: 4104: 4083: 4062: 4034: 4013: 4004:Großherzogtümer 3978: 3950: 3922: 3894: 3862: 3858: 3651: 3643: 3633: 3600: 3567: 3530: 3505:Hall of Mirrors 3493: 3435: 3395: 3393:Spanish prelude 3379: 3373: 3345: 3343:War with France 3337:Austria-Hungary 3316:Peace of Prague 3312: 3306: 3274:Hesse Darmstadt 3246:Peace of Prague 3242: 3236: 3227: 3217: 3205:Peace of Prague 3186: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3110: 3017: 2994: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2982: 2978: 2976: 2972: 2970: 2966: 2964: 2960: 2952: 2946: 2938:peace of Vienna 2873: 2867: 2682: 2645: 2597:Karl Nesselrode 2568:German question 2501: 2450: 2444: 2393: 2369: 2301: 2258:An den Frühling 2182: 2093: 2063:July Revolution 1957:Wartburg Castle 1949: 1903: 1897: 1890: 1840:King in Prussia 1815: 1785:and the former 1757:Austrian Empire 1723: 1631:Duchy of Warsaw 1593: 1526:(1801) and the 1508: 1464:Napoleonic Wars 1443:Prince-electors 1439: 1383:Imperial Reform 1371:Diet of Cologne 1335:Frankish Empire 1259: 1235:Austria-Hungary 1233:Austria (under 1187:Peace of Prague 1134:Austrian Empire 1085:and led by the 1020: 1019: 1011: 992: 963: 824:Triple Alliance 720:Alsace–Lorraine 606:County of Glatz 511:Bundespräsidium 506:King of Prussia 464:German monarchy 425: 413: 401: 389: 377: 365: 353: 336: 334: 324: 322: 312: 310: 298: 288: 286: 276: 274: 264: 262: 250: 238: 226: 214: 210:Duchy of Anhalt 202: 192: 190: 178: 166: 154: 142: 130: 117: 92: 91: 81:18 January 1871 75: 55: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10121: 10111: 10110: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10075: 10058: 10057: 10055: 10054: 10049: 10048: 10047: 10046: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10027: 10022: 10012: 10007: 10005:Russo-Japanese 10002: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9970:Anglo-Egyptian 9967: 9961: 9959: 9955: 9954: 9952: 9951: 9946: 9944:Bosnian Crisis 9941: 9940: 9939: 9929: 9928: 9927: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9897: 9896: 9895: 9893:Austro-Italian 9890: 9889: 9888: 9883: 9868: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9825: 9823: 9819: 9818: 9816: 9815: 9810: 9805: 9800: 9795: 9794: 9793: 9791:Martens Clause 9783: 9778: 9773: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9757: 9756: 9746: 9740: 9738: 9732: 9731: 9729: 9728: 9727: 9726: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9705: 9704: 9703: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9677: 9676: 9675: 9673:Egyptian Lever 9660: 9658:Pax Britannica 9655: 9654: 9653: 9643: 9642: 9641: 9639:Sovereign debt 9636: 9631: 9621: 9615: 9613: 9609: 9608: 9606: 9605: 9600: 9595: 9590: 9585: 9584: 9583: 9578: 9573: 9566:Triple Entente 9563: 9562: 9561: 9550: 9548: 9544: 9543: 9541: 9540: 9535: 9533:United Kingdom 9530: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9499: 9497: 9493: 9492: 9485: 9484: 9477: 9470: 9462: 9453: 9452: 9440: 9437: 9436: 9434: 9433: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9406: 9404:Lesser Germany 9397: 9385: 9378: 9371: 9368:Burschenschaft 9364: 9359: 9353: 9351: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9256:Franz Joseph I 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9227: 9225: 9221: 9220: 9218: 9217: 9208: 9199: 9186: 9177: 9168: 9159: 9158: 9157: 9148: 9139: 9122: 9121: 9120: 9109: 9100: 9091: 9071: 9061: 9059: 9055: 9054: 9052: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9024: 9019: 9013: 9011: 9007: 9006: 9004: 9003: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8960: 8958: 8954: 8953: 8946: 8945: 8938: 8931: 8923: 8917: 8916: 8911: 8904: 8903:External links 8901: 8899: 8898: 8876: 8860: 8853: 8839: 8817: 8801: 8787: 8773: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8751: 8729: 8715: 8703:Schulze, Hagen 8699: 8685: 8678: 8666:. Kent, Ohio, 8660: 8653: 8639: 8625: 8611: 8597: 8583: 8571:Groh, John E. 8569: 8555: 8541: 8527: 8513: 8496: 8495: 8494: 8488: 8469: 8456: 8449: 8434: 8427: 8426: 8412: 8400:Zamoyski, Adam 8396: 8395: 8394: 8371: 8344: 8328: 8314: 8300: 8284: 8283: 8282: 8276: 8241: 8225: 8211: 8195: 8189: 8169: 8155: 8137: 8124: 8105: 8104: 8103: 8072: 8056: 8022: 8009: 7995: 7982: 7968: 7952: 7938: 7925: 7911: 7895: 7870: 7856: 7843: 7829: 7828: 7827: 7821: 7802: 7786: 7772: 7756: 7742: 7726: 7692: 7679: 7673: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7645: 7626: 7609: 7601: 7600: 7588: 7584:Nipperdey 1996 7533: 7514: 7499: 7481: 7479:, p. 241. 