Carbon offsets and credits

2048: 1778:(CORSIA) is a global, market-based program to reduce emissions from international aviation. It aims to allow credits and offsets for emissions that cannot be reduced by technology and operational improvements or sustainable aviation fuels. To ensure the environmental integrity of these offsets, the program has developed a list of eligible offsets that can be used. Operating principles are similar to those under existing trading mechanisms and carbon offset certification standards. CORSIA has applied to international aviation since January 2019. At that point all airlines had been required to report their CO 1894:

efficiency. Projects that sequester carbon are also called Nature-Based Solutions. Projects with additional social and environmental benefits can command a higher price. This reflects the value of the co-benefits and the perceived value of association with these projects. Credits from a reputable organization may command a higher price. Some credits located in developed countries may be priced higher. One reason could be that companies prefer to back projects closer to their business sites. Conversely, carbon credits with older vintages tend to be valued lower on the market.

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be able to purchase 'adjusted credits' that eliminate the risk of double counting. These may be seen as more valuable if they support science-based targets and net-zero emissions. Other non-adjusted offsets and credits could support claims for other environmental or social indicators. They could also support emission reductions that are seen as less valuable in terms of these goals. Uncertainty remains around Article 6's effects on future voluntary carbon markets. There is also uncertainty about what investors could claim by purchasing various types of carbon credits.

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limited number (a "cap") of permits. These permit a discharge of a specific quantity of a specific pollutant over a set time period. Polluters are required to hold permits in amounts equal to their emissions. Those that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them. These programs have been applied to greenhouse gases for several reasons. Their warming effects are the same regardless of where they are emitted. The costs of reducing emissions vary widely by source. The cap ensures that the environmental goal is attained.

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credits once it starts. Most carbon offset programs have a library of approved methodologies covering a range of project types. After a project has begun, programs will often verify it periodically to determine the quantity of emission reductions generated. The length of time between verifications can vary, but is typically one year. After a program approves verification reports, it issues carbon offset credits, which are deposited in the project developer's account in a registry system administered by the offset program.

2458: 8843: 9422: 8632: 8620: 643: 2402: 2416: 8656: 8644: 667: 655: 2444: 38: 759: 1868:, the Climate Action Reserve, the American Carbon Registry, and Plan Vivo. Puro Standard, the first standard for engineered carbon removal, is verified by DNV GL. There are also some additional standards for validating co-benefits, including the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Standard (CCB Standard), also issued by Verra, and the Social Carbon Standard, issued by the Ecologica Institute. 1559:, or co-benefits, which include better air quality, increased biodiversity, and water and soil protection; community employment opportunities, energy access, and gender equality; and job creation, education opportunities, and technology transfer. Some certification programs have tools and research products to help quantify these benefits. 1552:

companies and governments have adopted. Voluntary carbon markets usually consist of private entities purchasing carbon offset credits to meet voluntary greenhouse gas reduction commitments. In some cases, non-covered participants in an ETS may purchase credits as an alternative to purchasing offsets in a voluntary market.

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require multiple species plantings. Tree planting in high latitude forests may have a net warming effect on the Earth's climate because tree cover absorbs sunlight thus creating a warming effect that balances out their absorption of carbon dioxide. Tree-planting projects can also cause conflicts with

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analyzed a series of CDM projects. It found that 85% had a low likelihood of being truly additional or were likely to over-estimate emission reductions. In 2023, the University of California all but dropped the purchase of offsets in favor of direct reductions in emissions. An additional challenge is

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CDM projects may transition to the Article 6.4 program subject to approval by the country hosting the project, and if the project meets the new rules, with certain exceptions for rules on methodologies. Projects can generally continue to use the same CDM methodologies through 2025. From 2026 on, they

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Renewable energy projects can include hydroelectric, wind, photovoltaic solar, solar hot water, biomass power, and heat production. These types of projects help societies move from electricity and heating based on fossil fuels towards forms of energy that are less carbon-intensive. However, they may

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Offset certification and carbon trading programs vary by how much they consider specific projects eligible for offsets or credits. The European Union Emission Trading System considers nuclear energy projects, afforestation or reforestation activities, and projects involving destruction of industrial

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Demand for VCM offsets is expected to increase five to ten-fold over the next decade as more companies adopt Net Zero climate commitments. This could benefit both markets and progress on reducing GHG emissions. If carbon offset prices remain significantly below these forecast levels, companies could

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Article 6 does not directly regulate the voluntary carbon markets. In principle, it is possible to issue and purchase carbon offsets without reference to Article 6. It is possible that a multi-tier system could emerge with different types of offsets and credits available for investors. Companies may

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Prices on the compliance market are generally higher. They vary based on geography, with EU and UK ETS credits trading at higher prices than those in the US in 2022. Lower prices on the VCM are in part due to an excess of supply in relation to demand. Some types of offsets are able to be created at

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e for the most common types of offset projects. Several factors can affect these prices. The costs of developing a project are a significant factor. Those tied to projects that can sequester carbon have recently been selling at a premium compared to other projects such as renewable energy or energy

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In 2015, REDD+ was incorporated into Article 5 of the Paris Agreement. REDD+ initiatives typically compensate developing countries or their regional administrations for reducing their emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. It consists of several stages: One, achieving REDD+ readiness;

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such as forests and soil. There are a number of different types of LULUCF projects. Forestry-related projects focus on avoiding deforestation. They do this by protecting existing forests, restoring forests on land that was once forested, and creating forests on land that previously had no forests,

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The ITMO system requires "corresponding adjustments" to avoid double counting of emission reductions. Double-counting occurs if both the host country and purchasing country count the reduction towards their target. If the receiving country uses ITMOs towards its NDC, the host country must discount

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Other groups are now advocating for new approaches to ensure that offsets and credits have integrity. The Oxford Offsetting Principles state that traditional carbon offsetting schemes are "unlikely to deliver the types of offsetting needed to ultimately reach net zero emissions." These principles

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An offset project is designed by project developers, financed by investors, validated by an independent verifier, and registered with a carbon offset program. Official registration indicates that a program has approved the project and that the project is eligible to start generating carbon offset

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Deforestation is particularly significant in Brazil, Indonesia, and parts of Africa, accounting for about 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon offsets allow firms to avoid deforestation by paying directly for forest preservation or providing substitutes for forest-based products. Offset

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e per year of annual emission reductions between now and 2050. These technologies include reducing deforestation, forest restoration, CCS, BECCs and renewables in least developed countries. In addition, as the cost of using offsets and credits rises, investments in reducing supply chain emissions

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Some pricing forecasts predict VCM prices could increase to as much as $ 47–$ 210 per tonne by 2050. There could be an even higher spike in the short term in certain scenarios. A major factor in future price models is the extent to which programs that support more permanent removals can influence

