1385:
41:
29:
2007:
2031:
2019:
219:; the hotspot interacts with both plates and the spreading ridge over the last twenty million years as the relative location of the hotspot in relation to the plates has varied. Based on similar seismic velocity gradients of the lavas of the Carnegie, Cocos and Malpelos Ridges there is evidence that the hotspot activity has been the result of a single long mantle melt rather than multiple periods of activity and dormancy.
607:), characteristic of that island's lavas. It is thought that this reservoir came from subducted ocean crust that has been entrained by the mantle plume. It has enriched Sr and Pb ratios and is enriched with trace elements. FLO is associated principally with the island of Floreana and shows up on the mixing of lavas within the Galapagos along the southern side archipelago and is diluted to the east and north of there.
2043:
522:
Spreading Centre starts to rift the
Malpelo Ridge away from the Carnegie Ridge. The majority of the hotspot lavas are created on the Cocos plate resulting in the formation of the Cocos Ridge. The lavas formed here are similar to the types erupted on the western shield volcanoes of the Galapagos, which are predominantly plume.
200:, where historic islands could be traced to the northwest in the direction that the Pacific Plate is moving. The early theory put these fixed sources of heat for the plumes deep within the Earth; however, recent research has led scientists to believe that hotspots are actually dynamic, and able to move on their own accord.
488:
The movement of the Nazca and Cocos plates have been tracked. The Nazca plate moves at 90 degrees at a rate of 58±2 km per million years. The Cocos Plate moves at 41 degrees at a rate of 83±3 km per million years. The location of the hotspot over time is recorded in the oceanic plate as the
521:
From 14.5 million years to 12.5 million years ago: the
Galapagos Spreading Centre moved south and the ridge overlay the southern edge of the hotspot. Less material is erupted over the Nazca plate resulted in the saddle being formed in the Carnegie Ridge. The movement of the location of the Galapagos
504:
at the northern end of the ridge is only 2 million years old, and was therefore created at a time well after the ridge had moved away from the hotspot. The presence of a pronounced sedimentary hiatus in sediments on the Cocos Ridge indicates that the Cocos Ridge was probably buckled upon its initial
492:
The
Carnegie Ridge is on the Nazca plate is 600 km (373 mi) long and up to 300 km (186 mi) wide. It is orientated parallel to the plate movement, and its eastern end is approximately 20 million years old. There is a prominent saddle in the ridge at 86 degrees West where
534:
3.5 million to 2 million years ago: A short-lived east–west trending spreading centre is formed north of the
Galapagos Spreading Centre. This new rift fails but leads to post abandonment volcanic activity and the subsequent formation of the Cocos Island and surrounding seamounts. Around the hotspot
508:
The current model for the interaction of the hotspot and the spreading centre between the Cocos and Nazca plates attempts to explain the ridges on both plates; the split between the
Carnegie and Malpelo Ridge and subsequent volcanic activity away from the hotspot. There have been eight major phases
581:
DGM – (Depleted
Galapagos Mantle), this has similar characteristics to ocean ridge basalts throughout the Pacific and the Galapagos Spreading Centre. Partial melting of the upper mantle as a result of the spreading centre will leave mantle material depleted in some compounds. It has low Sr and Pb
222:
In Hawaii the evidence suggests that each volcano has a distinct period of activity as the hotspot moves under that portion of the
Pacific plate before becoming dormant and then extinct and eroding under the ocean. This does not appear to be the case in the Galapagos, instead there is evidence of
165:
The hotspot is believed to be over 20 million years old and in that time there has been interaction between the hotspot, both of these plates, and the divergent plate boundary, at the
Galapagos Spreading Centre. Lavas from the hotspot do not exhibit the homogeneous nature of many hotspots; instead
562:
PLUME – this is magma associated with the plume itself and is similar to magmas from other ocean islands within the
Pacific. It has the characteristics of intermediate Strontium (Sr), Neodymium (Nd) and Lead (Pb) ratios. The PLUME lavas are found predominantly in the west of the islands, around
187:
proposed the "hotspot" theory to explain why although most earthquake and volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries, some occurs far from plate boundaries. The theory claimed that small, long-lasting, exceptionally "hot" areas of magma are located under certain points on Earth. These places,
575:
or being relatively cool at formation in the mantle. They are then found in lower quantities in a horseshoe pattern north and south of the central islands mixing with the other reservoirs as it progresses east. PLUME lavas are also found in the lavas from the
Galapagos Spreading Centre due to
571:, which is near to the current position of the hotspot. The PLUME lavas erupted on Fernandina and Isabela are relatively cool. Analysis shows that they are as much as 100 degrees Celsius cooler than those in Hawaii. The cause of this is not fully understood but may be due to cooling in the
576:
convection and mixing of all of these lavas. In the upper mantle convection currents bring in mantle material at shallow angles from the south of the Galapagos Spreading Centre. These convection current will draw in some PLUME type magma to the spreading centre where it is then erupted.
