183:, knowing the meaning of a sentence also requires knowing what issues (i.e. questions) it raises. For instance "Nancy smokes, but does she drink?" conveys the same truth-conditional information as the previous example but also raises an issue of whether Nancy drinks. Other approaches generalize the concept of truth conditionality or treat it as epiphenomenal. For instance in
318:"herself" is bound by its antecedent "Mary". Binding can be licensed or blocked in certain contexts or syntactic configurations, e.g. the pronoun "her" cannot be bound by "Mary" in the English sentence "Mary saw her". While all languages have binding, restrictions on it vary even among closely related languages. Binding was a major component to the
336:
Modality is the phenomenon whereby language is used to discuss potentially non-actual scenarios. For instance, while a non-modal sentence such as "Nancy smoked" makes a claim about the actual world, modalized sentences such as "Nancy might have smoked" or "If Nancy smoked, I'll be sad" make claims
423:, and many linguists were initially puzzled by it. While linguists wanted a restrictive theory that could only model phenomena that occur in human languages, Montague sought a flexible framework that characterized the concept of meaning at its most general. At one conference, Montague told
402:
341:
such as "could", "should", or "must"; modal adverbs such as "possibly" or "necessarily"; and modal adjectives such as "conceivable" and "probable". However, modal components have been identified in the meanings of countless natural language expressions including
430:
Formal semantics grew into a major subfield of linguistics in the late 1970s and early 1980s, due to the seminal work of
Barbara Partee. Partee developed a linguistically plausible system which incorporated the key insights of both Montague Grammar and
176:, or in other words knowing what the world would have to be like for the sentence to be true. For instance, to know the meaning of the English sentence "Nancy smokes" one has to know that it is true when the person Nancy performs the action of smoking.
419:. Before Montague, many linguists had doubted that this was possible, and logicians of that era tended to view logic as a replacement for natural language rather than a tool for analyzing it. Montague's work was published during the
467:
which undergoes semantic interpretation. Thus, this system often includes syntactic representations and operations which were introduced by translation rules in
Montague's system. However, work by others such as
171:
The fundamental question of formal semantics is what you know when you know how to interpret expressions of a language. A common assumption is that knowing the meaning of a sentence requires knowing its
280:, in which an item's syntactic position corresponds to its semantic scope. Others theories compute scope relations in the semantics itself, using formal tools such as type shifters,
472:
proposed models of the syntax-semantics interface which stayed closer to
Montague's, providing a system of interpretation in which denotations could be computed on the basis of
217:. In a simplified semantic analysis, this idea would be formalized by positing that "Nancy" denotes Nancy herself, while "smokes" denotes a function which takes some individual
65:
from the meanings of their parts. The enterprise of formal semantics can be thought of as that of reverse-engineering the semantic components of natural languages' grammars.
463:
which first codified and popularized it. The Heim and
Kratzer system differs from earlier approaches in that it incorporates a level of syntactic representation called
398:, but it was regarded as earth-shattering when first proposed, and many of its fundamental insights survive in the various semantic models which have superseded it.
448:
1039:
264:, but the proposition that Paulina drinks wine does not. One of the major concerns of research in formal semantics is the relationship between operators'
209:
sentence "Nancy smokes" is determined by the meaning of "Nancy", the denotation of "smokes", and whatever semantic operations combine the meanings of
179:
However, many current approaches to formal semantics posit that there is more to meaning than truth-conditions. In the formal semantic framework of
205:
of a complex expression is determined by the denotations of its parts along with their mode of composition. For instance, the denotation of the
187:, knowing the meaning of a sentence amounts to knowing how it updates a context. Pietroski treats meanings as instructions to build concepts.
435:. Early research in linguistic formal semantics used Partee's system to achieve a wealth of empirical and conceptual results. Later work by
2261:
1570:
2044:
1071:
Barwise, Jon; Cooper, Robin (1981). "Generalized quantifiers and natural language". In Kulas, J; Fetzer, J.H.; Rankin, T.L. (eds.).
268:
and their semantic scope. This relationship is not transparent, since the scope of an operator need not directly correspond to its
374:
Formal semantics emerged as a major area of research in the early 1970s, with the pioneering work of the philosopher and logician
622:
Seth Yalcin (2014). "Semantics and metasemantics in the context of generative grammar". In Alexis
Burgess; Brett Sherman (eds.).