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Over 50 countries have national REDD+ initiatives. REDD+ is also taking place through provincial and district governments and at the local level through private landowners. As of 2020, there were over 400 ongoing REDD+ projects globally. Brazil and Colombia account for the largest amount of REDD+

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The supervisory board under Article 6.4 is responsible for approving methodologies, setting guidance, and implementing procedures. The preparation work for this is expected to last until the end of 2023. ER credits issued will fall by 2% to ensure that the program as a whole results in an overall

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programs exist at the sub-national, national, and international level. Under these programs, there is a cap on emissions. Sources of emissions have the flexibility to find and apply the lowest-cost methods for reducing pollution. A central authority or government body usually allocates or sells a

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Offsets from past project have to be additional to what would have happened without the project. For future projects, forward crediting is a process where credits are issued for projected emissions reductions, which can be claimed by buyers even before the reduction activities have occurred. When

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were found to use a formula that established fixed boundaries around forest regions. This created simplified, regional averages for the carbon stored in a wide mix of tree species. Some experts have estimated that California's cap and trade program has generated between 20 million and 39 million

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Some initiatives focus on improving the quality of current carbon offset and credit projects. The Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market (ICVCM) has published a draft set of principles for determining a high integrity carbon credit. These are known as the Core Carbon Principles. Final

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The voluntary carbon markets currently represent less than 1% of the reductions pledged in country NDCs by 2030. It represents an even smaller portion of the reductions needed to achieve the 1.5°C Paris temperature goal pathway in 2030. However, the VCM is growing significantly. Between 2017 and

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Many different groups exist within the voluntary carbon market, including developers, brokers, auditors, and buyers. Certification programs for VCMs establish accounting standards, project eligibility requirements, and monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) procedures for credit and offset

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where carbon offsets are traded by corporations, individuals and organizations that are under no legal obligation to make emission cuts. In voluntary carbon markets, companies or individuals use carbon offsets to meet the goals they set themselves for reducing emissions. Credits are issued under

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cost of reducing emissions would differ among countries. Studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall cost of meeting the targets. Offset and credit programs have been identified as a way for countries to meet their NDC commitments and achieve the goals of the Paris

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Carbon offset and credit programs are coming under increased scrutiny because their claimed emissions reductions may be inflated compared to the actual reductions achieved. To be credible, the reduction in emissions must meet three criteria: they must last indefinitely, be additional to emission

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Similar to the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, it establishes a centralized program to trade GHG emission reductions between countries, supervised by a UNFCCC supervisory board. Countries, companies, and individuals can buy Emission Reduction (ER) credits purchased under this

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There is a diverse range of sources of supply and demand as well as trading frameworks that drive offset and credit markets. Demand for offsets and credits derives from a range of compliance obligations, arising from international agreements, national laws, as well as voluntary commitments that

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Determining additionality can be difficult. This may present risks for buyers of offsets or credits. Carbon projects that yield strong financial returns even in the absence of revenue from carbon credits are usually not considered additional. Another example is projects that are compelled by

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Fleischman, Forrest; Basant, Shishir; Chhatre, Ashwini; Coleman, Eric A; Fischer, Harry W; Gupta, Divya; Güneralp, Burak; Kashwan, Prakash; Khatri, Dil; Muscarella, Robert; Powers, Jennifer S; Ramprasad, Vijay; Rana, Pushpendra; Solorzano, Claudia Rodriguez; Veldman, Joseph W (2020-09-16).

2340:. They may provide incentives to emit more, so that emitting entities can get credit for reducing emissions from an artificially high baseline. Regulatory agencies could address these situations. This could involve setting specific standards for verifiability, uniqueness, and transparency. 1937:

Verra was developed in 2005. It is a widely used voluntary carbon standard, which also offers specific methodologies for REDD+ projects. As of 2020, there had been over 1,500 certified VCS projects covering energy, transport, waste, forestry, and other sectors. In 2021, Verra issued 300

157:. Article 6.2 enabled countries to directly trade carbon credits and units of renewable power with each other. Article 6.4 established a new international carbon market allowing countries or companies to use carbon credits generated in other countries to help meet their climate targets. 1709:

Creates a program for trading GHG emission reductions via bilateral agreements between countries using credits known as internationally transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs). ITMOs can be purchased by countries to achieve NDCs, and also be used in market-based schemes such as CORSIA

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Forestry projects have faced increasing criticism over their integrity as offset or credit programs. A number of news stories from 2021 to 2023 criticized nature-based carbon offsets, the REDD+ program, and certification organizations. In one case it was estimated that around 90% of

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are expected to have a larger share of this market in the future, compared to renewable energy projects. However, there is evidence that large companies are becoming more reluctant to use VCM offsets and credits because of a complex web of standards, despite an increased focus on

75:, which account for the net climate benefits that one entity brings to another. After certification by a government or independent certification body, credits can be traded between entities. One carbon credit represents a reduction, avoidance or removal of one metric tonne of 2256:

The use of offsets and credits faces a variety of criticisms. Some argue that they promote a "business-as-usual" mindset, allowing companies to use carbon offsetting to avoid making larger changes to reduce carbon emissions at source. Using projects in this way is called

1609:(EU-ETS) and the California Cap and Trade Program. Eligible credits in these programs may include credits that international or independent crediting systems have issued. There are also standards and crediting mechanisms that independent, nongovernmental entities such as 1960:

was developed in 2003 by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in consultation with an independent standards advisory board. Projects are open to any non-government, community-based organization. Allowable categories include renewable energy supply, energy efficiency,

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of forestry carbon credits. Forestry carbon credits are based on the measurement of forest growth, which is converted into carbon emission reduction measurements by government ecological and forestry offices. Owners of forests (who are typically rural families or

1629:, a developed country can sponsor a greenhouse gas reduction project in a developing country, where the costs of greenhouse gas reduction activities are usually much lower. The developed country receives credits for meeting its emission reduction targets known as 1480:, which introduced the concept of a cap and trade system, which allowed companies to buy and sell offsets created by other companies that invested in emission reduction projects subject to an overall limit on emissions. In the 1990s, regulatory frameworks for the 1753:

is a programme, largely addressed at tropical regions in developing countries, that uses market approaches to compensate landowners for not clearing or degrading their forests in order to create financial value for carbon stored in forests. REDD+ also promotes

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such that cannot be transferred and used. Carbon offsets can be tracked and reported within an offset certification registry, which may contain project information such as project status, project documents, credits generated, ownership, sale, and retirement.

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Methane is a potent greenhouse gas. It is most often emitted from landfills, livestock, and from coal mining. Methane projects can produce carbon offsets through the capture of methane for energy production. Examples include the combustion or containment of

1969:. Projects must meet at least three of those goals besides reducing GHG emissions. Projects must make a net-positive contribution to the economic, environmental and social welfare of the local population. Program monitoring requirements help determine this. 2293:

that carbon pricing and existing policies are still inadequate to meet Paris goals. However, there is evidence that companies that invest in offsets and credits tend to make more ambitious emissions cuts compared with companies that do not.