7469: 7457: 7445: 7433: 7421: 7409: 7388: 7376: 7368:Nipperdey 1996 7344: 7303: 7281: 7261: 7249: 7247:, p. 267. 7237: 7225: 7210: 7208:, p. 302. 7198: 7186: 7174: 7159: 7141: 7139:, p. 133. 7129: 7117: 7105: 7103:, p. 126. 7093: 7091:, p. 235. 7081: 7069: 7057: 7045: 7033: 7021: 7009: 6997: 6985: 6970: 6952: 6940: 6924: 6909: 6891: 6875: 6873:, p. 910. 6863: 6839: 6827: 6815: 6803: 6791: 6789:, p. 909. 6779: 6767: 6761:, p. 96; 6751: 6742: 6730: 6710: 6698: 6686: 6674: 6662: 6647: 6626: 6614: 6602: 6587: 6569: 6557: 6545: 6533: 6526: 6500: 6487: 6475: 6463: 6436: 6421: 6400: 6387: 6329: 6317: 6305: 6293: 6280: 6271: 6256: 6188: 6143: 6126:German History 6113: 6101: 6085: 6064: 6052: 6033: 6018: 6000: 5976: 5956: 5931: 5919: 5917:, p. 458. 5907: 5905:, p. 469. 5895: 5893:, p. 502. 5883: 5871: 5869:, p. 466. 5859: 5857:, p. 465. 5847: 5825: 5807: 5791: 5789:, p. 127. 5779: 5767: 5755: 5743: 5741:, p. 613. 5731: 5729:, p. 612. 5719: 5717:, p. 610. 5707: 5692: 5677: 5662: 5645: 5641:Nipperdey 1996 5633: 5599: 5587: 5563: 5551:Berenger, Jean 5542: 5530: 5518: 5506: 5482: 5457: 5453:Nipperdey 1996 5441: 5429: 5427:, p. 323. 5417: 5405: 5382: 5364: 5362:, p. 434. 5352: 5323: 5311: 5296: 5278: 5255: 5237: 5222: 5159: 5147: 5135: 5101:Heather, Peter 5091: 5090: 5082: 5081: 5072: 5062: 5052: 5043: 5017: 5016: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4978: 4977: 4974:Germany portal 4961: 4958: 4870: 4867: 4807: 4804: 4772:Main article: 4769: 4764: 4697: 4694: 4628: 4625: 4584: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4568: 4554: 4546: 4545: 4532: 4531: 4524: 4516: 4515: 4508: 4500: 4499: 4492: 4484: 4483: 4470: 4469: 4464: 4450: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4429: 4421: 4420: 4415: 4408: 4400: 4399: 4394: 4387: 4379: 4378: 4373: 4363: 4355: 4354: 4349: 4339: 4331: 4330: 4325: 4318: 4310: 4309: 4300:Principalities 4296: 4295: 4290: 4280:Saxe-Meiningen 4276: 4268: 4267: 4262: 4248: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4224:Saxe-Altenburg 4220: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4192: 4184: 4183: 4178: 4171: 4163: 4162: 4149: 4148: 4143: 4129: 4121: 4120: 4115: 4108: 4100: 4099: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4066: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4038: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4017: 4009: 4008: 3995: 3994: 3989: 3982: 3974: 3973: 3968: 3954: 3946: 3945: 3940: 3926: 3918: 3917: 3912: 3898: 3890: 3889: 3876: 3875: 3872: 3863: 3649: 3632: 3629: 3599: 3596: 3566: 3563: 3535:Third Republic 3526:Main article: 3492: 3489: 3434: 3431: 3394: 3391: 3375:Main article: 3372: 3369: 3344: 3341: 3305: 3302: 3241: 3238: 3225: 3216: 3213: 3200:Friedrich Carl 3181: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3118:Friedrich Carl 3109: 3106: 3016: 3015:Choosing sides 3013: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2948:Main article: 2945: 2942: 2893:personal union 2869:Main article: 2866: 2863: 2681: 2675: 2644: 2641: 2633:German dualism 2593:Tsar Alexander 2500: 2497: 2485:exceptionalism 2443: 2440: 2392: 2389: 2368: 2365: 2317:Brothers Grimm 2300: 2297: 2254:Nikolaus Lenau 2222:Friedrich List 2203:Lake Constance 2181: 2178: 2123:intelligentsia 2092: 2089: 2077:Burschenschaft 2058:Hambach Castle 2050:Hambacher Fest 1994:Burschenschaft 