1227:
Hamm, Fritz; Kamp, Hans; Lambalgen, Michiel van (2006-09-01). "There is no opposition between Formal and
Cognitive Semantics".
1523:
1504:
1471:
1452:
1433:
1406:
1380:
1360:
1340:
1313:
1293:
1204:
1088:
1023:
937:
855:
828:
684:
490:
emerged as a reaction against formal semantics, but there have been recently several attempts at reconciling both positions.
1486:
473:
269:
1912:
148:. As a result, philosophers put more of an emphasis on conceptual issues while linguists are more likely to focus on the
1042:. Formal approaches to modality. In: Frawley, W. (Ed.). The Expression of Modality. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter
659:
980:
796:
709:
631:
20:
201:
The
Principle of Compositionality is the fundamental assumption in formal semantics. This principle states that the
144:
view of meaning. Within linguistics, it is more common to view formal semantics as part of the study of linguistic
1999:
519:
2120:
1994:
1653:
1563:
726:
564:
481:
281:
149:
1772:
1593:
529:
319:
1324:
1172:
50:
1658:
2140:
1802:
1623:
1320:
Chapter 10, Formal semantics, contains the best chapter-level coverage of the main technical directions
1053:
464:
277:
276:
between different scope construals. Some theories of scope posit a level of syntactic structure called
1111:
For a very readable and succinct overview of how formal semantics found its way into linguistics, see
2145:
2095:
1857:
1746:
1556:
746:
1156:
2200:
2064:
1643:
1541:
Ample historical information. (An extended version of the introductory essay in
Barbara H. Partee:
1241:
432:
247:
90:
412:
Montague
Grammar was a major advance because it showed that natural languages could be treated as
2195:
1741:
953:
514:
347:
957:
2225:
1897:
1867:
1842:
1782:
1681:
1613:
1236:
1151:
539:
413:
303:
58:
113:, which encompasses aspects of meaning which arise from interaction and communicative intent.
2125:
2019:
1984:
1872:
1847:
1691:
1608:
1417:
534:
499:
395:
297:
180:
98:
252:
Scope can be thought of as the semantic order of operations. For instance, in the sentence "
2110:
1917:
1696:
311:
233:, this analysis would predict that the sentence as a whole is true if Nancy indeed smokes.
230:
141:
133:
86:
1536:
1481:
914:
872:
394:
translation rules linking the two. In retrospect, Montague
Grammar has been compared to a
229:
indeed smokes. Assuming that the words "Nancy" and "smokes" are semantically composed via
8:
2190:
2105:
2049:
1952:
1937:
1907:
1887:
1862:
1731:
1716:
559:
487:
331:
214:
94:
2256:
2235:
2160:
2135:
2100:
2080:
2009:
1989:
1927:
1922:
1832:
1822:
1807:
1751:
1262:
1094:
769:
604:
477:
452:
273:
129:
106:
42:
1548:
61:. It provides accounts of what linguistic expressions mean and how their meanings are
2215:
2170:
2155:
2115:
2054:
2024:
2004:
1797:
1726:
1519:
1500:
1467:
1448:
1429:
1402:
1376:
1356:
1336:
1309:
1289:
1254:
1200:
1084:
1019:
976:
933:
851:
824:
792:
705:
680:
655:
627:
524:
387:
210:
184:
102:
1266:
1098:
773:
608:
2266:
2220:
2150:
2039:
1817:
1394:
1328:
1284:
Max Cresswell (2006). "Formal semantics". In Michael Devitt, Richard Hanley (ed.).
1246:
1076:
968:
925:
895:
816:
761:
596:
554:
549:
509:
440:
420:
379:
375:
359:
206:
196:
173:
166:
125:
116:
Formal semantics is an interdisciplinary field, often viewed as a subfield of both
78:
62:
34:
2029:
1932:
1827:
1792:
1194:
1080:
416:
355:
343:
1196:
Categorial investigations: logical and linguistic aspects of the Lambek calculus
929:
2210:
2205:
2130:
2014:
1892:
1787:
1628:
1532:
1118:
996:
504:
444:
424:
405:
383:
972:
427:
that she was "the only linguist who it is not the case that I can't talk to".