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focus instead on cutting emissions as a first priority. In terms of offsets, they advocate for shifting to carbon removal offset projects that involve long-term storage. The principles also support the development of offsetting aligned with

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Prices for offsets and credits vary widely, reflecting the uncertainty associated with verifying the indirect value of carbon offsets. At the same time, uncertainty has caused some companies to become more skeptical about buying offsets .

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Tree planting projects in particular have been problematic. Critics point to a number of concerns. Trees reach maturity over a course of many decades. It is difficult to guarantee how long the forest will last. It may suffer clearing,

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2021, both the issuance and retirement of VCM carbon offsets more than tripled. Some predictions call for global VCM demand to increase 15-fold between 2021 and 2030, and 100 times by 2050. Carbon removal projects such as forestry and

3614: 1535:. The Kyoto Protocol was to expire in 2020, to be superseded by the Paris Agreement. Countries are still determining the role of carbon offsets in the Paris Agreement through international negotiations on the agreement's Article 6. 719:. It is a reduction, avoidance, or removal of emissions to compensate for emissions released elsewhere. One carbon credit represents an emission reduction or removal of one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of 1475:

offset mechanisms, allowing permitted facilities to increase emissions in exchange for paying another company to reduce its emissions of the same pollutant by a greater amount. The 1990 amendments to that same law established the

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regulations. Projects representing common practice in an industry are also usually not considered additional. A full determination of additionality requires a careful investigation of proposed carbon offset projects.

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guidelines for this program are expected in late 2023. The Voluntary Carbon Markets Integrity Initiative has developed a code of practice that was published in 2022. The UK government partly funds this initiative.

2240:'s net-zero criteria argue that it is important to move beyond offsets based on reduced or avoided emissions. Instead projects should base offsets on carbon that has been sequestered from the atmosphere, such as CO 1730:

those reductions from its emissions budget by adding and reporting that higher total in its biennial reporting. Otherwise Article 6.2 gives countries a lot of flexibility in how they can create trading agreements.

1645:, a developed country with relatively high domestic costs of emission reduction would set up a project in another developed country. Offset credits under this program are designated as Emission Reduction Units. 1672:

continues to support offset and credit programs between countries, including CDM projects from the Kyoto Protocol. Programs now occur to help achieve emission reduction targets set out in each country's

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O reductions represent 71 percent of offsets issued under the CDM. Since many of these are now banned by an amendment to the Montreal Protocol, they are often no longer eligible for offsets or credits.

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plants generate both electricity and heat from the same power source. This improves upon the energy efficiency of most power plants. That is because these plants waste the energy generated as heat.

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At the start of 2022 there were 25 operational emissions trading systems around the world. They are in jurisdictions representing 55% of global GDP. These systems cover 17% of global emissions. The

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from reducing deforestation such as biodiversity. It was introduced in its basic form at COP11 in 2005 and has grown into a broad policy initiative to address deforestation and forest degradation.

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Veldman, Joseph W.; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Negreiros, Daniel; Mahy, Gregory; Le Stradic, Soizig; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Durigan, Giselda; Buisson, Elise; Putz, Francis E.; Bond, William J. (2015).

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than carbon dioxide by volume. It is easy to capture and destroy these pollutants at their source. So they present a large low-cost source of carbon offsets. As a category, HFCs, PFCs, and N

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independent crediting standards. Some entities also purchase them under international or domestic crediting mechanisms. National and subnational programs have been increasing in popularity.

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This article is about the use of carbon offsets and carbon credits for countries, corporations, and, in some cases, individuals. For more information on carbon credits for individuals, see

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Mitigation of Global Emissions. An additional 5% reduction of ERs will go to a fund to finance adaptation. Administrative fees for program management are still under discussion.

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A variety of greenhouse gas reduction projects can qualify for offsets and credits depending on the scheme. Some include forestry projects that avoid logging and plant saplings,

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schemes using reforestation, such as REDD, are available in developing countries, and are becoming increasingly available in developed countries including the US and the UK.

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A variety of projects can be used to reduce GHG emissions and thus to generate carbon offsets and credits. These can include land use improvement, methane capture, biomass

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The year in which a carbon emissions reduction project — usually the year in which a third party verifies the project — generates the carbon offset credit is known as the

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have received criticism as greenwashing because they overstated their ability to sequester carbon, with some projects being shown to actually increase overall emissions.

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Haya, Barbara K.; Evans, Samuel; Brown, Letty; Bukoski, Jacob; Butsic, Van; Cabiyo, Bodie; Jacobson, Rory; Kerr, Amber; Potts, Matthew; Sanchez, Daniel L. (2023-03-21).

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e worth of offset credits for 110 projects. Verra is the program of choice for most of the forest credits in the voluntary market, and almost all REDD+ projects.

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must meet all Article 6 requirements. Up to 2.8 billion credits could potentially become eligible for issuance under Article 6.4 if all CDM projects transition.

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reductions that were going to happen anyway, and must be measured and monitored to assure the that the amount of reduction promised has in fact been attained.

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and Xpansiv. Many companies now engage in emissions abatement, offsetting, and sequestration programs, which generate credits that can be sold on an exchange.

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Nuclear energy projects are not eligible for credits under these programs. Country-specific designated national authorities approve projects under the CDM.

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certificates allow polluting companies a business-as-usual approach to continue releasing greenhouse gases and for being, inappropriately trusted, untried

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Besides the certification programs mentioned above, industry groups have been working since the 2000s to promote the quality of these projects. The

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by investing in projects that reduce, avoid, or remove emissions elsewhere. When an entity invests in a carbon offsetting program, it receives

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two, formalizing an agreement for financing; three, monitoring, reporting, and verifying results; and four, receiving results-based payments.

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The International Emissions Trading program enables countries to trade in the international carbon credit market to cover their shortfall in

1424: 6317: 9367: 7551: 6963: 4601: 6287: 5620: 2047: 7435: 5876: 5312: 4110: 1652:. Countries with surplus units can sell them to countries that are exceeding their emission targets under Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol. 3527: 3227: 1914:. This is because some might claim credit for emission reduction projects that would have been undertaken anyway. At prices of $ 100/tCO 7694: 7652: 5177: 8573: 7689: 7274: 5812: 5649: 5531: 5336: 5284: 5128: 4700: 4576: 3774: 3355: 2329:

forestry credits that do not achieve real climate benefits. This amounts to nearly one in three credits issued through that program.

