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power distance as a culture as whole versus a culture's acceptance of hierarchy only within organizational settings). More pointedly, d'Iribarne questions the generalized conclusions that
Hofstede draws from the data, imposing Hofstede's own value system on what the data show. For instance, d'Iribarne questioned Hofstede's conclusions from the uncertainty avoidance statistics, arguing that Hofstede superimposes his own view that data. For d'Iribarne, Hostede simply presumes that showing high stress at work correlates with weak uncertainty avoidance, while d'Iribarne asserts that the presence of high stress could just as readily indicate high stress results from high uncertainty avoidance, since no external control exists in low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Finally, d'Iribarne questions Hofstede's implicit assumption of uniformity in complex organizations, let alone entire national cultures. Such assumptions of uniformity are useful, d'Iribarne writes only "if one thinks of a culture specific to a close-knit community." Instead, though, d'Iribarne notes that in most situations, "society is split into more or less antagonistic groups" and in any case, "meaning is not only received but produced"; in short, Hofstede does not allow for the fact that people do not remain static in how they interact with one another. Philippe d'Iribarne fills out the bare bones of Hofstede's simplified structure, a point with which Hofstede himself acknowledged when he wrote that, "The two approaches are complementary -- mine is more quantitative, d'Iribarne's more qualitative. I provided a skeleton for the countries he studied, and he provided the flesh. The skeleton I proposed is a worldwide structure in cultural differences among cultures."
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application of employee opinion surveys in over 70 national subsidiaries of IBM around the world. He traveled across Europe and the Middle East to interview people and conduct surveys regarding people's behavior in large organizations and how they collaborated. He collected large amounts of data, but the pressures of his daily job made him unable to conduct a significant amount of research. When he took a two-year sabbatical from IBM in 1971, he delved deeper into the data he had collected from his job and discovered that there were significant differences between cultures in other organizations but got the same ranking of answers by country. At the time, the results of the IBM's surveys, with over 100,000 questionnaires, were one of the largest cross-national databases in existence.
354:) in Lausanne, Switzerland. At IMEDE, he administered a selection of IBM questionnaire items to his course participants, who were international managers from over 30 countries and from a variety of different private and public organizations unrelated to IBM. Hofstede found that the same results that he discovered in the IBM surveys had reproduced themselves significantly in the sample of his students. This was the first hard piece of evidence that the differences among countries was not specific to IBM, but, instead, were due to a generalized set of shared socialization skills that were specific to people having grown up in the same country, and not necessarily the same organization.
448:(National Central University, Taiwan), who point out that among other problems with Hofstede's research (and the way it is widely interpreted) is that his results actually only show that around 2 to 4 percent of variance in individual values is explained by national differences – in other words 96 percent, and perhaps more, is not explained. And that there is nothing in Hofstede's work that pertains to individual-level behaviours or actions.
432:(Royal Holloway, University of London and Stockholm University), who argues that Hofstede's claims about the role of national culture indicates too much determinism that might be linked to fundamental flaws in his methodology. Hofstede replied to this critique, arguing that the second edition of his book had responded to many of McSweeney's concerns and that he viewed the resistance to his ideas as a sign that he was
492:”. To avoid this fallacy and resulting confusion Brewer and Venaik recommend avoiding the use of the Hofstede dimension scores in management research and training. The same authors compare the Hofstede culture dimension scores with equivalent dimension scores from the GLOBE culture model and show severe problems in face, discriminant and convergent validity across the two models.
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and background as an engineer shaped his research and his approach to social situations. He claims that his description of social situations appeals to a number of people: "I still have the mind of an engineer to the extent that I try to be specific...and be clear about what I am saying". That was important in his development of quantifying cultures on different dimensions.
