1146:, or it could transport a single consumer only 30 or 40 miles (64 km) to buy that meat. Thus foods from a distant farm that are transported in bulk to a nearby store consumer can have a lower footprint than foods a consumer picks up directly from a farm that is within driving distance but farther away than the store. This can mean that doorstep deliveries of food by companies can lead to lower carbon emissions or energy use than normal shopping practices. Relative distances and mode of transportation make this calculation complicated. For example, consumers can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of the last mile by walking, bicycling, or taking public transport. Another impact is that goods being transported by large ships very long distances can have lower associated carbon emissions or energy use than the same goods traveling by truck a much shorter distance.
822:, included findings that "the direct environmental, social and economic costs of food transport are over £9 billion each year, and are dominated by congestion." The report also indicates that it is not only how far the food has travelled but the method of travel in all parts of the food chain that is important to consider. Many trips by personal cars to shopping centres would have a negative environmental impact compared to transporting a few truckloads to neighbourhood stores that can be easily reached by walking or cycling. More emissions are created by the drive to the supermarket to buy air freighted food than was created by the air freighting in the first place. Also, the positive environmental effects of
807:) who says: "The point was to highlight the hidden ecological, social and economic consequences of food production to consumers in a simple way, one which had objective reality but also connotations." The increased distance traveled by food in developed countries was caused by the globilization of food trade, which increased by four times since 1961. Food that is transported by road produces more carbon emissions than any other form of transported food. Road transport produces 60% of the world's food transport carbon emissions. Air transport produces 20% of the world's food transport carbon emissions. Rail and sea transport produce 10% each of the world's food transport carbon emissions.
22:
50:
2107:
1157:, a technique that meshes together a wide range of different environmental criteria including emissions and waste, is a more holistic way of assessing the real environmental impact of the food we eat. The technique accounts for energy input and output involved in the production, processing, packaging and transport of food. It also factors in
970:, entire supply chains providing German consumers with food were investigated, comparing local food with food of European and global provenance. Large-scale agriculture reduces unit costs associated with food production and transportation, leading to increased efficiency and decreased energy use per kilogram of food by
868:
emissions from transport by multiplying the distance travelled of each ingredient, by the carbon intensity of the mode of transport (air, road or rail). However, as both Tim Lang and the original Food Miles report noted, the resulting number, although interesting, cannot give the whole picture of how
922:
label, or a label from another robust and independent scheme, food exports might make a bad situation worse. Only a very small percentage of what importers pay will end up in the hands of plantation workers. Wages are often very low and working conditions bad and sometimes dangerous. Sometimes the
855:
found that in many instances, the supermarket supply chain did much better in terms of food miles and fuel consumption for each pound compared to farmers markets. It suggests that selling local foods through supermarkets may be more economically viable and sustainable than through farmers markets.
1053:
Other researchers have contested the claims from New
Zealand. Professor Gareth Edwards-Jones has said that the arguments "in favour of New Zealand apples shipped to the UK is probably true only or about two months a year, during July and August, when the carbon footprint for locally grown fruit
872:
Wal-Mart publicized a press releasing that stated food travelled 1,500 miles (2,400 km) before it reaches customers. The statistics aroused public concern about food miles. According to Jane Black, a food writer who covers food politics, the number was derived from a small database. The 22
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The concept of "food miles" has been criticised, and food miles are not always correlated with the actual environmental impact of food production. In comparison, the percentage of total energy used in home food preparation is 26% and in food processing is 29%, far greater than transportation.
1176:
A number of organisations are developing ways of calculating the carbon cost or lifecycle impact of food and agriculture. Some are more robust than others but, at the moment, there is no easy way to tell which ones are thorough, independent and reliable, and which ones are just
914:
farmers in poor countries can often improve their income and standard of living if they can sell to distant export markets for higher value horticultural produce, moving away from the subsistence agriculture of producing staple crops for their own consumption or local markets.
1738:
MacGregor, J.; Vorley, B (2006) Fair Miles? Weighing environmental and social impacts of fresh produce exports from Sub-Saharan Africa to the UK. Fresh
Insights no.9. International Institute for Environment and Development/ Natural Resources Institute, London, UK, 18 pp.
876:
Some iOS and
Android apps allow consumers to get information about food products, including nutritional information, product origin, and the distance the product travelled from its production location to the consumer. Such apps include OpenLabel, Glow, and
838:
notes that to understand the carbon emissions from food production, all the carbon-emitting processes that occur as a result of getting food from the field to our plates need to be considered, including production, origin, seasonality and home care.