1973:Burschenschaft 1948: 1945: 1899:Main article: 1896: 1891: 1889: 1886: 1832:Prince-Elector 1814: 1811: 1803:Duchy of Baden 1795:Duchy of Zator 1767:" (called the 1735:Deutscher Bund 1722: 1719: 1592: 1589: 1541:Jena-Auerstedt 1507: 1504: 1494:Kleinstaaterei 1438: 1435: 1411:Weil der Stadt 1258: 1255: 1163:German dualism 1142:Central Europe 1055:, initially a 1041:Lesser Germany 994: 993: 991: 990: 983: 976: 968: 965: 964: 962: 961: 960: 959: 953: 947: 941: 935: 929: 923: 920:Bosnian Crisis 917: 911: 905: 899: 893: 887: 881: 875: 869: 863: 857: 851: 845: 839: 833: 827: 821: 815: 809: 803: 797: 791: 785: 779: 770: 767: 766: 758: 757: 746: 745: 744: 743: 736: 735: 734: 707: 702: 700:German Emperor 689: 683: 665:Saxe-Lauenburg 654: 641: 628: 599: 569: 548: 523: 514: 508:holder of the 503: 494: 489: 483: 456: 451: 449:Lesser Germany 444: 440: 439: 438: 437: 436: 435: 423: 411: 399: 387: 375: 363: 346: 345: 344: 332: 320: 308: 296: 284: 272: 260: 248: 236: 224: 212: 200: 188: 176: 164: 152: 140: 128: 108: 104: 103: 89: 85: 84: 77:18 August 1866 73: 69: 68: 61: 57: 56: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10120: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10073:Pan-Germanism 10071: 10070: 10068: 10053: 10050: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10030: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10017: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10010:Italo-Turkish 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9965:Russo-Turkish 9963: 9962: 9960: 9956: 9950: 9947: 9945: 9942: 9938: 9937:Treaty of Fes 9935: 9934: 9933: 9932:Agadir Crisis 9930: 9926: 9923: 9922: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9894: 9891: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9881: 9877: 9876: 9875: 9872: 9871: 9869: 9867: 9866: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9827: 9826: 9824: 9820: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9799: 9796: 9792: 9789: 9788: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9777: 9774: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9755: 9752: 9751: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9741: 9739: 9733: 9725: 9722: 9721: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9682: 9681: 9678: 9674: 9671: 9670: 9669: 9666: 9665: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9652: 9649: 9648: 9647: 9644: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9626: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9616: 9614: 9610: 9604: 9603:Balkan League 9601: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9568: 9567: 9564: 9560: 9559:Dual Alliance 9557: 9556: 9555: 9552: 9551: 9549: 9545: 9539: 9538:United States 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9500: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9483: 9478: 9476: 9471: 9469: 9464: 9463: 9460: 9450: 9438: 9432: 9431: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9401: 9400:Pan-Germanism 9398: 9394: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9383: 9379: 9377: 9376: 9372: 9370: 9369: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9354: 9352: 9348: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9296:Archduke John 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9226: 9222: 9216: 9209: 9207: 9200: 9198: 9194: 9187: 9185: 9178: 9176: 9169: 9167: 9160: 9156: 9149: 9147: 9140: 9138: 9131: 9130: 9129: 9123: 9119: 9118: 9110: 9108: 9101: 9099: 9092: 9090: 9083: 9082: 9081: 9080: 9072: 9070: 9063: 9062: 9060: 9056: 9050: 9049:German Empire 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9029: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9014: 9012: 9008: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8970: 8965: 8962: 8961: 8959: 8955: 8951: 8944: 8939: 8937: 8932: 8930: 8925: 8924: 8921: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8906: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8873: 8870:. Routledge. 