550:) found however a large-scale confirmation of Hofstede's value scales with other value survey research results. Especially the dimensions Power Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Long-Term Orientation and Indulgence versus Restraint are closely correlated with value dimensions reported by Inglehart, Schwartz and the current data from the
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A second important period in his life was working in industry between 1955 and 1965, when he held professional and managerial jobs in three different Dutch industrial companies. By experiencing management, he had a chance to see the organization from the bottom up working as a mechanic. This training
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expressed concern that "a theory of culture that considers culture to be 'shared meaning' does not allow for representation of the forms of unity and continuity." Part of d'Iribarne's objections have been with the weaknesses of
Hofstede's terminology in general and category names specifically (e.g.,
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in 1947 as an assistant ship's engineer with abbott
Olivier Perbet. It was his first time out of his country and being immersed in a foreign culture, and it was an early influence in his career to study cross-cultures. He was also influenced by a trip he made to England after meeting an English girl
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Hofstede's analysis defined four initial dimensions of national culture that were positioned against analysis of 40 initial countries. As a trained psychologist, he began his analysis of the survey data he had collected at IBM at the individual respondent level. At the end of two years, he realized
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Upon his graduation from Delft in 1953, Hofstede joined the Dutch military, working as a technical officer in the Dutch army for two years. After leaving the military he worked in industry from 1955 to 1965, starting as a factory hand in
Amsterdam. In 1965 he started his graduate study in Groningen
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Hofstede rejoined IBM and informed it of the enormous database that IBM had at its disposal and wanted to create a research project to continue this new way of examining the data. After a lack of opportunity to conduct his research at IBM, he found two part-time jobs, including one at the
European
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In 1955, Hofstede married Maaike A. van den Hoek. Together, they had four sons: Gert-Jan
Hofstede, who is a population biologist and social scientist in information management; Rokus Hofstede, who works as a translator; Bart Hofstede, a Cultural Counselor for the Kingdom of the Netherlands who has
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In 1980, Hofstede co-founded and became the first
Director for the IRIC, the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, located at Tilburg University since 1998. Much of Hofstede's research on the basic dimensions of nations came through the IRIC. In 2001, Hofstede published an entirely
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business school in
Fontainebleau, France. Between 1973 and 1979, he worked on the data, and analyzed it in a variety of ways. He used existing literature in psychology, sociology, political science, and anthropology to relate his findings in a larger scope of study. In 1980, he published his book
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Hofstede's model explaining national cultural differences and their consequences, when introduced in 1980, came at a time when cultural differences between societies had become increasingly relevant for both economic and political reasons. The analysis of his survey data and his claims led many
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International, Hofstede started working as a management trainer and manager of personnel research, and founded and managed the
Personnel Research Department. This was his transition from the field of engineering and into psychology. In this role, he played an active role in the introduction and
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people living in the sampled countries: In
Hofstede's analysis, the correlations of his culture variables are significant when aggregated to the national level but not significant at the individual level. This means that no cultural implications can be drawn about individual people living in a
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When World War II ended, Geert Hofstede was seventeen and had always lived in the Netherlands under rather difficult circumstances, so he decided that it was time for him to explore the world. He entered technical college in 1945, and had one year of internships, including a voyage to
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Since his retirement in 1993, Hofstede visited numerous universities worldwide to educate students on his theoretical approaches and to continue his research in this field. He was Professor Emeritus of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at
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served in Berlin, Paris and is now serving in Beijing, and Gideon Hofstede, who works as an international marketeer. He also had ten grandchildren. Gert-Jan has worked extensively with his father and co-authored several works in the realm of culture study.
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and joined IBM International, working as a management trainer and manager of personnel research. He founded and managed the Personnel Research Department. During a two-year sabbatical from IBM from 1971 to 1973 he was a visiting lecturer at IMEDE (now the
167:, co-authored with his son Gert Jan Hofstede. The latter book deals with organizational culture, which is a different structure from national culture, but also has measurable dimensions, and the same research methodology is used for both.
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as co-authors. In this book, there were two new dimensions that were added, and the number of countries covered was between 76 and 93. This book also introduced the topic of organizational cultures as a separate and different phenomenon.
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330:. He was struck by the cultural differences that he noticed between England and the Netherlands, two very close European countries. These early experiences helped translate into a lifelong career in cross-cultural research.
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Despite the popularity of Hofstede's model, some critics have argued that his conceptualization of culture and its impact on people's behavior might be incorrect. The most cited criticism of his work is by Professor
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he needed an "ecological" analysis, in which respondents were contextualized by their countries. By aggregating individuals as societal units, he could examine national cultures rather than individual personalities.
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by mirroring it against its own assumptions and logic. Ailon finds several inconsistencies at the level of both theory and methodology, and cautions against an uncritical reading of Hofstede's cultural dimensions.
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In 2009, Reputation Institute, which "recognizes individuals who have greatly contributed to the field of reputation through both scholarship and practice", nominated Hofstede as the Best Scholar of the year.