1125:, even if the vegetarian food is transported over very long distances, does far more to reduce greenhouse gas emissions than does eating a locally grown diet. They also concluded that "Shifting less than one day per week's worth of calories from
1184:
Even a full lifecycle analysis accounts only for the environmental effects of food production and consumption. However, it is one of the widely agreed three pillars of sustainable development, namely environmental, social and economic.
1751:
C. Dolan, J. Humphrey, and C. Harris-Pascal, "Value Chains and
Upgrading: The Impact of U.K. Retailers on the Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Industry in Africa," Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 96, University of Sussex,
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of food production in the U.S. have shown transportation to be of minor importance, compared to the carbon emissions resulting from pesticide and fertilizer production, and the fuel required by farm and food processing equipment.
748:
of trade; the focus of food supply bases into fewer, larger districts; drastic changes in delivery patterns; the increase in processed and packaged foods; and making fewer trips to the supermarket. These make a small part of the
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and dairy products to chicken, fish, eggs, or a vegetable-based diet achieves more GHG reduction than buying all locally sourced food." In other words, the amount of red meat consumption is much more important than food miles.
1993:
and assessing what less greenhouse gas intensive systems of production and consumption might look like
Working paper produced a part of the work of the Food Climate Research Network, Centre for Environmental Strategy,
1006:, taking into account energy used to ship the food to Europe for consumers. The report states, "New Zealand has greater production efficiency in many food commodities compared to the UK. For example New Zealand
2161:
Edwards-Jones, G.; Milà; Canals, L.; Hounsome, N.; Truninger, M.; Koerber, G.; Hounsome, B.; et al. (2008). "Testing the assertion that 'local food is best': the challenges of an evidence-based approach".
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per kilogram, even though food miles are lower. Case studies of lamb, beef, wine, apples, fruit juices and pork show that the concept of food miles is too simple to account for all factors of food production.
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at the
Sustainable Agriculture Food and Environment (SAFE) Alliance and first appeared in print in a report, "The Food Miles Report: The Dangers of Long-Distance Food Transport", researched and written by
1113:
are the largest sources of food-related emissions. The UK's consumption of meat and dairy products (including imports) accounts for about 8% of national greenhouse gas emissions related to consumption.
2090:
World
Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, (1987). Oxford University Press. Often known as the Brundtland report, after the Chair of the Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland.
1415:
Li, Mengyu; Jia, Nanfei; Lenzen, Manfred; Malik, Arunima; Wei, Liyuan; Jin, Yutong; Raubenheimer, David (June 2022). "Global food-miles account for nearly 20% of total food-systems emissions".
1540:
2403:
Garnett, T. (2008) Cooking Up a Storm: Food, greenhouse gas emissions and our changing climate. Food
Climate Research Network Centre for Environmental Strategy, University of Surrey, UK.
2043:
Coley, D. A., Howard, M. and Winter, M., 2009. Local food, food miles and carbon emissions: A comparison of farm shop and mass distribution approaches. Food Policy, 34 (2), pp. 150-155.
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Although it was never intended as a complete measure of environmental impact, it has come under attack as an ineffective means of finding the true environmental impact. For example, a
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According to German researchers, the food miles concept misleads consumers because the size of transportation and production units is not taken into account. Using the methodology of
1490:
John
Hendrickson, "Energy use in the U.S. Food System: A summary of existing research and analysis." Sustainable Farming (Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec), vol. 7, no. 4. Fall 1997.
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which are not taken into account by simple "food miles" measurements. There are benefits to be gained by improving livelihoods in poor countries through agricultural development.
2419:
Plassman, K. and G. Edwards-Jones (2009) Where Does the Carbon
Footprint Fall? Developing a carbon map of food production. IIED, London. See www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/16023IIED.pdf
2400:
ECA (2009) Shaping Climate-Resilient Development: A framework for decision-making. See www.gefweb.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/ECA_Shaping_Climate%20Resilent_Development.pdf.
772:(including retail, packaging, fertilizer manufacture, and other factors), whereas greenhouse gases emitted in transport account for around 12% of overall food-chain emissions.
1389:
1121:, of all the greenhouse gases emitted by the food industry, only 4% comes from transporting the food from producers to retailers. The study also concluded that adopting a
738:
1713:
2394:
1653:
1074:. That figure includes the clearing of land to feed and graze the animals. Clearing land of trees, and cultivation, are the main drivers of farming emissions.
768:'up to the farm gate' versus 'beyond the farm gate'. In the UK, for example, agricultural-related emissions may account for approximately 40% of the overall
1046:, even including the transport cost, than the UK, twice as efficient in the case of dairy, and four times as efficient in case of sheep meat. In the case of
1627:
783:, with transport accounting for about 19% of total food-system emissions, albeit shifting towards plant-based diets remains substantially more important.