223:
concurrent volcanism over a wide area. Nearly all Galapagos Islands show volcanism in the recent geological past, not just at the current location of the hotspot at Fernandina. The list below gives the last eruption dates for the Galapagos volcanoes, ordered from West to East.
554:
Analysis of the radioactive isotopes of the lavas on the islands of the Galapagos archipelago and on the Carnegie Ridge shows that there are four major reservoirs of magma that mix in varying combinations to form the volcanic province.
196:, the magma supply is cut, and the volcano goes dormant. Meanwhile, the process repeats all over again, this time forming a new island, on and on until the hotspot collapses. The theory was developed to explain the
531:
5.2 million years ago to 3.5 million years ago: the Galapagos Spreading Centre has another ridge jump, moving northwards with the plume now erupting on the Nazca plate, similar to the present orientation.
513:
19.5 million years – 14.5 million years ago: the hotspot was located on the Nazca plate, forming a combined Carnegie and Malpelo Ridge. The type of lava erupted was a mix of plume material and depleted
162:. The movement of the plates over the hotspot is determined not solely by the spreading along the ridge but also by the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and the Cocos and Nazca Plates.
538:
2.6 million years ago: a major transform fault occurs north of the Galapagos hotspot. This results in widespread volcanism in the northern Galapagos along the Wolf Darwin Lineament and around
620:
and the seamounts that connect them along the Wolf Darwin Lineament. It has a unique Pb ratio. WD is located along the northern side of the archipelago and dilutes to the east and south.
192:
that eventually rise above the ocean current, forming volcanic islands. As the islands slowly moved away from the hotspot, by the motion of sliding plates as described by the theory of
166:
there is evidence of four major reservoirs feeding the hotspot. These mix to varying degrees at different locations on the archipelago and also within the Galapagos Spreading Centre.
493:
the height drops much closer to the surrounding ocean floor. The Malpelo Ridge, which is 300 km (186 mi) long was once believed to be part of the Carnegie Ridge.
829:"Paleomagnetic constraints on the tectonic evolution of the Costa Rican subduction zone: New results from sedimentary successions of IODP drill sites from the Cocos Ridge"
1384:
188:
dubbed "hotspots", provide localized heat and energy systems (thermal plumes) that sustain long-lasting volcanic activity on the surface. This volcanism builds up
914:
525:
12 million years to 11 million years: The Galapagos hotspot is centred under the Galapagos Spreading Centre. plume-type lavas are now abundant on the Cocos Ridge.
500:
at the Galapagos Spreading Centre towards the Panamanian coast. The north eastern end of the ridge dates from about 13–14.5 million years ago. However,
892:
347:
496:
The Cocos Ridge is a 1000 km long feature located on the Cocos plate and is orientated parallel to the plates motion from the 91 degree west
246:
2074:
1307:
86:
732:"Migration of Widespread Long-Lived Volcanism Across the Galápagos Volcanic Province: Evidence for a Broad Hotspot Melting Anomaly?"
2069:
635:
208:
The Galapagos hotspot has a very complicated tectonic setting. It is located very close to the spreading ridge between the
612:
WD – (Wolf Darwin) is unique in the Pacific and resembles material from an Indian Ocean Ridge system. It is found on the
1754:
287:
1932:
964:
921:
545:
Present : The Galapagos hotspot is south of the spreading centre and there is geochemical zonation of the plume.