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Other academics also point to a fundamental flaw in the common application of Hofstede's culture dimensions. Hofstede's culture dimensions and scores are national or "ecological" in nature and do not apply to
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in cross-cultural studies. McSweeney has rejected Hofstede's reply, arguing that the same profound methodological flaws that characterize the original analysis of the IBM data remain in the second edition.
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Hofstede's books have appeared in 23 languages. His publications have been cited several ten thousand times, which makes him one of the currently most cited European social scientist.
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Hofstede, Geert (1999) "Problems Remain But Theories Will Change: The Universal and the Specific in 21st Century Global Management," Organizational Dynamics 28 (1), pp.. 34-44.
199:). In 1980, Hofstede co-founded and became the first Director for the IRIC, the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, located at Tilburg University since 1998.
1453:(1997), "The Usefulness of an Ethnographic Approach to the International Comparison of Organizations," International Studies in Management and Organizations, 27 (4) pp. 3–29.
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House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W. & Vipin, G. 2004. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks: Sage
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Gerhart, B. and Fang, M. (2005) National Culture and Human Resource Management: Assumptions and Evidence, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16.6, 971–986
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launched the Geert Hofstede Fund, aiming at encouraging activities around multicultural interactions and research about the impact of cultural differences.
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In 2008, six European universities united to create the Master in International Communication (MIC), and named themselves the Geert Hofstede Consortium.
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Venaik, S., & Brewer, P. (2013). Critical issues in the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture models. International Marketing Review, 30(5), 469-482.
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877:, Economics in Maastricht had to be intimidatingly different, more international and better, in: Annemieke Klijn, The Maastricht Experiment, 2016.
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groups and organizations and played a major role in developing a systematic framework for assessing and differentiating national cultures and
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312:. His studies demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groups that influence the behavior of societies and organizations.
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1441:(Dec. 2009), "National Cultures and Organisations in Search of a Theory", Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, Vol. 9, Iss. 3, pp. 309–21.
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Venaik, S. & Brewer, p. 2016. National culture dimensions: the perpetuation of cultural ignorance. Management Learning, 47(5), 563-589
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in The Netherlands, and received his PhD in social psychology cum laude in 1967. His thesis was titled "The Game of Budget Control".
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Brewer, P., & Venaik, S. (2012). On the misuse of national culture dimensions. International Marketing Review, 29(6), 673-683.
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with an MSc in Mechanical Engineering. After working in the industry for ten years, Hofstede entered part-time doctoral study at
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Brewer, P. & Venaik, S. 2014. The ecological fallacy in national culture research. Organization Studies, 35(7), 1063-1086.
649:
Hofstede, Geert (July 1967). "The Game of Budget Control: How to Live with Budgetary Standards and Yet be Motivated by Them".
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McSweeney, B. (2002a) Hofstede's Identification of National Cultural Differences – A Triumph of Faith a Failure of Analysis,
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Hofstede authored and co-authored numerous publications in the field of social psychology and sociocultural anthropology.
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Geert Hofstede Friends (group of International professionals continuing Geert's work (led by Prof. Gert Jan Hofstede)
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established the Geert Hofstede Lecture, a bi-annual conference in the area of intercultural communication. In 2006,
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Institute for Advanced Studies in Brussels as a Professor of Management, while simultaneously teaching part-time at
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Tausch, Arno, Hofstede, Inglehart and Beyond. New Directions in Empirical Global Value Research (14 May 2015).
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Hofstede, Geert (December 1983). "Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values".
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In 2016, he received his 9th honorary doctorate in Prague, at the age of 88. He died on February 12, 2020.
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Culture's Consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations
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management practitioners to embrace the model, especially after the publication of his 1991 book,
183:, and received his high school diploma (Gymnasium Beta) in 1945. In 1953, Hofstede graduated from
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218:(Orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw). He held honorary doctorates from seven universities in Europe,
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employee, and Professor Emeritus of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at
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309:
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159:, Masculinity, Long Term Orientation, and Indulgence vs. restraint. He was known for his books
1228:"The Conferral of the Degree of Doctor Oeconomiae Honoris Causa upon Professor Geert Hofstede"
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Born to Gerrit and Evertine Geessine (Veenhoven) Hofstede, Geert Hofstede attended schools in
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in the Netherlands, and served as an extramural fellow of the Center of Economic Research at
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Hofstede was a researcher in the fields of organizational studies and more concretely
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He received much recognition for his work in cross-cultural analysis. In 2004, the
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899:"Commemorating Geert Hofstede, a pioneer in the study of culture and institutions"
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Hofstede, Geert (December 1986). "Cultural differences in teaching and learning".