2250:
1902:
1877:
1711:
1258:
845:
469:
351:
53:. It is an interdisciplinary field, sometimes regarded as a subfield of both
38:
1114:
The formal approach to meaning: Formal semantics and its recent developments
358:
and generics. The standard treatment of linguistic modality was proposed by
337:
about alternative scenarios. The most intensely studied expressions include
2165:
2090:
1957:
1837:
1721:
1701:
1142:
Partee, Barbara (2011). "Formal semantics: Origins, issues, early impact".
391:
285:
1121:. In: Journal of Foreign Languages (Shanghai), 119:1 (January 1999), 2–20.
1113:
1054:"Supplement to "Counterfactuals": Indicative and Subjunctive Conditionals"
2085:
2059:
1942:
1706:
1633:
1543:
Compositionality in Formal Semantics: Selected Papers of Barbara Partee.
1075:. Studies in Cognitive Systems. Vol. 2. Springer. pp. 241–301.
363:
257:
222:
117:
54:
46:
1250:
2230:
1882:
1648:
1603:
1598:
1390:
1144:
The Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication
891:
812:
765:
600:
544:
436:
338:
202:
121:
110:
74:
1415:
2034:
1852:
1777:
1756:
1686:
1638:
1618:
1425:
647:
145:
137:
82:
1947:
1736:
451:
and others built on Partee's work to further reconcile it with the
261:
1323:
725:
Ciardelli, Ivano; Groenendijk, Jeroen; Roelofsen, Floris (2019).
401:
315:
307:
30:
314:. For instance in the English sentence "Mary saw herself", the
265:
1812:
724:
77:
of natural language expressions. High-level concerns include
1180:
The art and craft of semantics: A Festschrift for Irene Heim
455:
approach to syntax. The resulting framework is known as the
1308:. Introducing linguistics (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
408:
is one of the founders and major contributors to the field.
136:. Within philosophy, formal semanticists typically adopt a
1516:
Language in action: categories, lambdas, and dynamic logic
1389:
1300:
A very accessible overview of the main ideas in the field.
811:
674:
362:
in the 1970s, building on an earlier tradition of work in
1367:
One of the first textbooks. Accessible to undergraduates.
718:
1038:
Kaufmann, S.; Condoravdi, C. & Harizanov, V. (2006)
1578:
624:
Metasemantics: new essays on the foundations of meaning
1170:
1171:
CrniÄŤ, Luka; Pesetsky, David; Sauerland, Uli (2014).
924:(2 ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 159–225.
260:
that Paulina drinks beer occurs within the scope of
1538:
Reflections of a formal semanticist as of Feb 2005.
587:Lewis, David (December 1970). "General Semantics".
870:
582:
580:
254:Paulina doesn't drink beer but she does drink wine
1513:
1422:Meaning and grammar: an introduction to semantics
1286:The Blackwell guide to the philosophy of language
1226:
1073:Philosophy, Language, and Artificial Intelligence
476:. These approaches live on in frameworks such as
378:. Montague proposed a formal system now known as
2248:
2045:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
1192:
699:
1464:Type logical grammar: categorial logic of signs
1461:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
871:Coppock, Elizabeth; Champollion, Lucas (2019).
577:
786:
1564:
1494:
1442:
1350:
1347:The most comprehensive reference in the area.
1303:
1283:
1070:
1186:
1124:
967:(2 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. Section 4.3.
902:. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 194–198.
850:. Language Science Press. pp. 217–219.
1370:
920:. In Gabbay, Dov; Guenthner, Franz (eds.).
890:
621:
1571:
1557:
912:
459:system, after the authors of the textbook
1240:
1178:. In CrniÄŤ, Luka; Sauerland, Uli (eds.).
1155:
1003:. Cambridge University Press. p. 92.
995:
915:"Quantifier scope in formal linguistics."
963:. In Lappin, Shalom; Fox, Chris (eds.).
823:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 2–3, 14–22.
400:
310:are grammatically associated with their
1058:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1013:
843:
744:
738:
2249:
1141:
952:
2000:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
1552:
1445:On the Logic and Learning of Language
1353:Informal lectures on formal semantics
1051:
675:Irene Heim; Angelika Kratzer (1998).