8869: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8854: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8800: 8796: 8792: 8788: 8786: 8785:0-1950-6536-0 8782: 8778: 8774: 8772: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8754: 8752:0-9798-5009-6 8748: 8744: 8739: 8738: 8735: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8698: 8697:0-8549-6267-0 8694: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8679: 8677: 8676:0-8733-8460-1 8673: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8658: 8654: 8652: 8651:0-5211-1187-0 8648: 8644: 8641:Lüdtke, Alf. 8640: 8638: 8637:0-1950-8326-1 8634: 8630: 8626: 8624: 8623:0-3132-9483-6 8620: 8616: 8612: 8610: 8609:0-7131-6522-7 8606: 8602: 8598: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8584: 8582: 8581:0-8191-2078-2 8578: 8574: 8570: 8568: 8567:0-0601-6866-8 8564: 8560: 8556: 8554: 8553:0-5822-9270-0 8550: 8546: 8542: 8540: 8539:0-1950-5596-9 8536: 8532: 8528: 8526: 8525:0-3132-8004-5 8522: 8518: 8514: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8497: 8491: 8489:0-3336-8758-2 8485: 8481: 8476: 8475: 8472: 8470:0-8549-6653-6 8466: 8462: 8457: 8454: 8450: 8448: 8447:0-8204-1185-X 8444: 8440: 8436: 8435: 8433: 8432: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8390: 8386: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8372:0-5215-8436-1 8368: 8364: 8359: 8358: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8345:0-5215-6059-4 8341: 8337: 8333: 8329: 8327: 8326:0-9014-8630-2 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8269: 8264: 8263: 8260: 8256: 8252: 8248: 8244: 8238: 8234: 8230: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8152: 8148: 8147: 8142: 8138: 8127: 8125:0-313-30984-1 8121: 8117: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8087: 8086: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8073:3-1034-7901-8 8069: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8041: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8019: 8015: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7992: 7988: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7935: 7931: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7876: 7871: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7857:0-6910-7598-0 7853: 7849: 7844: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7824: 7818: 7814: 7809: 7808: 7805: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7773:0-3850-6304-0 7769: 7766:. Doubleday. 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7730:Confino, Alon 7727: 7723: 7711: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7689: 7685: 7680: 7676: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7658: 7654: 7648: 7646:0-1950-7672-9 7642: 7638: 7633: 7632: 7629: 7627:0-6794-1843-1 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7607: 7597: 7592: 7585: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7530: 7526: 7518: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7496: 7492: 7485: 7478: 7473: 7466: 7461: 7454: 7449: 7442: 7437: 7430: 7425: 7418: 7413: 7406: 7398: 7392: 7385: 7380: 7373: 7369: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7345:0-06-492036-4 7341: 7337: 7333: 7328: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7304:0-3000-2386-3 7300: 7296: 7292: 7285: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7265: 7258: 7253: 7246: 7241: 7234: 7229: 7222: 7217: 7215: 7207: 7202: 7195: 7190: 7183: 7178: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7160:0-3333-4038-8 7156: 7152: 7145: 7138: 7133: 7126: 7121: 7114: 7109: 7102: 7097: 7090: 7085: 7078: 7073: 7066: 7061: 7054: 7049: 7042: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7018: 7013: 7006: 7001: 6994: 6989: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6967: 6963: 6956: 6949: 6944: 6938:, Chapter 11. 