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local communities and Indigenous people if the project displaces or otherwise curtails their use of forest resources. For example,

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Compliance market credits account for most of the offset and credit market today. Trading on voluntary carbon markets was 300 MtCO

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because they overstated their ability to sequester carbon, with some projects being shown to actually increase overall emissions.

8260: 8049: 7217: 6022: 3474: 3330: 2938: 2848: 2122: 1833: 1606: 526: 7042: 5019: 4479: 4282: 3658: 2962:. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved September 21, 2012 from CollinsDictionary.com. 1840:. It covers over 40% of European GHG emissions. California's cap-and-trade program covers about 85% of statewide GHG emissions. 7909: 7872: 7726: 7711: 7630: 7279: 7223: 2497: 1957: 1951: 1865: 1837: 1638: 1614: 1440: 336: 5360: 4819: 3849: 3685: 2729: 8568: 7706: 7009: 5998: 5693: 5685: 5566: 4740: 3507: 3454: 3035: 2917: 1809:

Currently several exchanges trade in carbon credits and allowances covering both spot and futures markets. These include the

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As of 2022, 68 carbon pricing programs were in place or scheduled to be created globally. International programs include the

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enabled mitigation banking and wetlands offsetting, which set the procedural and conceptual precedent for carbon offsetting.

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Allows countries to transfer carbon credits from reducing GHG emissions to help other countries meet their climate targets.

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projects replace a combustion device with one using less fuel per unit of energy provided. They can do this by optimizing

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the risk that countries and sectors may use carbon credits as "a ploy which permits maintaining excessive consumption".

2086: 331: 278: 7604: 5699: 5505: 5290:(Report). Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh. Pages 23-24 3428: 3361:(Report). Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh. Pages 10-17 2369:. These end up damaging native forests and reducing biodiversity. In response, some certification standards such as the 1985:, or industrial energy efficiency. They also include reducing methane, reforestation and switching fuel, for example to 9372: 8687: 8500: 8361: 8318: 7814: 5591: 5422: 2487: 1674: 1316: 974: 684: 356: 173: 142: 4941: 9456: 8992: 8427: 8303: 8120: 7323: 7068: 7035: 6583: 5045: 4966: 3922: 243: 5484: 5136:. Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh. pp. 25–26. 3252: 3010: 8660: 8298: 8278: 8225: 8177: 7239: 6764: 6170:"COP26 climate pledges could help limit global warming to 1.8 °C, but implementing them will be the key – Analysis" 5150: 4582:(Report). Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh. Page 3 3751:"What's in a carbon credit? New tools help quantify the sustainable development benefits of carbon offset projects" 3199: 3126: 2237: 1388: 742: 671: 9155: 9080: 8951: 8417: 8368: 7794: 7756: 7701: 7171: 2657: 2383: 564: 6698: 8485: 7769: 7526: 6673: 6126: 4877:"A Year in Review: Tracking Carbon Price Highs & Lows in 2022 and Major Policy Shifts to Watch for in 2023" 2873: 2325: 1782:

emissions on an annual basis. International flights must undertake offsetting under CORSIA since January 2021.

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future global climate policy. This could limit the supply of approvable offsets, and thereby raise prices.

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very low costs under present standards. Without this surplus, current VCM prices could be at least $ 10/tCO

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Probst, Benedict; Toetzke, Malte; Anadon, Laura Diaz; Kontoleon, Andreas; Hoffmann, Volker (2023-07-27).

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agreement at a lower cost. They may also help close the emissions gap identified in annual UNEP reports.

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also have detailed guidance on what descriptive terms are appropriate for buyers of offsets and credits.

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includes three mechanisms for "voluntary cooperation" between countries towards climate goals, including

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Several certification standards exist, with different ways of measuring emissions baseline, reductions,

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Systematic review of the actual emissions reductions of carbon offset projects across all major sectors

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Researchers have raised the concern that the use of carbon offsets – such as by maintaining forests,

1818: 1432: 1215: 1108: 846: 579: 521: 471: 451: 181: 8032: 6416:"Mass Audubon promised to preserve wildlife. Then it made millions claiming it could cut down trees" 5235:"The influence of crediting and permanence periods on Australian forest-based carbon offsets supply" 4794: 4626: 3825:"There's a massive bubble in the price of carbon – and yet it won't bring down emissions any faster" 9352: 9160: 9100: 8757: 8527: 8522: 8512: 8453: 8293: 7799: 7764: 7657: 7584: 7425: 7254: 7190: 7151: 2730:"Are carbon offsets all they're cracked up to be? We tracked one from Kenya to England to find out" 2354: 2336:

Offsets provide a revenue stream for the reduction of some types of emissions, so they can lead to

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are now an important element of regulatory programs to control pollution, including GHG emissions.

1572: 1286: 1185: 1118: 964: 954: 929: 884: 569: 476: 428: 346: 200: 80: 64: 4501: 2224:. ICROA's membership consists of carbon offset providers based in the United States, European and 9446: 9291: 9281: 9271: 8636: 8558: 8468: 8210: 8182: 7862: 7521: 7499: 7106: 5877:"Integrity Of The Voluntary Carbon Market: Draft 'Core Carbon Principles' | White & Case LLP" 2407: 2221: 2142: 2014:

not qualify as offset projects. This is because it is difficult or impossible to determine their

1581: 1496: 1359: 1210: 1165: 1150: 1135: 1130: 1073: 996: 813: 783: 778: 750: 406: 31: 5757:(Report). Stockholm Environment Institute & Greenhouse Gas Management Institute. Pages 18-31 4672:"World's first carbon-removal marketplace offers businesses an easy route to net-zero emissions" 9212: 9075: 8858: 8747: 8235: 8055: 7997: 7914: 7899: 7784: 7430: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 5612: 5556: 3282:"Mass Audubon 'Followed The Rules' And Earned Millions From Carbon Offsets. But Was It 'Real'?" 2147: 1296: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1140: 1001: 984: 531: 506: 416: 396: 366: 321: 248: 233: 115: 4125: 3585: 2570:"Comprehensive review of carbon quantification by improved forest management offset protocols" 9461: 9347: 9115: 9110: 9090: 8624: 8270: 8147: 7955: 7415: 7338: 4044:"Emissions Trading in the U.S.: Experience, Lessons, and Considerations for Greenhouse Gases" 3523: 2472: 2435: 2176:

Criteria for assessing the quality of offsets and credits usually cover the following areas:

1649: 1354: 1301: 1230: 969: 823: 647: 466: 421: 238: 6146:"The University of California has all but dropped carbon offsets—and thinks you should, too" 5731:(Report). Stockholm Environment Institute & Greenhouse Gas Management Institute. Page 10 5127:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; Espelage, Aglaja (2019).

4923:

Turner, Guy; Helmke, Elyas; Tetteh-Wright, Teki Anna; Oraee, Atta; et al. (June 2021).