239:
2047:
630:
587:
367:
267:
197:
1952:
782:"The Cocos and Carnegie Aseismic Ridges: a Trace Element Record of Long-term Plume-Spreading Center Interaction"
45:
The Galápagos Islands, with a red dot over Isla Fernandina to show the approximate location of the mantle plume
1393:
1324:
827:
Li, Yong-Xiang; Zhao, Xixi; Jovane, Luigi; Petronotis, Katerina E.; Gong, Zheng; Xie, Siyi (1 December 2015).
583:
337:
1481:
1300:
709:"Crustal seismology helps constrain the nature of mantle melting anomalies: The Galápagos Volcanic Province"
896:
297:
232:
79:
1837:
1654:
1694:
155:
1141:
2035:
1293:
1276:
1113:
868:
568:
1885:
682:
598:. It fills in the centre of the horseshoe formed by the PLUME lavas to the west, north and south.
2023:
1927:
582:
isotope ratios and high Nd ratios. DGM is found in the central islands of the Galapagos such as
1589:
1549:
591:
397:
1980:
1942:
1937:
1920:
1674:
1098:
957:
780:
Harpp, Karen S.; Wanless, Virginia D.; Otto, Robert H.; Hoernle, Kaj; Werner, Reinhard (2005).
33:
Bathymetric map of the Galápagos Islands and the effects of the hotspot on the tectonic plates
1347:
1090:
1855:
1777:
1767:
1714:
1709:
1649:
1514:
1451:
1374:
1364:
1247:
1151:
1037:
515:
1554:
135:
64:
8:
1970:
1739:
1504:
1169:
1022:
518:, similar to the type of lava found in the central Galapagos islands at the current time.
1985:
1975:
1900:
1895:
1792:
1639:
1584:
1441:
1207:
1042:
1027:
915:"Tracing a mantle plume: Isotopic and trace element variations of Galapagos seamounts"
447:
142:, Cocos and Malpelo which are on two tectonic plates. The hotspot is located near the
1905:
1870:
1704:
1644:
1634:
1594:
1529:
1227:
1217:
1212:
1108:
1080:
999:
973:
950:
850:
708:
564:
175:
127:
357:
1910:
1609:
1494:
1352:
1260:
1222:
1103:
840:
793:
731:
683:"The 'fixed' hotspot that formed Hawaii may not be stationary, scientists conclude"
656:
457:
1915:
1850:
1734:
1569:
1564:
1519:
1509:
1499:
1416:
1337:
1316:
1255:
1237:
1164:
1075:
1047:
989:
981:
595:
539:
497:
477:
387:
377:
317:
193:
528:
9.5 million years ago: the rifting between the Carnegie and Malpelo Ridges ends.
40:
2011:
1875:
1827:
1782:
1744:
1699:
1599:
1539:
1489:
1421:
1342:
1202:
1159:
1131:
1065:
1057:
1017:
994:
798:
781:
307:
216:
184:
139:
815:
761:
277:
2063:
1990:
1822:
1812:
1807:
1797:
1787:
1772:
1689:
1659:
1629:
1614:
1604:
1579:
1574:
1471:
1446:
1406:
1401:
1369:
1332:
1232:
1192:
1187:
1179:
1070:
1032:
1009:
854:
617:
417:
159:
131:
101:
88:
1880:
1762:
1684:
1679:
1664:
1544:
1534:
1461:
1456:
1431:
1357:
1272:
1197:
501:
407:
327:
181:
28:
1965:
1960:
1890:
1865:
1860:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1669:
1624:
1619:
1559:
1524:
1466:
1436:
1426:
1411:
1123:
845:
828:
613:
572:
437:
427:
213:
209:
151:
147:
1845:
1802:
2006:
1817:
189:
604:
1285:
143:
124:
54:
467:
154:. The tectonic setting of the hotspot is complicated by the
942:
660:
870:
Northern Galapagos Province Hotspot Near Ridge Volcanism
779:
920:. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. Archived from
826:
505:
shallow subduction along the Middle American Trench.