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936:
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Researchers say a more complete environmental assessment of food that consumers buy needs to take into account how the food has been produced and what
811:
1823:
Schlich E: Energy Economics and the Ecology of Scale in the Food Business. In: Caldwell PG and Taylor EV (editors): New Research on Energy Economics.
1547:
693:
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Schlich E, Fleissner U: The Ecology of Scale. Assessment of Regional Energy Turnover and Comparison with Global Food. Int J LCA 10 (3) 219-223:2005.
2406:
Jones, A. (2006) A Life Cycle Analysis of UK Supermarket Imported Green Beans from Kenya. Fresh Insights No. 4. IIED/DFID/NRI, London/Medway, Kent.
1964:
1264:. He explains its history in this article Tim Lang (2006). 'locale / global (food miles)', Slow Food (Bra, Cuneo Italy), 19, May 2006, pp. 94–97
1990:
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1521:
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Borot, A., J. MacGregor and A. Graffham(eds) (2008). Standard Bearers: Horticultural exports and private standards in Africa. IIED, London.
2332:
2409:
Magrath, J. and E. Sukali (2009) The Winds of Change: Climate change, poverty and the environment in Malawi. Oxfam International, Oxford.
1951:
1142:. For example, a gallon of gasoline could transport 5 kg of meat over 60,000 miles (97,000 km) by road (40 tonner at 8 mpg) in
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1572:
1840:
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1050:, NZ is more energy-efficient even though the energy embodied in capital items and other inputs data was not available for the UK."
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With processed foods that are made of many different ingredients, it is very complicated, though not impossible, to calculate the CO
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1862:
852:
2529:
1889:
1517:
Smith, A. et al. (2005) The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development: Final report. DEFRA, London. See
2432:
Wangler, Z. (2006) Sub-Saharan African Horticultural Exports to the UK and Climate Change: A literature review. Fresh Insights
3018:
1273:
The SAFE Alliance merged with the National Food Alliance in 1999 to become Sustain: the alliance for better food and farming
686:
2052:
Coley, D. A., Howard, M. and Winter, M., 2011. Food miles: time for a re-think? British Food Journal, 113 (7), pp. 919-934.
2346:
Blanke, M.; Burdick, B. (2005). "Food (miles) for thought: energy balance for locally-grown versus imported apple fruit".
923:
food grown for export takes up land that had been used to grow food for local consumption, so local people can go hungry.
1301:
Iles, A. (2005). "Learning in sustainable agriculture: Food miles and missing objects". Environmental Values, 14, 163–83
2885:
2452:
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show that small food production operations may cause even more environmental impact than bigger operations in terms of
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265:
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Action Aid is one of many organisations drawing attention to this problem and campaigning to improve this situation -
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2146:
1959:
2196:
Weber, C.; Matthews, H. (2008). "Food-Miles and the Relative Climate Impacts of Food Choices in the United States".
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1311:
Weber, C.; Matthews, H. (2008). "Food-Miles and the Relative Climate Impacts of Food Choices in the United States".
1194:
889:, after which the browser opens up showing the production location of the product (i.e. Farm to Fork project, ...).
3252:
3237:
1848:
1289:
Paxton, A (1994). "The Food Miles Report: The Dangers of Long-Distance Food Transport". SAFE Alliance, London, UK.
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679:
33:
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1989:
Garnett, T (2007) Meat and dairy production and consumption. Exploring the livestock sector's contribution to the
1905:
Weber, Christopher L. (2008). "Food-Miles and the Relative Climate Impacts of Food Choices in the United States".
3262:
991:
2061:
Chi, Kelly Rae, James MacGregor and Richard King (2009). Fair Miles: Recharting the food miles map. IIED/Oxfam.
1998:
3247:
3032:
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1885:. See also a range of publications by Professor Edwards-Jones and a team of researchers at Bangor University,
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3039:
732:
The concept of food miles originated in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom. It was conceived by Professor
461:
384:
160:
2412:
Muuru, J. (2009) Kenya's Flying Vegetables: Small farmers and the 'food miles' debate. Policy Voice Series.
2306:"Exploring the dilemma of local sourcing versus international development –the case of the Flower Industry"
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451:
2473:
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According to Oxfam researchers, there are many other aspects of the agricultural processing and the food
764:, including production, consumption, and transport. These include estimates of food-related emissions of
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Tim Lang (2006). 'locale / global (food miles)', Slow Food (Bra, Cuneo Italy), 19, May 2006, p.94-97
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2010:
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However, exports from poor countries do not always benefit poor people. Unless the product has a
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1958:. See also Steinfeld, H et al. (2006) Livestock's long shadow: Environmental issues and options.