4722:

Turner, Guy; Helmke, Elyas; Tetteh-Wright, Teki Anna; Oraee, Atta; et al. (June 2021).

8941: 8703: 8463: 8341: 8002: 7577: 7504: 6232: 2581: 2278: 2082: 1990: 1978: 1848: 1642: 1349: 1220: 959: 939: 924: 919: 511: 411: 351: 131: 111: 6725:"Where Tree Planting and Forest Expansion are Bad for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services" 5641: 8: 9312: 9145: 9045: 9020: 8973: 8782: 8772: 8737: 8480: 8255: 7489: 7484: 6674:"Planting trees "doesn't make any sense" in the fight against climate change say experts" 6221:"Renewable energy certificates threaten the integrity of corporate science-based targets" 5963: 4696: 4070: 3993: 3775:"How shared value is calculated for Gold Standard Certified Projects | The Gold Standard" 3636: 1986: 1532: 1281: 1225: 1180: 949: 944: 624: 589: 584: 296: 6236: 5993:. Oscar Reyes, Timothy Byakola, Carbon Trade Watch. Amsterdam: Transnational Institute. 2585: 9186: 8797: 8308: 8240: 8157: 8007: 7972: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7494: 7085: 6588: 6268: 5283:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; et al. (2019).

5254: 5062: 4851: 4575:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; et al. (2019).

4426: 4381: 4362: 3927: 3354:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; et al. (2019).

3101: 2989: 2805: 2463: 2375: 2337: 2288:

based on its use of carbon credits to support claims of carbon neutrality. In 2016 the

2233: 2098: 2032: 1878: 1852: 1544: 1528: 1436: 1321: 1306: 1205: 1175: 1155: 619: 559: 516: 391: 268: 211: 107: 6877:"Pitfalls of Tree Planting Show Why We Need People-Centered Natural Climate Solutions" 6219:

Bjørn, Anders; Lloyd, Shannon M.; Brander, Matthew; Matthews, H. Damon (9 June 2022).

4551: 3677: 3578:

56 UC Davis Law Review, No. 1, UCLA School of Law, Public Law Research Paper No. 22-11

2846: 1423:". The label depends on the particular program that certifies a reduction project. At 9337: 9217: 8822: 8542: 8205: 7950: 7716: 7509: 7472: 7259: 7213: 7064: 7023: 7005: 6945: 6894: 6783: 6593: 6447:

Broekhoff, Derik; Gillenwater, Michael; Colbert-Sangree, Tani; Cage, Patrick (2019).

6272: 6260: 6125:

Cames, Martin; Harthan, Ralph O.; Füssler, Jürg; Lee, Carrie M.; et al. (2016).

6101: 6055: 6004: 5994: 5913: 5750:

Broekhoff, Derik; Gillenwater, Michael; Colbert-Sangree, Tani; Cage, Patrick (2019).

5724:

Broekhoff, Derik; Gillenwater, Michael; Colbert-Sangree, Tani; Cage, Patrick (2019).

5689: 5562: 5258: 5250: 5041: 4827: 4627:

A Comparison of Carbon Offset Standards - Making Sense of the Voluntary Carbon Market

4366: 4354: 4173: 3958: 3932: 3857: 3581: 3503: 3105: 3093: 2934: 2913: 2701: 2665: 2629: 2599: 2350: 2309: 2266: 1577: 1477: 1472: 1448: 1276: 1265: 1088: 1016: 808: 803: 341: 228: 123: 5451: 1889:

In 2022 voluntary carbon market (VCM) prices ranged from $ 8 to $ 30 per tonne of CO

9286: 9227: 8931: 8926: 8903: 8812: 8752: 8585: 8152: 8135: 8076: 7967: 7731: 7455: 7328: 7264: 7056: 7048: 6935: 6925: 6884: 6773: 6738: 6420: 6250: 6240: 5364: 5246: 5033: 5025: 4925:

Future Demand, Supply and Prices for Voluntary Carbon Credits – Keeping the Balance

4724:

Future Demand, Supply and Prices for Voluntary Carbon Credits – Keeping the Balance

4344: 3693: 3666: 3083: 3075: 2817: 2809: 2589: 2477: 2370: 2366: 2305: 2134:

projects attempt to preserve or increase the amount of carbon sequestered in soil.

2102: 2060: 2051:

Chicago Climate Justice activists protesting cap and trade legislation in front of

2036: 1982: 1634: 1524: 1270: 1068: 1006: 874: 841: 614: 386: 258: 103: 91: 41: 4349: 4332: 2813: 141:

Carbon offset and credit programs provide a mechanism for countries to meet their

9317: 9276: 9254: 9135: 9105: 9070: 9030: 8832: 8537: 8458: 8422: 8351: 8325: 8313: 8230: 8162: 8037: 7894: 7516: 7467: 7445: 6503:"The CFTC Should Raise Standards and Mitigate Fraud in the Carbon Offsets Market" 2892: 2879: 2866: 2852: 2131: 2078: 1794:

e in 2021. By comparison, the compliance carbon market trading volume was 12 GtCO

1750: 1237: 1036: 991: 879: 461: 456: 446: 316: 146: 6851:""A further act of colonisation": why indigenous peoples fear carbon offsetting" 5082:

Chagas, Thiago; Galt, Hilda; Lee, Donna; Neeff, Till; Streck, Charlotte (2020).

3462:(3rd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: Greenhouse Gas Management Institute. Page 10. 2429: 2289: 9342: 9332: 9130: 8742: 8490: 8346: 8288: 8283: 8125: 8014: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7594: 7531: 7269: 7249: 7208: 7129: 6914:"COP26 and a Framework for Future Global Agreements on Carbon Market Integrity" 6778: 6759: 6245: 6220: 5208: 3178: 3150:

The CFTC Should Raise Standards and Mitigate Fraud in the Carbon Offsets Market

3064:"COP26 and a Framework for Future Global Agreements on Carbon Market Integrity" 2822: 2449: 2285: 2270: 2188: 2071:

for energy. Carbon offsets in this category fund projects of three main types.

1504: 1500: 1488: 1487:

In 1997, the original international compliance carbon markets emerged from the

1374: 1369: 1364: 1339: 1291: 1247: 1125: 1103: 1046: 1011: 909: 899: 788: 720: 716: 712: 604: 554: 401: 371: 326: 223: 190: 154: 99: 76: 60: 7052: 7004:

of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,

5029: 3686:"8. Global, Regional, and National Costs and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation" 9440: 9362: 9150: 9035: 9015: 8946: 8936: 8893: 8777: 8732: 8563: 8495: 8220: 8042: 8027: 7962: 7857: 6949: 6930: 6898: 6889: 6597: 6264: 6105: 6059: 6008: 5939:"This new 'integrity initiative' is designed to fight corporate greenwashing" 5917: 5676: 5509: 4831: 4358: 3962: 3936: 3861: 3635:

Carraro, C.; Christensen, J.; Edmonds, J.; Flannery, B.; et al. (2001).