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Another key critique, which largely focuses on level of analysis, is by Professor
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introduced to him by a friend of his family Alain Meiar, where he experienced
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Hofstede, Geert (July 1978). "The Poverty of Management Control Philosophy".
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Hofstede received many honorary awards, and in 2011 was made a Knight in the
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Hofstede, G. (2002) Dimensions Do Not Exist: A Reply to Brendan McSweeney,
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McSweeney, B. (2002b) The Essentials of Scholarship: A Reply to Hofstede,
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Hoppe, Michael H. (February 2004). "An Interview with Geert Hofstede".
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In a re-analysis of the cross-national value data, based on Hofstede,
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He is best known for developing one of the earliest and most popular
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frameworks for measuring cultural dimensions in a global perspective
1310:"Culture Does Not Exist—An Interview with Professor Geert Hofstede"
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1418:"Metapress | A Fast Growing Resource for Young Entrepreneurs"
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Honorary Members of SCOPE Maastricht and predecessor associations
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727:(3). International Academy for Intercultural Research: 301–320.
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Hofstede, Geert (2010). "The GLOBE debate: Back to relevance".
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In 2014, a movie was released about Hofstede's life and work,
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in the Netherlands, well known for his pioneering research on
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1107:(Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research)
147:. Here he described national cultures along six dimensions:
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An Engineer's Odyssey, the life and work of Geert Hofstede
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inaugurated a Geert Hofstede Chair in cultural diversity.
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was published with Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael H. Bond and
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Beijing University of International Business and Economics
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129:
1657:"Unique archives in the University of Groningen Library"
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International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
781:"Dimensions Do Not Exist: A reply to Brendan McSweeney"
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Maastricht University School of Business and Economics
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The Archives of Geert Hofstede at the Library of the
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in 2012. He also received honorary professorships at
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1375:
367:, where the results of his analysis were presented.
1260:International Journal of Cross Cultural Management
742:"Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"
474:(Centre national de la recherche scientifique) in
352:International Institute for Management Development
197:International Institute for Management Development
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304:. He was a well-known pioneer in his research of
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987:Cultures and organizations: software of the mind
721:International Journal of Intercultural Relations
444:(University of Wisconsin-Madison) and Professor
405:Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind
393:Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind
381:
350:He became a visiting lecturer at IMEDE (now the
165:Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind
124:(2 October 1928 – 12 February 2020) was a Dutch
19:"Hofstede" redirects here. For the surname, see
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989:(Revised and expanded 2nd ed.). New York:
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455:'s journal, The Academy of Management Review,
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1110:1992 Honorary Member, EFM Imperator (today:
985:Hofstede, Geert; Hofstede, Gert Jan (2005).
607:are open to the public as of February 2020.
1054:
488:certain country; to do so is to commit an “
371:Research on national cultures and critiques
228:Athens University of Economics and Business
1576:Geert Hofstede Chair in cultural diversity
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1757:Academic staff of Maastricht University
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1615:. Reputation Institute. Archived from
1083:, Section of Economics and Law, 2010 (
1015:
1742:Delft University of Technology alumni
1737:Researchers in organizational studies
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756:Johnson Graduate School of Management
696:Johnson Graduate School of Management
628:(3). Academy of Management: 450–461.
377:Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory
1752:Academic staff of Tilburg University
796:(11). Sage Publications: 1355–1361.
315:
1312:. Centre for Intercultural Learning
1065:Personal Communication with P.Singh
952:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
13:
1159:AIB Fellows' Eminent Scholar Award
903:Journal of Institutional Economics
14:
1773:
1690:Geert Hofstede's academic website
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1155:Academy of International Business
832:(8). Sage Publications: 1339–46.
1207:Siegmund Audiovisuele Produkties
1038:. Geert Hofstede. Archived from
897:; Kroese, Annelie L. J. (2021).
747:Administrative Science Quarterly
687:Administrative Science Quarterly
622:The Academy of Management Review
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1333:Academy of Management Executive
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1253:Jackson, Terence (April 2020).
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1097:International Honorary Member,
758:, Cornell University: 132–134.
698:, Cornell University: 625–629.