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terminal markets from which the data was collected handled 30% of the United States produce.
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1995:
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Food Miles – Comparative Energy/Emissions Performance of New Zealand's Agriculture Industry
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1390:"Climate impact of food miles three times greater than previously believed, study finds"
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21:
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2379:
2233:
Iles, A (2005). "Learning in sustainable agriculture: Food miles and missing objects".
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which deals with a large range of environmental, social and economic issues, including
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Food Routes: Growing Bananas in Iceland and Other Tales from the Logistics of Eating
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To see details of the United Nations research into meat and the environment, visit:
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A recent study led by Professor Miguel Gomez (Applied Economics and Management), at
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The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development: Final report
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359:
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Waye, V (2008). "Carbon Footprints, Food Miles and the Australian Wine Industry".
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Some scholars believe that an increase in the distance food travels is due to the
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2844:
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2738:
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The Strategy Unit (2008) Food: An analysis of the issues. Cabinet Office, London.
1955:
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The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
2011:"How much does animal agriculture and eating meat contribute to global warming?"
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Food miles are less important to environment than food choices, study concludes
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Erik Millstone and Tim Lang, The Atlas of Food, Earthscan, London, 1963, p. 60.
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1999:
https://www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/TGlivestock_env_sci_pol_paper.pdf
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According to a study by engineers Christopher Weber and H. Scott Matthews of
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1628:"How the press got the idea that food travels 1500 miles from farm to plate"
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1847:(2006). Research Report No. 285. Agribusiness and Economics Research Unit,
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year round outside eating grass instead of large quantities of brought-in
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1654:"Mobile barcode scanning apps empower consumers to shop with confidence"
1014:(which require large amounts of energy to produce and cause significant
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2572:
1672:"Interview: OriginTrail, an app that tells you where your food is from"
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89:
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1926:
1687:"How consumers can track products at the touch of a smartphone button"
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2733:
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2592:
2562:
2503:
The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development
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Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences
1741:
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/SearchResearchDatabase.asp?OutPutId=173492
1262:
http://www.city.ac.uk/communityandhealth/phpcfp/foodpolicy/index.html
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827:
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The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development
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counters claims about food miles by comparing total energy used in
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180:
2339:
2335:. ABARE (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics)
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2577:
1519:
https://statistics.defra.gov.uk/esg/reports/foodmiles/default.asp
1467:"How much do food miles matter and should you buy local produce?"
1023:
926:
886:
882:
803:. The term was coined by Tim Lang (now Professor of Food Policy,
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https://www.sustainweb.org/publications/the_food_miles_report/
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Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).
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http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html
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831:
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16:
Distance food is transported from production to consumption
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The concept of food miles is part of the broader issue of
2338:
Chi, Kelly Rae, James MacGregor and Richard King (2009).
1708:
Chi, Kelly Rae, James MacGregor and Richard King (2009).
1162:
1355:"Sources and Resources for 'Local Food: The Economics'"
1277:. Professor Tim Lang chaired Sustain from 1999 to 2005.
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Farm animals account for between 20% and 30% of global
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1102:, as producing a tonne of it takes 1.5 tonnes of oil.
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Studies by Dr. Christopher Weber et al. of the total
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Livestock production as a source of greenhouse gases
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http://www.bangor.ac.uk/senrgy/staff/edwards.php.en
1704:
1702:
1700:
1883:http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=40471
937:Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
721:. Food miles are one factor used when testing the
2479:Fairtrade Labelling Organisations (international)
885:scanning. Also, smartphones can scan a product's
717:from the time of its making until it reaches the
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2063:http://www.iied.org/pubs/display.php?o=15516IIED
1881:'Food miles' minor element of carbon footprint,
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1414:
1133:
753:created by food; 83% of overall emissions of CO
1594:, 15 March 2012. Retrieved on 20 January 2015.
1535:
1533:
1105:Meanwhile, it is increasingly recognised that
1054:doubles because it comes out of cool stores."
951:may have a lower carbon footprint in terms of
927:Energy used in production as well as transport
2523:
2345:
2195:
1310:
687:
2348:Environmental Science and Pollution Research
814:report in 2005 undertaken by researchers at
2298:How the myth of food miles hurts the planet
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760:Several studies compare emissions over the
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2516:
2303:
2253:
1860:
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1212:
1195:Sustainable food system#Local food systems
1150:Lifecycle analysis, rather than food miles
869:sustainable – or not – a food product is.