3097: 3079: 2705: 2669: 2633: 2603: 2594: 2569: 2482: 2457: 2421: 2321: 2297: 2217: 2183: 2015: 1962: 1516: 1056: 1051: 1041: 1021: 934: 914: 894: 793: 773: 735:

and subsidies. Credits can move among the various markets they are traded in.

574: 536: 253: 6743: 6724: 6528:"Carbon offsets used by major airlines based on flawed system, warn experts" 5781:"New international standards organisation hopes for plenty of carbon copies" 4403:"Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA)" 4380:

Sheikh, P. A.; Procita, Kezee; Riddle, A.A.; Hoover, Katie (November 2021).

3882:"Carbon offsets used by major airlines based on flawed system, warn experts" 9382: 9357: 9222: 9191: 9005: 8807: 8448: 8245: 7889: 7879: 7536: 7420: 7333: 6787: 6584:"Do Airline Climate Offsets Really Work? Here's the Good News, and the Bad" 6454:. Stockholm Environment Institute & Greenhouse Gas Management Institute 6352: 5901: 5583: 4653:

The Future of Carbon Offset Markets: Current Trends and Emerging Challenges

3923:"Do Airline Climate Offsets Really Work? Here's the Good News, and the Bad" 3573: 2694:"Carbon credit speculators could lose billions as offsets deemed worthless" 2514: 2387: 2262: 2258: 2225: 2074: 1911: 1311: 1026: 904: 818: 728: 711:

A carbon offset or carbon credit is a way of compensating for emissions of

494: 311: 135: 45: 5988: 9207: 9175: 8968: 8956: 8876: 8802: 8792: 8722: 8475: 7992: 7984: 7244: 6288:"World's biggest companies accused of exaggerating their climate actions" 5476: 3429:"CARBON PRICING: Why do prices vary by project type? | The Gold Standard" 2362: 2126: 1556: 501: 263: 6994:(2001), Metz, B.; Davidson, O.; Swart, R.; Pan, J.; et al. (eds.), 6964:"Cambodia: Carbon Offsetting Project Violates Indigenous Group's Rights" 6940: 6348:"Scientists urge end to fossil fuel use as landmark IPCC report readied" 4995: 4382:

Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)

3380: 3088: 9170: 9165: 8978: 8961: 8817: 8672: 8507: 7884: 7060: 6729: 6446: 5990:

The carbon neutral myth : offset indulgences for your climate sins

5749: 5723: 5037: 3992:. Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. January 2011. Archived from 2492: 2365:, or mismanagement. Some tree-planting projects introduce fast-growing 1918:

e, a variety of carbon removal technologies could deliver around 2 GtCO

1415:

There are several labels for one-tonne emission reductions, including "

851: 798: 732: 376: 306: 273: 6195:"Why we can't afford to dismiss carbon offsetting in a climate crisis" 1843: 1543:

The economics behind programs such as the Kyoto Protocol was that the

8886: 8881: 8767: 8727: 7462: 6826:"Climate change could expand forests. But will they cool the planet?" 1836:(EU-ETS) is the second largest trading system in the world after the 1633:(CERs), while the developing country receives capital investment and 1499:

to a global scale, focusing on the major greenhouse gases that cause

1242: 1031: 95: 6758:

Aguirre-Gutiérrez, Jesús; Stevens, Nicola; Berenguer, Erika (2023).

2401: 2089:, for example making it easier to cycle to work instead of driving. 9000: 6649:"How Do You Guarantee Land-Based Offsets Are Permanent? | Greenbiz" 4697:"Social Carbon profile on database of market governance mechanisms" 2125:

have the collective label LULUCF. LULUCF projects focus on natural

889: 127: 6094:"Delta Air Lines faces lawsuit over $ 1bn carbon neutrality claim" 5678:

The Idea of China: Chinese Thinkers on Power, Progress, and People

4456:"Compliance and voluntary carbon markets: What is the difference?" 2059:

Carbon offsets that fund renewable energy projects help lower the

37: 8921: 8911: 7440: 7098: 6757: 4909:. Berlin: International Carbon Action Partnership. 2023. Page 34. 3634: 2538:"Unlocking Potential: State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2017" 2415: 2028: 1776:

Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation

1512: 49: 6760:"Valuing the functionality of tropical ecosystems beyond carbon" 1965:, reforestation, and agriculture. The program also promotes the 1427:, negotiators agreed to define offsets and credits issued under 758: 8916: 8443: 6699:"Planting invasive species could make our carbon problem worse" 5675:

Bachulska, Alicja; Leonard, Mark; Oertel, Janka (2 July 2024).

4676:

RECHARGE Global News and Intelligence for the Energy Transition

2379: 52:, Denmark, constitute one common type of carbon offset project. 6873: 6082:, paragraph 171, published 24 May 2015, accessed 21 April 2024 5813:"The Oxford Principles for Net Zero Aligned Carbon Offsetting" 4922: 4721: 3228:"Was COP27 the beginning of the end for corporate offsetting?" 8357:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

7450: 5906:"New carbon offset standards 'should bring greater scrutiny'" 4852:"Carbon Credits Prices by Project Type · Sep 2022 · Abatable" 4199:

Nuclear Power and Market Mechanisms Under the Paris Agreement

1665:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

6722: 6555:"The Climate Solution Actually Adding Millions of Tons of CO 6381:"The Climate Solution Actually Adding Millions of Tons of CO 6318:"Battle over carbon capture as tool to fight climate change" 5285:

Overview and Comparison of Existing Carbon Crediting Cchemes

5130:

Overview and comparison of existing carbon crediting schemes

5126: 4577:

Overview and Comparison of Existing Carbon Crediting Cchemes

3901:"The Climate Solution Actually Adding Millions of Tons of CO 3356:

Overview and Comparison of Existing Carbon Crediting Cchemes

2803: 8871: 6991: 6449:"Securing Climate Benefit: A Guide to Using Carbon Offsets" 5558:

Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) Activities

4552:"What is an Emissions Trading Scheme and How Does It Work?" 4065: 4063: 6023:"Carbon offsets prove risky business for net zero targets" 4930:(Report). UCL-Trove Research-Liebreich Associates. Page 3. 4729:(Report). UCL-Trove Research-Liebreich Associates. Page 2. 3036:"Carbon Offsets vs Carbon Credits: What's the Difference?" 1439:

claims by buyers. Certification organizations such as the

8533:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

6218: 5752:

Securing Climate Benefit: A Guide to Using Carbon Offsets

5726:

Securing Climate Benefit: A Guide to Using Carbon Offsets

4379: 2910:

Regeneration: ending the climate crisis in one generation

2117: 2085:, reducing energy costs per unit. They can also optimize 63:

mechanism that enables entities to compensate for offset

5642:"Tree planting projects for carbon offsetting in the UK" 4942:"Carbon Offset Prices Could Increase Fifty-Fold by 2050" 4262:(Report). Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. Pages 1-9 4060: 2988:. Carbon Offset Research & Education. Archived from 2067:

Energy conservation projects seek to reduce the overall

5307: 5305: 5203: 5201: 4625:

Kollmus, Anja; Zink, Helge; Polycarp, Clifford (2008).