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548:Corvinus University of Budapest
434:shifting the prevalent paradigm
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1255:"The legacy of Geert Hofstede"
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1176:. 25 July 2011. Archived from
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978:
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779:Hofstede, Geert (March 2002).
740:Hofstede, Geert (March 1993).
470:, director of research at the
403:. In 2010, a third edition of
16:Dutch psychologist (1928–2020)
1:
1385:, 55, November, pp. 1355–1361
1081:Hungarian Academy of Sciences
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399:re-written second edition of
382:Research on national cultures
216:Order of the Netherlands Lion
733:10.1016/0147-1767(86)90015-5
661:Operational Research Society
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220:Nyenrode Business University
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7:
1595:"Geert Hofstede Consortium"
1174:"NBU Doctors Honoris Causa"
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252:The University of Hong Kong
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1727:Dutch social psychologists
567:Hanze University Groningen
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264:Renmin University of China
185:Delft Technical University
140:groups and organizations.
18:
1467:d'Iribarne (2009), p. 310
1345:10.5465/ame.2004.12689650
1199:Siegmund, Marcel (2014).
1141:Honorary Fellows of IACCP
916:10.1017/S174413742000051X
802:10.1177/00187267025511004
451:In a 2008 article in the
211:in Tilburg, Netherlands.
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98:cross-cultural psychology
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37:
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1700:27 November 2022 at the
1274:10.1177/1470595820915088
948:Hofstede, Geert (2001).
232:University of Gothenburg
224:New Bulgarian University
1676:Google Scholar Profile.
1661:University of Groningen
1581:1 February 2012 at the
605:University of Groningen
310:organizational cultures
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42:Gerard Hendrik Hofstede
1732:Cultural psychologists
1153:1998 Eminent Scholar,
1135:2006 Honorary Fellow,
1121:14 August 2012 at the
1090:7 October 2011 at the
461:Culture's Consequences
401:Culture's Consequences
365:Culture's Consequences
294:organizational culture
161:Culture's Consequences
1639:"Geert Hofstede Fund"
1130:Academy of Management
575:Maastricht University
558:Reception of his work
453:Academy of Management
279:An Engineer's Odyssey
205:Maastricht University
157:Uncertainty avoidance
134:Maastricht University
1536:10.2139/ssrn.2606243
1451:d'Iribarne, Philippe
1439:d’Iribarne, Philippe
1234:on 27 September 2016
1146:19 July 2011 at the
838:10.1057/jibs.2010.31
819:on 16 December 2010.
189:Groningen University
1762:People from Haarlem
1085:MTA honorary member
895:Sent, Esther-Mirjam
552:World Values Survey
509:World Values Survey
468:Philippe d'Iribarne
248:University of Tartu
236:University of Liège
126:social psychologist
1663:. 4 February 2020.
1645:on 7 October 2011.
1398:, 55.11, 1363–1372
490:ecological fallacy
298:cultural economics
244:University of Pécs
209:Tilburg University
21:Hofstede (surname)
1613:"RI Hall of Fame"
1601:on 13 April 2011.
1428:on 29 April 2016.
1157:, United States (
1103:Honorary Member,
1079:Honorary member,
1076:Honorary awards:
1000:978-0-07-143959-6
963:978-0-8039-7323-7
954:SAGE Publications
883:978 94 6004 310 9
591:In October 2010,
430:Brendan McSweeney
316:Early inspiration
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94:Social psychology
84:Scientific career
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67:Ede, Netherlands
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60:12 February 2020
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764:10.2307/2393257
704:10.2307/2393017
669:10.2307/3008751
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579:the Netherlands
571:the Netherlands
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505:factor analysis
497:Shalom Schwartz
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1555:
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1361:
1339:(1): 75–79.
1336:
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1264:
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1232:the original
1222:
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991:McGraw-Hill
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457:Galit Ailon
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862:References
507:of recent
485:individual
446:Meiyu Fang
302:management
262:; and the
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1283:1470-5958
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423:Critiques
323:Indonesia
181:Apeldoorn
177:The Hague
171:Biography
1698:Archived
1623:30 March
1579:Archived
1316:11 April
1144:Archived
1128:Fellow,
1119:Archived
1088:Archived
1046:29 March
1009:57069196
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599:Archives
258:(UIBE),
122:Hofstede
1561:25 July
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768:JSTOR
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