6937: 6933: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6906: 6902: 6895: 6888: 6884: 6879: 6872: 6867: 6860: 6859: 6854: 6850: 6849: 6843: 6836: 6831: 6824: 6819: 6812: 6807: 6800: 6795: 6788: 6783: 6776: 6771: 6764: 6760: 6755: 6746: 6740:, p. 75. 6739: 6734: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6714: 6707: 6702: 6695: 6690: 6683: 6678: 6672:, p. 40. 6671: 6666: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6630: 6623: 6618: 6611: 6606: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6584: 6580: 6573: 6566: 6561: 6554: 6549: 6543:, p. 27. 6542: 6537: 6529: 6523: 6519: 6514: 6513: 6504: 6497: 6491: 6484: 6479: 6472: 6471:Zamoyski 2007 6467: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6404: 6397: 6391: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6361:Kocka, Jürgen 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6338:Kocka, Jürgen 6333: 6326: 6321: 6314: 6309: 6302: 6297: 6290: 6284: 6275: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6205:Kocka, Jürgen 6199: 6195: 6191: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6176:Kocka, Jürgen 6172: 6168: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6144:3-5253-3340-4 6140: 6136: 6132: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6110: 6105: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6086:0-5822-9446-0 6082: 6078: 6074: 6068: 6061: 6056: 6049: 6048: 6037: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6019:0-2533-1819-X 6015: 6011: 6004: 5997: 5996:3-8924-4463-3 5993: 5989: 5980: 5973: 5969: 5960: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5928: 5923: 5916: 5911: 5904: 5899: 5892: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5868: 5863: 5856: 5851: 5843: 5836: 5829: 5821: 5814: 5812: 5804: 5800: 5795: 5788: 5783: 5776: 5771: 5764: 5759: 5752: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5728: 5723: 5716: 5711: 5704: 5699: 5697: 5689: 5684: 5682: 5675: 5671: 5666: 5659: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5642: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5608:Namier, Lewis 5603: 5596: 5591: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5546: 5539: 5534: 5527: 5526:Zamoyski 2007 5522: 5515: 5510: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5438: 5433: 5426: 5421: 5414: 5409: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5383:0-9000-7537-6 5379: 5375: 5368: 5361: 5356: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5327: 5321:, p. 70. 5320: 5315: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5293: 5289: 5282: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5256:0-2531-6773-6 5252: 5248: 5241: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5198: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5163: 5156: 5151: 5144: 5139: 5132: 5119: 5116: 5112: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5076: 5066: 5056: 5047: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5022: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4997:Pan-Germanism 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4975: 4964: 4957: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4921: 4915: 4912: 4908: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4876: 4866: 4862: 4860: 4859:public sphere 4856: 4855:Germanization 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4803: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4768: 4763: 4761: 4760:Germanization 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4744:Germanization 4741: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4728: 4719: 4718:Deutsches Eck 4715: 4711: 4710:Moselle River 4707: 4702: 4693: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4657: 4656:landed elites 4653: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4597:Imperial Diet 4594: 4590: 4572: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4559: 4555: 4548: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4518: 