586:
386:for English, a logical system called
124:, while also incorporating work from
16:Study of meaning in natural languages
1545:Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, 2004.)
1487:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
646:
2262:Formal semantics (natural language)
1913:Quantificational variability effect
1580:Formal semantics (natural language)
1018:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
302:Binding is the phenomenon in which
190:
160:
155:
13:
1277:
1173:"Introduction: Biographical Notes"
1032:
1007:
965:Handbook of Contemporary Semantics
14:
2278:
1373:Formal semantics: an introduction
913:Ruys, Eddy; Winter, Yoad (2011).
272:and a single surface form can be
21:Formal semantics (disambiguation)
1399:Semantics in generative grammar
1220:
1164:
1105:
1064:
1045:
989:
946:
922:Handbook of Philosophical Logic
906:
900:Semantics in Generative Grammar
884:
864:
837:
821:Semantics in generative grammar
677:Semantics in generative grammar
520:Discourse representation theory
461:Semantics in Generative Grammar
221:as an argument and returns the
152:and crosslinguistic variation.
1995:Combinatory categorial grammar
1375:. Cambridge University Press.
1333:Handbook of Logic and Language
874:Invitation to Formal Semantics
805:
780:
754:Journal of Philosophical Logic
747:"Defaults in Update Semantics"
693:
668:
640:
615:
482:combinatory categorial grammar
1:
1773:Antecedent-contained deletion
1056:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
1040:Formal approaches to modality
570:
530:Frame semantics (linguistics)
320:government and binding theory
109:. Semantics is distinct from
73:Formal semantics studies the
1081:10.1007/978-94-009-2727-8_10
236:
51:theoretical computer science
7:
930:10.1007/978-94-007-0479-4_3
791:. Oxford University Press.
654:. Oxford University Press.
626:. Oxford University Press.
493:
382:which consisted of a novel
325:
68:
10:
2283:
1654:Syntax–semantics interface
1514:Johan van Benthem (1995).
1335:(2nd ed.). Elsevier.
734:. Oxford University Press.
565:Syntax–semantics interface
369:
329:
295:
291:
245:
194:
164:
150:syntax–semantics interface
89:. Key topic areas include
18:
2183:
2146:Question under discussion
2096:Conversational scoreboard
2073:
1977:
1970:
1873:Intersective modification
1858:Homogeneity (linguistics)
1765:
1674:
1667:
1586:
1193:Michael Moortgat (1988).
973:10.1002/9781118882139.ch2
880:. Manuscript. p. 42.
700:Stefano Predelli (2013).
2201:Distributional semantics
1462:Glyn V. Morrill (1994).
433:Transformational grammar
248:Scope (formal semantics)
241:
2196:Computational semantics
1938:Subsective modification
1742:Propositional attitudes
1447:. Trafford Publishing.
1229:Theoretical Linguistics
787:Paul Pietroski (2018).
745:Veltman, Frank (1996).
515:Computational semantics
348:propositional attitudes
2226:Philosophy of language
1868:Inalienable possession
1848:Free choice inferences
1843:Faultless disagreement
1614:Generalized quantifier
1497:Type-logical semantics
1495:Bob Carpenter (1998).
1482:Type-logical Semantics
1443:Sean A. Fulop (2004).
1351:Emmon W. Bach (1989).
1304:John I. Saeed (2008).
1014:Portner, Paul (2009).
844:Kroeger, Paul (2019).
704:. Oxford Scholarship.
540:Philosophy of language
409:
274:semantically ambiguous
59:philosophy of language
2126:Plural quantification
2020:Inquisitive semantics
1985:Alternative semantics
1418:Sally McConnell-Ginet
1199:. Walter de Gruyter.
728:Inquisitive Semantics
702:Meaning without truth
535:Inquisitive semantics
500:Alternative semantics
404:
396:Rube Goldberg machine
330:Further information:
298:Binding (linguistics)
296:Further information:
246:Further information:
213:with the meanings of
195:Further information:
181:inquisitive semantics
165:Further information:
2111:Function application
1918:Responsive predicate
1908:Privative adjectives
1371:Ronnie Cann (1993).
1052:Starr, Will (2019).