775:A 2022 study suggests global food miles CO
694:
680:
2340:Fair Miles: Recharting the food miles map
2333:Issues in food miles and carbon labelling
2279:
2147:Learn how and when to remove this message
1710:Fair Miles: Recharting the food miles map
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859:
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2442:
2331:Hogan, Lindsay and Sally Thorpe (2009).
2076:http://www.carbontrustcertification.com/
1285:
1283:
853:Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future
20:
2164:Trends in Food Science & Technology
2078:and www.cffcarboncalculator.org.uk and
1861:McWilliams, James E. (August 6, 2007).
3230:
2260:Environmental Science & Technology
2198:Environmental Science & Technology
2185:Melbourne Journal of International Law
1684:
1603:
1571:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1357:. Worldwatch Institute. Archived from
1313:Environmental Science & Technology
1219:Environmental Science & Technology
3019:Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral
2511:
2313:Business Strategy and the Environment
1904:
1625:
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2182:
2100:
1090:, releases greenhouse gases such as
1086:. Cultivation, including the use of
935:is used in its production. A recent
1836:Saunders, C; Barber, A; Taylor, G,
1651:
13:
2436:
1626:Black, Jane (September 17, 2008).
1138:A commonly ignored element is the
939:(DEFRA) case study indicated that
608:Renewable energy commercialization
14:
3279:
2537:
2462:
1960:Food and Agriculture Organization
830:, unless it is produced by local
2105:
1606:"Jim Prevor's Perishable Pundit"
986:A 2006 research report from the
976:Justus Liebig University Giessen
826:may be compromised by increased
781:higher than previously estimated
48:
2395:Food Statistics Pocketbook 2009
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1767:
1755:
1745:
1732:
1723:
1685:Trebar, Mira (April 15, 2014).
1678:
1664:
1645:
1619:
1604:Prevor, Jim (October 1, 2010).
1597:
1579:
1511:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1459:
1408:
992:Lincoln University, New Zealand
990:and Economics Research Unit at
1652:Han, Esther (March 20, 2015).
1382:
1373:
1347:
1304:
1295:
1267:
1255:
1206:
1082:, accelerating the process of
1072:greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
1:
3040:The Moon and the Sledgehammer
2304:Holt, D.; Watson, A. (2008).
1991:UK's greenhouse gas emissions
1200:
1042:production NZ is by far more
897:
385:Socially responsible business
161:Bright green environmentalism
1851:, Christchurch, New Zealand.
1776:"Defra, UK - Science Search"
892:
779:emissions are 3.5–7.5 times
725:impact of food, such as the
636:Environmental pricing reform
7:
2300:. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
1965:"全讯网 论坛,粉，紫水晶手链,全讯网 论坛专题内容"
1763:http://www.actionaid.org.uk
1188:
1098:is especially demanding of
964:Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
790:
390:Social return on investment
10:
3284:
2176:10.1016/j.tifs.2008.01.008
2096:
1892:September 3, 2011, at the
1429:10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w
1275:http://www.sustainweb.org/
1119:Carnegie Mellon University
1022:) and animals are able to
757:are in production phases.
375:Pollution haven hypothesis
370:Natural resource economics
355:High-performance buildings
3077:
3010:
2959:
2853:
2797:
2789:Twelve Tribes communities
2696:
2545:
2414:Africa Research Institute
1658:The Sydney Morning Herald
1379:Garnett 2011, Food Policy
881:. These apps may rely on
138:Climate change mitigation
3258:Food and the environment
2443:Metcalfe, Robyn (2019).
2422:Smith, A. et al. (2005)
2247:10.3197/0963271054084894
2080:https://carboncloud.com/
2030:, Jane Liaw, special to
1863:"Food that travels well"
1586:"Food, the carbon story"
908:greenhouse gas emissions
906:that also contribute to
751:greenhouse gas emissions
578:Environmental technology
221:Ecological modernization
176:Corporate sustainability
25:A truck carrying produce
3253:Sustainable agriculture
3238:Sustainable food system
2779:Testimony of simplicity
2697:Religious and spiritual
2658:Subsistence agriculture
2653:Slow movement (culture)
2368:10.1065/espr2005.05.252
2256:"Do food miles matter?"
1954:March 28, 2008, at the
1825:Nova Science Publishers
1215:"Do food miles matter?"
959:in the United Kingdom.
947:and transported to the
920:Fairtrade certification
805:City University, London
651:Green industrial policy
365:Marginal abatement cost
288:Fiscal environmentalism
105:Personal carbon trading
75:Carbon fee and dividend
70:Carbon emission trading
42:Environmental economics
3263:Economic globalization
3110:Appropriate technology
2668:Sustainable sanitation
2613:Low-impact development
2254:Engelhaupt, E (2008).