4517: 4514: 4513: 4502: 4501: 4498: 4497: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4456: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4443: 4440: 4439:Sondershausen 4437: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4422: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4402: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4380: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4371: 4364: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4347: 4345:(Junior Line) 4340: 4333: 4332: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4312: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4294: 4291: 4287: 4282: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4259: 4254: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4226: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4213: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4176: 4172: 4165: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4122: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4101: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4092: 4088: 4081: 4080: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4059: 4056: 4053: 4049: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4031: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3999:Grand Duchies 3996: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3976: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3948: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3919: 3916: 3913: 3911:) as a whole 3909: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3864: 3648: 3647: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3619: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3608:Bundesstaaten 3605: 3604:German Empire 3595: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3522: 3518: 3517:Friedrich III 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3501:German Empire 3497: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3445: 3439: 3430: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3390: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3368: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3324: 3322: 3317: 3311: 3301: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3233: 3232: 3228:article from 3224: 3223: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3173: Austria 3155: Prussia 3148: 3144: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3065:Saxony–Coburg 3062: 3058: 3057:Saxony–Weimar 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3037:Mittelstaaten 3033: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3012: 3010: 3005: 3001: 2969: Austria 2963: Prussia 2956: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2791: 2785: 2784:German Empire 2781: 2777: 2776:Pan-Germanism 2772: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2758: 2757: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2724:would become 2723: 2720:in 1857, and 2719: 2715: 2711: 2710:prince regent 2707: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2680: 2673: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2615: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2522: 2518: 2517:Paul's Church 2514: 2510: 2505: 2496: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2474: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2455:The Great War 2449: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2402: 2401:Paul's Church 2397: 2388: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2364: 2361: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2331:The words of 2329: 2326: 2325:Karl Baedeker 2322: 2318: 2314: 2305: 2296: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2256:'s 1838 poem 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2238:Wilhelm Raabe 2235: 2234:German Empire 2231: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2177: 2175: 2171: 