231:function application
134:cognitive psychology
19:For other uses, see
2191:Cognitive semantics
2106:Existential closure
2050:Situation semantics
1953:Temperature paradox
1923:Rising declaratives
1888:Modal subordination
1863:Hurford disjunction
1823:Discourse relations
1416:Gennaro Chierchia;
1401:. Wiley-Blackwell.
1288:. Wiley-Blackwell.
1251:10.1515/tl.2006.001
789:Conjoining meanings
679:. Wiley-Blackwell.
560:Traditional grammar
488:Cognitive semantics
384:syntactic formalism
332:Linguistic modality
266:syntactic positions
2236:Semantics of logic
2161:Strict conditional
2136:Quantifier raising
2101:Downward entailing
2081:Autonomy of syntax
2010:Generative grammar
1990:Categorial grammar
1928:Scalar implicature
1833:Epistemic modality
1808:De dicto and de re
1480:Reinhard Muskens.
766:10.1007/BF00248150
601:10.1007/BF00413598
478:categorial grammar
474:surface structures
410:
223:truth value "true"
130:mathematical logic
2244:
2243:
2216:Logic translation
2179:
2178:
2171:Universal grinder
2156:Squiggle operator
2116:Meaning postulate
2055:Supervaluationism
2025:Intensional logic
2005:Dynamic semantics
1966:
1965:
1798:Crossover effects
1747:Tense–aspect–mood
1727:Lexical semantics
1533:Barbara H. Partee
1525:978-0-262-72024-3
1506:978-0-262-53149-8
1473:978-0-7923-3095-0
1454:978-1-4120-2381-8
1435:978-0-262-53164-1
1408:978-0-631-19713-3
1382:978-0-521-37610-5
1362:978-0-88706-772-3
1342:978-0-444-53726-3
1325:Johan van Benthem
1315:978-1-4051-5639-4
1295:978-0-631-23142-4
1206:978-90-6765-387-9
1090:978-94-010-7726-2
1025:978-0-19-929242-4
939:978-94-007-0478-7
896:Kratzer, Angelika
857:978-3-96110-136-8
847:Analyzing Meaning
830:978-0-631-19713-3
686:978-0-631-19713-3
652:Minimal semantics
525:Dynamic semantics
388:Intensional Logic
339:modal auxiliaries
306:elements such as
185:dynamic semantics
87:nature of meaning
35:natural languages
2274:
2221:Linguistics wars
2151:Semantic parsing
2040:Montague grammar
1975:
1974:
1818:Deontic modality
1672:
1671:
1659:Truth conditions
1594:Compositionality
1587:Central concepts
1573:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1529:
1510:
1477:
1458:
1439:
1424:(2nd ed.).
1412:
1395:Angelika Kratzer
1386:
1366:
1346:
1329:Alice Ter Meulen
1319:
1299:
1271:
1270:
1244:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1159:
1139:
1122:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1049:
1043:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1011:
1005:
1004:
993:
987:
986:
962:
950:
944:
943:
919:
910:
904:
903:
888:
882:
881:
879:
868:
862:
861:
841:
835:
834:
817:Angelika Kratzer
809:
803:
802:
784:
778:
777:
751:
742:
736:
735:
733:
722:
716:
715:
697:
691:
690:
672:
666:
665:
644:
638:
637:
619:
613:
612:
584:
555:Montague grammar
550:Richard Montague
510:Compositionality
457:Heim and Kratzer
441:Angelika Kratzer
421:Linguistics Wars
417:formal languages
380:Montague grammar
376:Richard Montague
360:Angelika Kratzer
270:surface position
197:Compositionality
191:Compositionality
174:truth conditions
167:Truth conditions
161:Truth conditions
156:Central concepts
140:ontology and an
126:computer science
79:compositionality
29:is the study of
27:Formal semantics
2282:
2281:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2175:
2069:
2030:Lambda calculus
1962:
1933:Sloppy identity
1893:Opaque contexts
1828:Donkey anaphora
1793:Counterfactuals
1761:
1663:
1582:
1577:
1526:
1507:
1474:
1455:
1436:
1409:
1383:
1363:
1343:
1316:
1296:
1280:
1278:Further reading
1275:
1274:
1225:
1221:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1191:
1187:
1175:
1169:
1165:
1157:10.1.1.826.5720
1140:
1125:
1110:
1106:
1091:
1069:
1065:
1050:
1046:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1012:
1008:
997:Szabolcsi, Anna
994:
990:
983:
960:
951:
947:
940:
917:
911:
907:
889:
885:
877:
869:
865:
858:
842:
838:
831:
810:
806:
799:
785:
781:
749:
743:
739:
731:
723:
719:
712:
698:
694:
687:
673:
669:
662:
645:
641:
634:
620:
616:
585:
578:
573:
496:
390:, and a set of
372:
344:counterfactuals
334:
328:
300:
294:
250:
244:
239:
199:
193:
169:
163:
158:
71:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2280:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2211:Inferentialism