1213:Engelhaupt, E (2008).
860:Calculating food miles
843:Food miles in business
818:Environment, entitled
588:Fossil fuel divestment
26:
3248:Sustainable transport
3026:Escape from Affluenza
2603:Intentional community
2469:Food Miles Calculator
1907:Environmental Science
1843:May 22, 2010, at the
1794:"PT_Ecology of Scale"
1524:May 27, 2008, at the
1171:municipal solid waste
1169:and waste generation/
1088:synthetic fertilisers
1010:tends to apply fewer
851:and supported by the
646:Free public transport
593:Fossil fuel phase-out
115:Social cost of carbon
24:
3150:Front Porch Republic
3140:Ecological footprint
2960:Modern-day adherents
2474:Fairtrade Foundation
2235:Environmental Values
1996:University of Surrey
1804:on December 6, 2009.
974:. Research from the
641:Environmental tariff
266:full-cost accounting
231:Efficient energy use
216:Ecological footprint
211:Ecological economics
3217:Work–life interface
3100:Anarcho-primitivism
2941:Henry David Thoreau
2825:Open Source Ecology
2360:2005ESPR...12..125B
2272:2008EnST...42.3482E
2210:2008EnST...42.3508W
1919:2008EnST...42.3508W
1553:on February 7, 2013
1325:2008EnST...42.3508W
1231:2008EnST...42.3482E
1096:Nitrogen fertiliser
966:in accordance with
573:Carbon-neutral fuel
236:Energy conservation
3268:Economic geography
3175:Intentional living
3061:Small Is Beautiful
2936:George Skene Keith
2784:Tolstoyan movement
2683:War tax resistance
2663:Sustainable living
2296:McKie, R. (2008).
1868:The New York Times
1849:Lincoln University
1827:Hauppauge NY:2008.
1798:www.uni-giessen.de
1159:resource depletion
1155:Lifecycle analysis
1134:"Local" food miles
972:economies of scale
849:Cornell University
613:Sustainable energy
598:Low-carbon economy
437:consumer behaviour
27:
3225:
3224:
3185:Rainbow Gathering
3054:The Power of Half
3047:Mother Earth News
2866:Ernest Callenbach
2798:Secular movements
2447:. The MIT Press.
2281:10.1021/es087190e
2218:10.1021/es702969f
2204:(10): 3508–3513.
2157:
2156:
2149:
2074:Examples include
2015:Skeptical Science
1971:on August 6, 2014
1927:10.1021/es702969f
1913:(10): 3508–3513.
1333:10.1021/es702969f
1319:(10): 3508–3513.
1240:10.1021/es087190e
1034:. In the case of
762:entire food cycle
704:
703:
568:Carbon neutrality
557:2000-watt society
551:Energy transition
462:development goals
380:Social accounting
100:Environmental tax
95:Emissions trading
3275:
3125:Critique of work
3105:Anti-consumerism
2972:Robin Greenfield
2931:E. F. Schumacher
2871:G. K. Chesterton
2805:Back-to-the-land
2643:Self-sufficiency
2583:Forest gardening
2532:
2525:
2518:
2509:
2508:
2458:
2426:. DEFRA, London.
2397:. DEFRA, London.
2387:
2328:
2310:
2293:
2283:
2250:
2229:
2192:
2179:
2152:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2132:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2072:
2066:
2059:
2053:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2035:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2007:
2001:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1967:. Archived from
1945:
1939:
1938:
1902:
1896:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1858:
1852:
1834:
1828:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1800:. Archived from
1790:
1784:
1783:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1736:
1730:
1729:Chi, 2009, p. 9.
1727:
1721:
1706:
1695:
1694:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1674:. March 9, 2016.