775:
773:
771:
769:
150:not far from the divergent plate boundary with the
706:
908:
906:
766:
2061:
723:
674:
138:as well as three major aseismic ridge systems,
903:
811:
809:
1301:
958:
757:
755:
753:
751:
749:
240:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
729:
895:. Charles Darwin Foundation. Archived from
806:
2018:
1308:
1294:
965:
951:
890:
746:
702:
700:
247:
233:
39:
27:
875:
844:
797:
861:
697:
158:of the Nazca and Cocos plates with the
2062:
654:
1289:
946:
912:
680:
2042:
891:Harpp, Karen; Geist, Dennis (2006).
833:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
730:O'Connor, John M. (8 January 2008).
134:responsible for the creation of the
1315:
657:""Hotspots": Mantle thermal plumes"
203:
13:
681:Uhlik, Caroline (8 January 2003).
636:Volcanoes of the Galápagos Islands
14:
2086:
549:
169:
2075:Geology of the Galápagos Islands
2041:
2030:
2029:
2017:
2005:
1383:
631:Caribbean large igneous province
198:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain
1933:South American–Antarctic Ridge
820:
648:
509:in the last 20 million years.
1:
2070:Hotspots of the Pacific Ocean
641:
972:
7:
707:Sallarès, Vallenti (2005).
624:
489:Carnegie and Cocos Ridges.
228:List of Galápagos volcanoes
10:
2091:
1886:Galápagos Spreading Center
655:Watson, Jim (5 May 1999).
173:
1999:
1951:
1836:
1753:
1480:
1392:
1381:
1323:
1269:
1246:
1178:
1150:
1122:
1089:
1056:
1008:
980:
156:Galapagos Triple Junction
78:
70:
60:
50:
38:
26:
799:10.1093/petrology/egh064
535:plume lavas predominate.
18:Pacific volcanic hotspot
1928:Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
1981:Pacific-Farallon Ridge
1953:Ancient oceanic ridges
1943:Southwest Indian Ridge
1938:Southeast Indian Ridge
1675:Philippine Mobile Belt
1271:Proposed mechanisms:
1091:Indo-Australian Plate
913:Harpp, Karen (2001).
893:"Galapagos Plumology"
1856:Central Indian Ridge
1248:South American Plate
1152:North American Plate
846:10.1002/2015GC006058
786:Journal of Petrology
558:The four types are:
398:San Cristóbal Island
1971:Kula-Farallon Ridge
255:
98: /
23:
2012:Geology portal
1986:Pacific-Kula Ridge
1976:Mid-Labrador Ridge
1901:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
1896:Juan de Fuca Ridge
734:. mantleplumes.org
711:. Mantleplumes.org
226:
180:In 1963, Canadian
21:
2057:
2056:
1871:East Pacific Rise
1283:
1282:
839:(12): 4479–4493.
685:. Stanford Report
486:
485:
368:Santa Cruz Island
176:Hotspot (geology)
136:Galápagos Islands
121:Galápagos hotspot
117:
116:
65:Galápagos Islands
22:Galápagos hotspot
2082:
2045:
2044:
2033:
2032:
2021:
2020:
2010:
2009:
1911:Kolbeinsey Ridge
1387:
1310:
1303:
1296:
1287:
1286:
967:
960:
953:
944:
943:
937:
936:
934:
932:
926:
919:
910:
901:
900:
899:on 10 June 2007.