2165: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2142:in 1818, the 2141: 2140:customs union 2137: 2133: 2132: 2126: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2115:potato blight 2110: 2107: 2097: 2088: 2086: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2007: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1986: 1981: 1974: 1969: 1962: 1961:Martin Luther 1958: 1953: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1923: 1922:male suffrage 1918: 1914: 1913: 1908: 1902: 1895: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1860:Maria Theresa 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1819: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1675:French period 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1503: 1501: 1496: 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381: 376: 374: 369: 364: 362: 357: 352: 351: 350: 349:Second phase: 347: 343: 333: 331: 321: 319: 309: 307: 302: 297: 295: 285: 283: 273: 271: 261: 259: 254: 249: 247: 242: 237: 235: 230: 225: 223: 218: 213: 211: 206: 201: 199: 189: 187: 182: 177: 175: 170: 165: 163: 158: 153: 151: 146: 141: 139: 134: 129: 126: 121: 116: 115: 114: 111: 110: 109: 105: 101: 96: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 53: 48: 43: 37: 33: 19: 9878: 9874:Anglo-German 9863: 9833: 9735:Treaties and 9496:Great powers 9428: 9380: 9373: 9366: 9321:Napoleon III 9241:Christian IX 9195: / 9115: 9077: 9039:Erfurt Union 9026: 8949: 8867: 8856: 8842: 8808: 8790: 8776: 8762: 8761:Sked, Alan. 8742: 8733: 8706: 8688: 8681: 8663: 8656: 8642: 8628: 8614: 8600: 8586: 8572: 8558: 8544: 8530: 8516: 8502: 8479: 8460: 8452: 8438: 8430: 8429: 8403: 8362: 8335: 8317: 8291: 8267: 8232: 8202: 8180: 8145: 8129:. 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By 1835, 2186:Heerstraßen 2106:nationalism 2054:county fair 1929:nationalism 1869:Fürstenbund 1836:Brandenburg 1533:Württemberg 1423:Württemberg 1331:Charlemagne 1212:Realpolitik 956:July Crisis 944:Balkan Wars 755:World War I 740:Kulturkampf 553:and former 472:Switzerland 10067:Categories 9737:agreements 9685:Great Game 9651:Revanchism 9028:Zollverein 8060:Mann, Golo 7558:Kohn, Hans 7327:Evans 2005 7233:Evans 2005 7206:Wawro 2003 7089:Wawro 2003 6936:Wawro 1996 6811:Wawro 1996 6799:Wawro 1996 6763:Wawro 1996 6722:Wawro 1996 6396:Evans 1987 5451:, Part 1; 5008:References 4837:Judengasse 4788:chancellor 4418:Rudolstadt 3612:Reichsland 3541:Paris and 3477:Gravelotte 3371:Background 3365:Luxembourg 3268:, and the 3030:von Moltke 2922:needle gun 2855:von Moltke 2654:Karl Blind 2585:Metternich 2511:, also by 2230:Zollverein 2213:, and the 2159:, and the 2144:Zollverein 2131:Zollverein 1933:liberalism 1882:Potato War 1595:Under the 1569:inter alia 1165:presented 1128:Zollverein 1122:absolutist 1012:pronounced 597:Kashubians 567:Kashubians 546:Kursenieki 532:of Poles ( 476:Luxembourg 9700:Meiji era 9547:Alliances 9430:Sonderweg 9341:Wilhelm I 9316:Ludwig II 9236:Charles I 9202:1870–1871 9162:1850-1851 9133:1848–1849 9074:1815–1848 9065:1814–1815 8835:24776092M 8131:March 11, 8110:"Germans" 8082:15250052M 8050:ignored ( 8040:cite book 8032:17517779M 7782:21335583M 7762:(1979) . 7720:ignored ( 7710:cite book 7578:24208090M 7362:21299242M 7169:28022489M 6855:) – 6682:Mann 1958 6622:Mann 1958 6612:, Part I. 6365:Sonderweg 6303:, Part 1. 6291:, Part 1. 6237:159651458 6161:23130743M 5949:April 27, 5620:422057575 5573:891447020 5553:(1997) . 