1668:
1662:
1661:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1601:
1595:
1591:The Carbon Trust
1583:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1552:
1546:. Archived from
1545:
1537:
1528:
1515:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1361:on April 4, 2019
1351:
1345:
1344:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1278:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1242:
1210:
1059:carbon footprint
1044:energy efficient
727:carbon footprint
709:is the distance
696:
689:
682:
562:Alternative fuel
452:design standards
360:Impact investing
166:Circular economy
133:Carbon footprint
52:
29:
28:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3155:Green anarchism
3073:
3006:
2955:
2854:Notable writers
2849:
2845:Transition town
2793:
2749:New Monasticism
2692:
2541:
2536:
2465:
2455:
2439:
2437:Further reading
2325:10.1002/bse.623
2308:
2153:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2122:
2116:has an unclear
2110:
2106:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2073:
2069:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2026:
2022:
2009:
2008:
2004:
1988:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1963:
1956:Wayback Machine
1946:
1942:
1903:
1899:
1894:Wayback Machine
1880:
1876:
1859:
1855:
1845:Wayback Machine
1835:
1831:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1750:
1746:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1707:
1698:
1683:
1679:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1650:
1646:
1636:
1634:
1624:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1602:
1598:
1584:
1580:
1564:
1563:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1541:"Archived copy"
1539:
1538:
1531:
1526:Wayback Machine
1516:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1396:. June 20, 2022
1388:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1362:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1281:
1272:
1268:
1260:
1256:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1191:
1167:water pollution
1152:
1136:
1123:vegetarian diet
1068:
1019:
996:food production
929:
900:
895:
879:Open Food Facts
867:
862:
845:
824:organic farming
793:
778:
756:
700:
671:
670:
626:
618:
617:
552:
544:
543:
529:Thermoeconomics
283:Ethical banking
171:Climate finance
156:
148:
147:
128:
120:
119:
60:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3281:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3212:Sustainability
3209:
3204:
3199:
3197:Low-technology
3194:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3172:
3167:
3165:Global warming
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3079:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3036:
3029:
3022:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2982:Pentti Linkola
2979:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2896:Harlan Hubbard
2893:
2891:Tom Hodgkinson
2888:
2883:
2881:Mahatma Gandhi
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2729:Jesus movement
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2608:Local currency
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2520:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2464:
2463:External links
2461:
2460:
2459:
2454:978-0262039659
2453:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2420:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2391:
2388:
2354:(3): 125–127.
2343:
2336:
2329:
2319:(5): 318–329.
2301:
2294:
2251:
2241:(2): 163–183.
2230:
2193:
2180:
2170:(5): 265–274.
2155:
2154:
2118:citation style
2113:
2111:
2104:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2067:
2054:
2045:
2036:
2034:, June 2, 2008
2020:
2002:
1982:
1940:
1897:
1874:
1853:
1829:
1816:
1807:
1785:
1766:
1754:
1744:
1731:
1722:
1696:
1677:
1663:
1644:
1632:Slate Magazine
1618:
1596:
1578:
1529:
1510:
1501:
1492:
1483:
1458:
1423:(6): 445–453.
1407:
1381:
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1346:
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1294:
1279:
1266:
1254:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1190:
1187:
1179:marketing hype
1151:
1148:
1144:bulk transport
1135:
1132:
1084:climate change
1067:
1064:
1017:
949:United Kingdom
928:
925:
899:
896:
894:
891:
865:
861:
858:
844:
841:
828:transportation
816:AEA Technology
797:sustainability
792:
789:
776:
766:greenhouse gas
754:
702:
701:
699:
698:
691:
684:
676:
673:
672:
669:
668:
666:Rail subsidies
663:
661:Green politics
658:
656:Green New Deal
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
631:Carbon leakage
627:
624:
623:
620:
619:
616:
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610:
605:
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595:
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585:
583:Feed-in tariff
580:
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559:
553:
550:
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546:
545:
542:
541:
539:Value of Earth
536:
531:
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395:Sustainability
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201:Eco-innovation
198:
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191:Eco-capitalism
188:
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150:
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127:Climate change
126:
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107:
102:
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87:
82:
80:Carbon finance
77:
72:
67:
61:
58:
57:
54:
53:
45:
44:
38:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3280:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3243:Food industry
3241:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3160:The good life
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3035:
3034:
3033:The Good Life
3030:
3028:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Peace Pilgrim
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2977:Ted Kaczynski
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2926:Dugald Semple
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2916:Peace Pilgrim
2914:
2912:
2911:Scott Nearing
2909:
2907:
2906:Helen Nearing
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2886:Richard Gregg
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2861:Wendell Berry
2859:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2815:Environmental
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
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2772:
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2767:
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2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2678:Vegetarianism
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2539:Simple living
2533:
2528:
2526:
2521:
2519:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2456:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2440:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
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2393:DEFRA (2009)
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3170:Hedonophobia
3144:
3130:Deep ecology
3066:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3038:
3031:
3024:
2901:Satish Kumar
2759:Plain people
2724:Distributism
2638:Sattvic diet
2628:Permaculture
2623:Off-the-grid
2598:Gift economy
2568:Downshifting
2558:Cord-cutting
2444:
2351:
2347:
2316:
2312:
2266:(10): 3482.