2208:
2206:Formal grammar
2203:
2198:
2193:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2131:Possible world
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2015:Glue semantics
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1981:
1979:
1978:Formal systems
1972:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1903:Polarity items
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1788:Conservativity
1785:
1780:
1775:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1752:Quantification
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1678:
1676:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1629:Presupposition
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1530:
1524:
1511:
1505:
1492:
1478:
1472:
1459:
1453:
1440:
1434:
1413:
1407:
1387:
1381:
1368:
1361:
1355:. SUNY Press.
1348:
1341:
1321:
1314:
1301:
1294:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1242:10.1.1.80.6574
1219:
1205:
1185:
1163:
1123:
1119:Barbara Abbott
1104:
1089:
1063:
1044:
1031:
1024:
1006:
1001:Quantification
988:
981:
945:
938:
905:
883:
863:
856:
836:
829:
804:
797:
779:
737:
717:
710:
692:
685:
667:
661:978-0199206926
660:
639:
632:
614:
595:(1/2): 18–67.
575:
574:
572:
569:
568:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
505:Barbara Partee
502:
495:
492:
445:Tanya Reinhart
425:Barbara Partee
406:Barbara Partee
371:
368:
327:
324:
293:
290:
243:
240:
238:
235:
192:
189:
162:
159:
157:
154:
70:
67:
41:concepts from
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2279:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1898:Performatives
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1878:Logophoricity
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1712:Evidentiality
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1518:. MIT Press.
1517:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1499:. MIT Press.
1498:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1208:
1202:
1198:
1197:
1189:
1181:
1174:
1167:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1108:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1041:
1035:
1027:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1002:
998:
992:
984:
982:9781118882139
978:
974:
970:
966:
959:
955:
954:Barker, Chris
949:
941:
935:
931:
927:
923:
916:
909:
901:
897:
893:
887:
876:
875:
867:
859:
853:
849:
848:
840:
832:
826:
822:
818:
814:
808:
800:
798:9780198812722
794:
790:
783:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
748:
741:
730:
729:
721:
713:
711:9780199695638
707:
703:
696:
688:
682:
678:
671:
663:
657:
653:
649:
643:
635:
633:9780199669592
629:
625:
618:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
583:
581:
576:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
491:
489:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
470:Gerald Gazdar
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
428:
426:
422:
418:
415:
407:
403:
399:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
367:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
340:
333:
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
299:
289:
287:
286:continuations
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
249:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
198:
188:
186:
182:
177:
175:
168:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
22:
2166:Type shifter
2141:Quantization
2091:Continuation
1958:Veridicality
1838:Exhaustivity
1803:Cumulativity
1722:Indexicality
1702:Definiteness
1697:Conditionals
1624:Logical form
1579:
1542:
1537:
1515:
1496:
1485:
1466:. Springer.
1463:
1444:
1421:
1398:
1372:
1352:
1332:
1305:
1285:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1210:. Retrieved
1195:
1188:
1179:
1166:
1147:
1143:
1112:
1107:
1072:
1066:
1057:
1047:
1034:
1015:
1009:
1000:
991:
964:
948:
921:
908:
899:
886:
873:
866:
846:
839:
820:
807:
788:
782:
757:
753:
740:
727:
720:
701:
695:
676:
670:
651:
642:
623:
617:
592:
588:
486:
465:logical form
460:
456:
429:
411:
373:
335:
301:
278:logical form
253:
251:
226:
218:
200:
178:
170:
115:
72:
26:
25:
2086:Context set
2060:Type theory
1943:Subtrigging
1707:Disjunction
1634:Proposition
1235:(1): 1–40.