5492:889270087 5400:20208714M 5319:Mann 1958 5273:22078286M 5197:cite book 5087:Citations 5035:Auerstadt 4926:Reichstag 4905:Borussian 4832:Joseph II 4784:Catholics 4686:Sonderweg 4666:Sonderweg 4652:Sonderweg 4644:Rüdesheim 4605:Bundesrat 4587:The 1866 4571:Straßburg 4397:Bückeburg 4293:Meiningen 4237:Altenburg 4196:Brunswick 4118:Oldenburg 4112:Oldenburg 4055:Darmstadt 4027:Karlsruhe 3992:Stuttgart 3638:Hanseatic 3465:Spicheren 2917:Danevirke 2889:Lauenburg 2881:Schleswig 2811:Schleswig 2708:becoming 2621:; in the 2489:Sonderweg 2472:Sonderweg 2377:Rhineland 2321:The Grimm 2273:Nuremberg 2262:To Spring 2153:Rhineland 1769:Bundestag 1713:Borussian 1667:Coalition 1524:Lunéville 1449:from the 1387:Hohenlohe 1319:Baiuvarii 1311:Thuringii 1237:) or its 1077:i.e. the 1045:Habsburgs 946:1912–1913 940:1911–1912 922:1908–1909 904:1906–1908 898:1905–1906 886:1904–1905 862:1898–1912 856:1894–1895 844:1887–1890 838:1885–1888 820:1881–1903 814:1880–1902 812:Boer Wars 796:1875–1878 784:1870–1871 778:1866–1871 657:Schleswig 626:Moravians 618:Silesians 538:Masurians 488:dissolved 8886:50552980 8866:(2000). 8827:27814087 8807:(1994). 8725:2227160M 8705:(1991). 8670:, 1992. 8422:7281494M 8402:(2007). 8389:3566186M 8381:51305920 8334:(1996). 8310:7461954M 8290:(1988). 8259:2867289M 8251:10559169 8231:(1984). 8221:7397485M 8201:(1989). 8165:1273142M 8143:(1996). 8099:5546196M 8062:(1958). 8005:8381260M 7978:4125447W 7958:(1957). 7948:7387583M 7921:7481175M 7901:(1961). 7891:6604098M 7866:4740623M 7792:(1987). 7752:1011446M 7732:(1997). 7702:8730421M 7663:(1984). 7616:(1994). 7560:(1954). 7543:45729918 7509:7714437M 7334:(1978). 7321:4416729M 7293:(1980). 7151:Bismarck 6980:7882098M 6919:9017475M 6657:7848816M 6637:(2005). 6597:4576160M 6579:Bismarck 6456:April 9, 6431:7402365M 6411:(1954). 6266:2382839M 6246:(1982). 6198:8300088M 6133:(1973). 6095:6779824M 6075:(2000). 6047:Germania 6028:1549008M 5628:6114891M 5610:(1952). 5581:7879682M 5514:Lee 1980 5500:3311839M 5472:(2006). 5392:59977347 5334:(1808). 5306:7708659M 5212:(1998). 5189:4590654M 5171:(1975). 5118:Archived 4960:See also 4911:Borussia 4820:Germania 4816:Germania 4636:Germania 4601:suffrage 4076:Schwerin 3880:Kingdoms 3874:Capital 3640:cities. 3602:The new 3559:Lorraine 3539:invested 3513:Bismarck 3456:von Roon 3357:Biarritz 3272:, while 3226:— 3004:Florence 2885:Holstein 2851:von Roon 2815:Holstein 2509:Germania 2288:Pfennigs 2283:Pfennigs 2217:rivers. 2067:Kotzebue 1999:Wartburg 1959:, where 1850:and the 1807:suffrage 1805:, based 1793:and the 1703:Waterloo 1695:Prussian 1683:100 Days 1407:Augsburg 1375:Burgundy 1343:Frisians 1327:Clovis I 1315:Alemanni 1303:Frisians 1218:polities 1154:Habsburg 1118:dynastic 1060:de facto 878:May Coup 712:and the 661:Holstein 652:Walloons 534:Warmians 88:Location 9680:In Asia 9513:Germany 9350:Related 9251:Franz I 9079:Vormärz 8967:(later 8595:9193308 8354:813265M 7883:1115959 7551:689805M 7354:3934998 7313:5353122 6512:Mazzini 5345:June 6, 5265:5563434 5232:466977M 5181:2276157 4706:Koblenz 4682:Junkers 4671:Junkers 4661:Junkers 4617:Bavaria 4512:Hamburg 4467:Arolsen 4328:Detmold 4153:Duchies 3971:Dresden 3964:Sachsen 3930:Bavaria 3908:Preußen 3902:Prussia 3592:Vormärz 3507:at the 3503:in the 3419:Ems Spa 3407:Leopold 3321:Venetia 3258:Hanover 3141:Venetia 3097:Cologne 3041:Bavaria 3009:Landtag 2807:Jutland 2706:William 2577:Italian 2250:Potsdam 2190:macadam 2004:At the 1917:Vormärz 1912:Vormärz 1901:Vormärz 1894:Vormärz 1888:Prelude 1874:dualism 1583:or the 1567:which, 1514:in the 1397:or the 1279:Prussia 1275:Austria 1081:having 1064:Prussia 1033:Germans 902:Pig War 730:of the 671:of the 669:Prussia 631:Lusatia 602:Silesia 468:Austria 443:Outcome 10038:Second 10025:Second 9822:Events 9612:Trends 9528:Russia 9508:France 9224:People 9213: 9204: 9191: 9182: 9173: 9164: 9153: 9144: 9135: 9114: 9105: 9096: 9087: 9076: 9067: 9058:Events 9010:Unions 8957:States 8894:45213M 8892: 8884: 8874: 8859:(2011) 8849: 8833: 8825: 8815: 8797: 8783: 8769: 8749: 8723: 8713: 8695: 8674: 8659:(2004) 8649: 8635: 8621: 8607: 8593: 8579: 8565: 8551: 8537: 8523: 8509: 8486: 8467: 8455:(1997) 8445: 8420: 8410: 8387: 8379: 8369: 8352: 8342: 8324: 8308: 8298: 8274: 8257: 8249: 8239: 8219: 8209: 8187: 8163: 8153: 8122: 8097: 8080: 8070: 8030: 8020: 8003: 7993: 7976: 7966: 7946: 7936: 7919: 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