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2143:
2134:
2115:
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2014:
2005:
1985:
1973:. Retrieved
1969:the original
1943:
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1802:the original
1797:
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1779:
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1691:the Guardian
1690:
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1635:. Retrieved
1631:
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1548:the original
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1474:. Retrieved
1470:
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1398:. Retrieved
1394:The Guardian
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1359:the original
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1225:(10): 3482.
1222:
1218:
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1153:
1137:
1116:
1104:
1100:fossil fuels
1080:carbon sinks
1069:
1056:
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1032:concentrates
988:Agribusiness
985:
961:
955:than heated
930:
917:
904:supply chain
901:
875:
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836:Carbon Trust
819:
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743:
731:
706:
705:
603:Net metering
477:food systems
405:organization
196:Eco commerce
142:
110:Pigovian tax
59:Carbon price
18:
3202:Nonviolence
3120:Consumerism
3115:Bohemianism
3090:Agrarianism
2946:Leo Tolstoy
2876:Duane Elgin
2835:Small house
2754:Plain dress
2744:Monasticism
2739:Mindfulness
2648:Slow living
1975:October 11,
1637:October 26,
1417:Nature Food
1078:eliminates
1012:fertilizers
1008:agriculture
1004:New Zealand
957:greenhouses
912:Smallholder
715:transported
502:procurement
457:development
442:consumption
427:agriculture
422:advertising
417:Sustainable
308:development
3232:Categories
3145:Food miles
3095:Amateurism
2987:Jim Merkel
2967:Mark Boyle
2921:Nick Rosen
2840:Tiny house
2774:Temperance
2719:Detachment
2714:Asceticism
2709:Aparigraha
2588:Freeganism
2573:Dry toilet
2494:Food miles
2191:: 271–300.
2137:March 2024
2129:footnoting
1201:References
1040:sheep meat
980:energy use
898:Fair trade
801:local food
770:food chain
707:Food miles
492:management
487:livelihood
482:industries
432:capitalism
400:accounting
298:accounting
256:enterprise
246:accounting
143:Food miles
90:Carbon tax
3192:Itinerant
3085:Affluenza
2769:Rastafari
2734:Mendicant
2618:No frills
2593:Frugality
2563:DIY ethic
2546:Practices
2416:, London.
1453:249916086
1437:2662-1355
1365:April 28,
1140:last mile
1020:emissions
968:ISO 14040
943:grown in
893:Criticism
534:Used good
522:transport
410:reporting
328:marketing
3207:Peak oil
3135:Degrowth
2951:Valluvar
2810:Car-free
2673:Veganism
2384:33467271
2376:15986993
2290:18546672
2226:18546681
2125:citation
2032:Mongabay
1962:, Rome.
1952:Archived
1935:18546681
1890:Archived
1841:Archived
1611:July 20,
1567:cite web
1557:March 3,
1522:Archived
1476:July 13,
1445:37118044
1400:July 13,
1341:18546681
1249:18546672
1189:See also
1127:red meat
1030:such as
941:tomatoes
791:Overview
734:Tim Lang
719:consumer
625:Policies
512:sourcing
338:recovery
303:building
276:planning
181:Degrowth
155:Concepts
34:a series
32:Part of
3180:commune
3078:Related
2764:Quakers
2578:Fasting
2356:Bibcode
2268:Bibcode
2206:Bibcode
2097:Sources
1915:Bibcode
1321:Bibcode
1227:Bibcode
887:QR code
883:barcode
834:. The
517:tourism
472:finance
348:vehicle
343:trading
333:paradox
313:economy
261:finance
3068:Walden
3002:Thomas
2820:Hippie
2633:Regift
2553:Barter
2451:
2382:
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2224:
1933:
1451:
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1435:
1339:
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1048:apples
1000:Europe
953:energy
933:energy
497:market
467:energy
447:design
318:growth
251:design
3011:Media
2997:Suelo
2704:Amish
2688:WWOOF
2498:DEFRA
2380:S2CID
2309:(PDF)
2065:– p16
1752:1988.
1718:Oxfam
1551:(PDF)
1544:(PDF)
1449:S2CID
1111:dairy
1036:dairy
1024:graze
945:Spain
832:farms
812:DEFRA
293:Green
36:about
2830:Slow
2484:IIED
2449:ISBN
2372:PMID
2286:PMID
2222:PMID
2127:and
1977:2011
1931:PMID
1714:IIED
1639:2021
1613:2011
1573:link
1559:2014
1478:2022
1441:PMID
1433:ISSN
1402:2022
1367:2009
1337:PMID
1245:PMID
1165:and
1109:and
1107:meat
1038:and
1028:feed
1002:and
711:food
2496:at
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