888:
873:
865:
859:
858:
848:
824:
818:
816:Mantleplumes.org
813:
804:
803:
801:
777:
764:
762:Mantleplumes.org
759:
744:
743:
741:
739:
727:
721:
720:
718:
716:
704:
695:
694:
692:
690:
678:
672:
671:
669:
667:
652:
256:
249:
242:
235:
225:
204:Tectonic setting
113:
112:
110:
109:
108:
103:
99:
96:
95:
94:
91:
43:
31:
24:
20:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2004:
1995:
1947:
1921:Reykjanes Ridge
1906:Knipovich Ridge
1851:Carlsberg Ridge
1832:
1749:
1655:North Galápagos
1476:
1388:
1379:
1348:Indo-Australian
1319:
1317:Tectonic plates
1314:
1284:
1279:
1265:
1242:
1174:
1146:
1118:
1085:
1052:
1004:
982:Antarctic Plate
976:
971:
941:
940:
930:
928:
927:on 20 July 2011
924:
917:
911:
904:
889:
876:
866:
862:
825:
821:
814:
807:
778:
767:
760:
747:
737:
735:
728:
724:
714:
712:
705:
698:
688:
686:
679:
675:
665:
663:
653:
649:
644:
627:
569:Isabela Islands
552:
540:Genovesa Island
498:transform fault
388:Genovesa Island
378:Floreana Island
338:Santiago Island
318:Marchena Island
254:
253:
206:
194:plate tectonics
178:
172:
106:
104:
100:
97:
92:
89:
87:
85:
84:
46:
34:
19:
12:
11:
5:
2088:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2039:
2027:
2015:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1957:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1876:Explorer Ridge
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1840:
1838:Oceanic ridges
1834:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1768:Bellingshausen
1765:
1759:
1757:
1755:Ancient plates
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1715:South Sandwich
1712:
1710:South Bismarck
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1650:North Bismarck
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1590:Juan Fernández
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1398:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1377:
1375:South American
1372:
1367:
1365:North American
1362:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1329:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1313:
1312:
1305:
1298:
1290:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1252:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1144:
1142:Juan Fernández
1139:
1134:
1128:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1099:East Australia
1095:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1058:Eurasian Plate
1054:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1014:
1012:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1002:
997:
992:
986:
984:
978:
977:
970:
969:
962:
955:
947:
939:
938:
902:
874:
860:
819:
805:
792:(1): 109–133.
765:
745:
722:
696:
673:
646:
645:
643:
640:
639:
638:
633:
626:
623:
622:
621:
618:Darwin Islands
609:
608:
600:
599:
578:
577:
551:
550:Lava chemistry
548:
547:
546:
543:
536:
532:
529:
526:
523:
519:
484:
483:
480:
474:
473:
470:
464:
463:
460:
454:
453:
450:
444:
443:
440:
434:
433:
430:
424:
423:
420:
414:
413:
410:
404:
403:
400:
394:
393:
390:
384:
383:
380:
374:
373:
370:
364:
363:
360:
354:
353:
350:
344:
343:
340:
334:
333:
330:
324:
323:
320:
314:
313:
310:
304:
303:
300:
294:
293:
290:
284:
283:
280:
274:
273:
270:
264:
263:
262:Last eruption
260:
252:
251:
244:
237:
229:
227:
205:
202:
185:J. Tuzo Wilson
174:Main article:
171:
170:Hotspot theory
168:
115:
114:
102:0.37°S 91.55°W
82:
76:
75:
72:
68:
67:
62:
58:
57:
52:
48:
47:
44:
36:
35:
32:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2087:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2050:
2049:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1991:Phoenix Ridge
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
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1505:Balmoral Reef
1503:
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1199:
1196:
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1189:
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1180:Pacific Plate
1177:
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1011:
1010:African Plate
1007:
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684:
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629:
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619:
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592:San Cristobal
589:
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541:
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418:Darwin Island
416:
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224:
220:
218:
215:
211:
201:
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186:
183:
177:
167:
163:
161:
160:Pacific Plate
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
132:Pacific Ocean
129:
126:
122:
111:
107:-0.37; -91.55
83:
81:
77:
74:Pacific Ocean
73:
69:
66:
63:
59:
56:
53:
49:
42:
37:
30:
25:
16:
2046:
2034:
2022:
2003:
1881:Gakkel Ridge
1793:Intermontane
1585:Juan de Fuca
1442:New Hebrides
1394:Minor plates
1325:Major plates
1277:Plate theory
1273:Mantle plume
1136:
1038:Sierra Leone
929:. Retrieved
922:the original
897:the original
869:
863:
836:
832:
822:
789:
785:
736:. Retrieved
725:
713:. Retrieved
687:. Retrieved
676:
664:. Retrieved
650:
565:Ferdinandina
557:
553:
516:upper mantle
507:
502:Cocos Island
495:
491:
487:
408:Roca Redonda
328:Pinta Island
288:Sierra Negra
221:
207:
182:geophysicist
179:
164:
130:in the East
120:
118:
15:
1966:Alpha Ridge
1961:Aegir Ridge
1916:Mohns Ridge
1891:Gorda Ridge
1866:Cocos Ridge
1861:Chile Ridge
1705:Solomon Sea
1645:North Andes
1635:Molucca Sea
1530:Conway Reef
1515:Bird's Head
1482:Microplates
1170:Yellowstone
1124:Nazca Plate
1023:New England
738:21 November
715:21 November
666:21 November
573:lithosphere
438:Cerro Pajas
428:Wolf Island
152:Cocos Plate
148:Nazca Plate
105: /
80:Coordinates
2064:Categories
1846:Aden Ridge
1695:Seychelles
1610:Madagascar
1495:Aegean Sea
1452:Philippine
1353:Australian
1208:Louisville
1043:St. Helena
642:References
588:Santa Cruz
298:Cerro Azul
1735:Trobriand
1640:Niuafo’ou
1595:Kerguelen
1570:Halmahera
1565:Greenland
1550:Galápagos
1520:Capricorn
1510:Banda Sea
1500:Anatolian
1417:Caribbean
1338:Antarctic
1228:Rarotonga
1218:Marquesas
1213:Macdonald
1137:Galápagos
1114:Lord Howe
1109:Tasmantid
1081:Jan Mayen
1000:Kerguelen
855:1525-2027
268:La Cumbre
190:seamounts
61:Territory
2036:Category
1828:Kshiroda
1813:Malvinas
1783:Farallon
1778:Cimmeria
1745:Woodlark
1740:Victoria
1700:Shetland
1600:Kermadec
1540:Explorer
1490:Adriatic
1422:Caroline
1343:Eurasian
1261:Trindade
1223:Pitcairn
1104:Crosgove
974:Hotspots
625:See also
605:Floreana
596:Santa Fe
584:Santiago
482:Extinct
478:Santa Fe
472:Extinct
462:Extinct
452:Extinct
448:Española
442:Extinct
432:Extinct
422:Extinct
412:Unknown
402:Unknown
392:Unknown
382:Unknown
372:Unknown
140:Carnegie
125:volcanic
2048:Commons
1823:Phoenix
1798:Izanagi
1788:Insular
1773:Charcot
1690:Sangihe
1660:Okinawa
1630:Mariana
1615:Malpelo
1605:Lwandle
1580:Iranian
1575:Iberian
1472:Yangtze
1447:Okhotsk
1407:Arabian
1402:Amurian
1370:Pacific
1333:African
1256:Noronha
1238:Society
1165:Bermuda
1076:Iceland
1048:Tristan
1028:Réunion
990:Balleny
931:6 April
867:Harpp,
689:3 April
603:FLO – (
358:Ecuador
146:on the
144:Equator
128:hotspot
93:91°33′W
55:Ecuador
51:Country
1763:Baltic
1685:Rovuma
1680:Rivera
1665:Panama
1555:Gonâve
1545:Futuna
1535:Easter
1462:Somali
1457:Scotia
1432:Indian
1358:Indian
1203:Hawaii
1160:Anahim
1132:Easter
1066:Azores
1018:Canary
995:Erebus
853:
468:Rabida
458:Pinzon
348:Darwin
308:Alcedo
217:plates
90:0°22′S
71:Region
1808:Lhasa
1730:Tonga
1725:Tisza
1720:Timor
1670:Pelso
1625:Maoke
1620:Manus
1560:Gorda
1525:Coiba
1467:Sunda
1437:Nazca
1427:Cocos
1412:Burma
1233:Samoa
1193:Bowie
1188:Arago
1071:Eifel
1033:Shona
925:(PDF)
918:(PDF)
362:1150
352:1813
342:1906
332:1928
322:1991
312:1993
302:2008
292:2018
282:2022
272:2024
259:Name
214:Nazca
210:Cocos
123:is a
2024:List
1803:Kula
1198:Cobb
933:2011
851:ISSN
740:2009
717:2009
691:2009
668:2009
661:USGS
616:and
614:Wolf
594:and
567:and
278:Wolf
212:and
119:The
1818:Moa
841:doi
794:doi
2066::
1275:·
905:^
877:^
849:.
837:16
835:.
831:.
808:^
790:46
788:.
784:.
768:^
748:^
699:^
659:.
590:,
586:,
1309:e
1302:t
1295:v
966:e
959:t
952:v
935:.
857:.
843::
802:.
796::
742:.
719:.
693:.
670:.
542:.
248:e
241:t
234:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