892:Heim, Irene
414:interpreted
392:homomorphic
364:modal logic
352:evidentials
312:antecedents
258:proposition
142:externalist
138:Platonistic
118:linguistics
75:denotations
55:linguistics
47:mathematics
33:meaning in
31:grammatical
2251:Categories
2231:Pragmatics
1883:Mirativity
1649:Speech act
1604:Entailment
1599:Denotation
1391:Irene Heim
813:Irene Heim
648:Borg, Emma
571:References
545:Pragmatics
453:generative
449:Robert May
437:Irene Heim
322:paradigm.
215:predicates
203:denotation
122:philosophy
111:pragmatics
85:, and the
2257:Semantics
2035:Mereology
1971:Formalism
1853:Givenness
1778:Cataphora
1766:Phenomena
1757:Vagueness
1687:Ambiguity
1639:Reference
1619:Intension
1609:Extension
1426:MIT Press
1306:Semantics
1259:1613-4060
1237:CiteSeerX
1152:CiteSeerX
356:habituals
304:anaphoric
237:Phenomena
146:cognition
83:reference
2184:See also
2074:Concepts
1948:Telicity
1783:Coercion
1737:Negation
1732:Modality
1682:Anaphora
1420:(2000).
1397:(1998).
1331:(2010).
1267:17691054
1099:62189594
1016:Modality
999:(2010).
956:(2015).
898:(1998).
819:(1998).
774:19377671
650:(2004).
609:14877324
589:Synthese
494:See also
326:Modality
308:pronouns
262:negation
211:subjects
95:modality
69:Overview
63:composed
2267:Grammar
1692:Binding
1212:5 April
958:"Scope"
370:History
316:anaphor
292:Binding
256:," the
207:English
99:binding
2121:Monads
1668:Topics
1522:
1503:
1489:Online
1470:
1451:
1432:
1405:
1379:
1359:
1339:
1312:
1292:
1265:
1257:
1239:
1203:
1154:
1097:
1087:
1022:
979:
936:
854:
827:
795:
772:
708:
683:
658:
630:
607:
284:, and
282:monads
132:, and
107:aspect
105:, and
39:formal
37:using
1813:De se
1717:Focus
1675:Areas
1644:Scope
1263:S2CID
1176:(PDF)
1095:S2CID
961:(PDF)
918:(PDF)
878:(PDF)
770:S2CID
760:(3).
750:(PDF)
732:(PDF)
605:S2CID
242:Scope
103:tense
91:scope
43:logic
1520:ISBN
1501:ISBN
1468:ISBN
1449:ISBN
1430:ISBN
1403:ISBN
1377:ISBN
1357:ISBN
1337:ISBN
1310:ISBN
1290:ISBN
1255:ISSN
1214:2011
1201:ISBN
1085:ISBN
1020:ISBN
977:ISBN
934:ISBN
852:ISBN
825:ISBN
793:ISBN
706:ISBN
681:ISBN
656:ISBN
628:ISBN
480:and
120:and
57:and
49:and
2065:TTR
1247:doi
1117:by
1077:doi
969:doi
926:doi
762:doi
597:doi
225:if
2253::
1535:.
1484:.
1428:.
1393:;
1327:;
1261:.
1253:.
1245:.
1233:32
1231:.
1150:.
1146:.
1126:^
1093:.
1083:.
975:.
932:.
894:;
815:;
768:.
758:25
756:.
752:.
603:.
593:22
591:.
579:^
484:.
447:,
443:,
439:,
366:.
354:,
350:,
346:,
288:.
128:,
101:,
97:,
93:,
81:,
45:,
1572:e
1565:t
1558:v
1528:.
1509:.
1491:.
1476:.
1457:.
1438:.
1411:.
1385:.
1365:.
1345:.
1318:.
1298:.
1269:.
1249::
1216:.
1182:.
1160:.
1148:6
1101:.
1079::
1060:.
1028:.
985:.
971::
942:.
928::
860:.
833:.
801:.
776:.
764::
714:.
689:.
664:.
636:.
611:.
599::
227:x
219:x
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.