4283:"COP27 FAQ: Article 6 of the Paris Agreement explained" 2228:

markets who commit to the ICROA Code of Best Practice.

2092: 1658: 6124: 5674: 5145: 5143: 4689: 4526:"Emissions Trading Worldwide: 2022 ICAP Status Report" 3712:"Making Carbon Markets Work for Faster Climate Action" 3502:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 3456:

What is Additionality? Part 1: A long standing problem

3405:"Offset Verification | California Air Resources Board" 2207: 1997:

gases ineligible. Industrial gases include HFC-23 and

8374:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

6413: 4092: 4090: 3663:

6.3 International Policies, Measures, and Instruments

2567: 5302: 5198: 4820:"Many Companies Are Shying Away From Carbon Credits" 4384:(Report). Congressional Research Service. Cover page 3850:"Many Companies Are Shying Away From Carbon Credits" 2751: 2749: 2543:. Forest Trends' Ecosystem Marketplace. p. 10. 2397: 2021: 1926: 1605:. National programs include ETS systems such as the 5140: 5104:"Gold Standard: Why do we carbon offset with them?" 5085:

A close look at the quality of REDD+ carbon credits

4967:"Ten-fold increase in carbon offset cost predicted" 4624: 3690:

8.3.1 International Emissions Quota Trading Regimes

1844:

Voluntary carbon markets and certification programs

1447:credit holders claim the GHG reductions, they must 6128:How additional is the Clean Development Mechanism? 5719: 5717: 5209:"UNEP Risoe CDM/JI Pipeline Analysis and Database" 5081: 4087: 3607:"Carbon Offsets after 2020: the World Under Paris" 3500:Wild by design: the rise of ecological restoration 2343: 2214:International Carbon Reduction and Offset Alliance 7090:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 6802:"Climate, Community & Biodiversity Standards" 6256:20.500.11820/fd48d7fc-d354-4ed6-bc99-70e515a7b189 5067:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 4487:Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change 3148:Fredman, Alex; Phillips, Todd (October 7, 2022). 2839:Periodicals that have covered this issue include: 2746: 2171: 9438: 8574:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5172: 5170: 5714: 5423:"How Does Cogeneration Provide Heat and Power?" 5233:Regan, Courtney M.; Connor, Jeffery D. (2020). 4903:Emissions Trading Worldwide: Status Report 2023 3347: 3147: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4244: 3057: 3055: 2933:Goodward, Jenna; Kelly, Alexia (August 2010). 2536:Hamrick, Kelley; Gallant, Melissa (May 2017). 2535: 145:(NDC) commitments to achieve the goals of the 8688: 7319:History of climate change policy and politics 7114: 5506:"F-gases Emissions – Climate Change – US EPA" 5167: 3733: 3731: 3221: 3219: 2932: 1396: 723:that contribute equally to global warming (CO 692: 6990: 5387:"State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2017" 4792: 3699: 3672: 3381:"CDM: Designated Operational Entities (DOE)" 2251: 1566: 7436:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 7028:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 7000:, Contribution of Working Group III to the 6918:The International Journal of Social Quality 6911: 6440: 6379:Song, Lisa; Temple, James (29 April 2021). 5806: 5804: 5555:Facility, Global Environment (2012-11-15). 5232: 4795:"Voluntary carbon market value tops US$ 2B" 4769:"Carbon credits: Scaling voluntary markets" 4254: 4241: 3452: 3068:The International Journal of Social Quality 3061: 3052: 2371:Climate Community and Biodiversity Standard 1972: 8695: 8681: 8655: 8643: 8100: 7121: 7107: 7041: 6616: 6552: 6378: 6091: 5774: 5772: 5226: 4205:. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2017 4096: 3948: 3898: 3737: 3728: 3216: 2691: 2619: 2390:ethnic group from their indigenous lands. 1588: 1403: 1389: 699: 685: 666: 654: 8395: 8201:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 7344:United Nations Climate Change conferences 6939: 6929: 6912:Cadman, Tim; Hales, Robert (2022-06-01). 6888: 6777: 6742: 6254: 6244: 5178:"Primer: Carbon Offset Project Types 101" 5012: 4348: 4108: 4020:"How Do Emissions Trading Programs Work?" 3524:"The Mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol" 3120:What is a Voluntary Carbon Market Credit? 3087: 3062:Cadman, Tim; Hales, Robert (2022-06-01). 3033: 2821: 2593: 2284:In 2023 a civil suit was brought against 2216:(ICROA) was founded in 2008. It promotes 2107:much greater potential for global warming 8702: 7905:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 6285: 6045: 5801: 5670: 5668: 5666: 5554: 4649: 4453: 3975: 3659:"6. Policies, Measures, and Instruments" 3637:"Chapter 10: Decision Making Frameworks" 3475:"The Political History of Cap and Trade" 2046: 36: 8261:National Adaptation Programme of Action 8050:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 7044:State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2022 6617:Greenfield, Patrick (18 January 2023). 6414:Lisa Song; James Temple (10 May 2021). 6279: 5769: 5101: 5021:State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2022 4741:"The Voluntary Carbon Market 2022–2023" 4530:International Carbon Action Partnership 4255:Bassam, Fattouh; Maino, Andrea (2022). 4075:Center for Climate and Energy Solutions 4048:Center for Climate and Energy Solutions 3571: 3472: 2031:generated by farm animals by use of an 1834:European Union Emissions Trading System 1817:, Global Carbon Credit Exchange gCCEx, 1607:European Union Emissions Trading System 527:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 14: 9439: 7910:Economics of climate change mitigation 7873:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 7396: 7224:Scientific consensus on climate change 6848: 6553:Temple, L.; Song, J. (29 April 2021). 6360:from the original on November 22, 2022 6298:from the original on November 14, 2022 5936: 5900: 5778: 5581: 4817: 4499: 4257:Article 6 and Voluntary Carbon Markets 4017: 3899:Temple, L.; Song, J. (29 April 2021). 3847: 3574:"Corporate Greenhouse Gas Disclosures" 3497: 3331:"How to Acquire Carbon Offset Credits" 2907: 2574:Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 2498:Chinese national carbon trading scheme 2386:of Cambodia had driven members of the 2130:typically for more than a generation. 2123:Land use, land-use change and forestry 2118:Land use, land-use change and forestry 1952:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 1838:Chinese national carbon trading scheme 337:Economics of climate change mitigation 130:. Many projects that give credits for 8676: 8569:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 8394: 8099: 7835: 7395: 7307: 7188: 7140: 7102: 6629:from the original on 14 February 2023 6581: 6328:from the original on November 9, 2022 5986: 5810: 5686:European Council on Foreign Relations 5663: 4990: 4988: 4918: 4916: 4703:from the original on 7 September 2018 4632:(Report). WWF Germany. pp. 11–12 4330: 4280: 4111:"The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol" 4102: 3920: 3656: 3225: 2903: 2901: 2835: 2833: 2727: 2723: 2721: 2655: 1495:(CDM), which expanded the concept of 8591:Representative Concentration Pathway 7542:Tipping points in the climate system 7218:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 5403:from the original on August 14, 2020 5282: 5272:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 4574: 4502:"A Guide to Carbon Credit Exchanges" 4281:Crook, Jonathan (November 2, 2022). 3822: 3683: 3353: 3226:Crook, Jonathan (December 7, 2022). 2966:from the original on October 4, 2018 2687: 2685: 2651: 2649: 2615: 2613: 2531: 2529: 2357:are likely to be "phantom credits". 2277:Many projects that give credits for 2093:Destruction of industrial pollutants 2042: 1884: 1659:Paris Agreement Article 6 mechanisms 1467:In 1977, major amendments to the US 8362:Nationally determined contributions 8072:Individual action on climate change 7287:World energy supply and consumption 4669: 4650:Lee, Henry; Mayer, Abigail (2020). 4549: 3983:"Cap and Trade: Key Terms Glossary" 3644:TAR Climate Change 2001: Mitigation 2952: 2926: 2315: 2208:Approaches for increasing integrity 2008: 332:Economic analysis of climate change 279:World energy supply and consumption 143:Nationally Determined Contributions 114:projects. Further projects include 24: 9373:Renewable energy commercialization 8501:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 7128: 6092:Greenfield, Patrick (2023-05-30). 5361:"Haubenschild Dairy Farm Digester" 4985: 4913: 4786: 3949:Greenfield, Patrick (2023-01-18). 3027: 2898: 2830: 2718: 2692:Greenfield, Patrick (2023-08-24). 2658:"The Great Cash-for-Carbon Hustle" 2620:Greenfield, Patrick (2023-01-18). 2488:Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism 2154:) which are tradeable securities. 1675:nationally determined contribution 1317:Renewable energy commercialization 357:Environmental full-cost accounting 25: 9473: 8428:Satellite temperature measurement 8033:forestry for carbon sequestration 7324:History of climate change science 6765:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6286:Meredith, Sam (7 February 2022). 5702:from the original on 17 July 2024 5211:. UNEP Risoe Centre. 2010-02-01. 4659:. Harvard Kennedy School. Page 6. 4225:"The Clean Development Mechanism" 4174:"International Emissions Trading" 4109:Grubb, M. (July–September 2003). 3823:Böhm, Steffen (19 January 2022). 3572:LoPucki, Lynn M. (May 20, 2022). 3549:"The Clean Development Mechanism" 3127:S&P Global Commodity Insights 2682: 2646: 2610: 2526: 2504: 2022:Methane collection and combustion 1927:Verified Carbon Standard by Verra 1851:carbon markets (VCM) are largely 1620: 727:e). Carbon credits are a form of 122:projects, and the elimination of 9421: 9420: 8841: 8654: 8642: 8631: 8630: 8618: 8279:Climate Change Performance Index 6956: 6905: 6867: 6842: 6818: 6794: 6751: 6716: 6691: 6666: 6641: 6610: 6575: 6546: 6520: 6495: 6466: 6428:from the original on 14 May 2021 6407: 6395:from the original on 26 May 2021 6372: 6340: 6310: 6212: 6187: 6162: 6138: 6134:. Berlin: Öko-Institut. Page 11. 6118: 6085: 6072: 6046:Andreoni, Manuela (2022-05-20). 6039: 6015: 5980: 5956: 5930: 5894: 5869: 5837: 5743: 5634: 5605: 5575: 5548: 5524: 5498: 5469: 5444: 5415: 5379: 5353: 5251:10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104800 4500:Wagner, Gustav C. (2022-06-08). 3800:"Carbon Offsetting Price Survey" 3473:Conniff, Richard (August 2009). 2456: 2442: 2428: 2414: 2400: 2238:Science Based Targets initiative 1945: 1670:Article 6 of the Paris Agreement 1599:Article 6 of the Paris Agreement 1429:Article 6 of the Paris Agreement 757: 665: 653: 641: 151:Article 6 of the Paris Agreement 8418:Instrumental temperature record 8369:Sustainable Development Goal 13 6997:Climate Change 2001: Mitigation 6484:from the original on 2014-02-16 5857:from the original on 2021-07-26 5825:from the original on 2020-10-02 5811:Myles, Allen (September 2020). 5652:from the original on 2020-05-15 5623:from the original on 2020-05-15 5594:from the original on 2019-01-29 5561:. Global Environment Facility. 5487:from the original on 2020-05-14 5458:from the original on 2020-05-15 5433:from the original on 2019-11-27 5329: 5276: 5265:from the original on 2021-04-16 5215:from the original on 2011-07-25 5120: 5102:Collias, Anthony (2020-11-17). 5095: 5075: 4959: 4934: 4894: 4869: 4844: 4811: 4761: 4733: 4715: 4663: 4643: 4618: 4594: 4568: 4543: 4518: 4493: 4472: 4447: 4419: 4395: 4373: 4324: 4300: 4274: 4217: 4190: 4166: 4142: 4036: 4011: 3874: 3841: 3816: 3792: 3767: 3743: 3704: 3650: 3628: 3617:from the original on 2021-01-21 3599: 3565: 3553:United Nations - Climate Change 3541: 3530:from the original on 2010-02-11 3516: 3491: 3466: 3446: 3421: 3397: 3373: 3323: 3299: 3274: 3253:"Claims Guidelines Version 2.0" 3245: 3192: 3167: 3141: 3112: 3003: 2978: 2941:from the original on 2019-01-17 2550:from the original on 2020-08-14 2384:Southern Cardamom National Park 2344:Concerns with forestry projects 1555:These programs also have other 565:Corporate social responsibility 27:Carbon dioxide reduction scheme 8486:Climate variability and change 7836: 7527:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 5964:"VCMI Claims Code of Practice" 5937:Peters, Adele (June 8, 2022). 5779:Murphy, Mathew (9 June 2008). 5313:"Use of international credits" 4308:"Climate Explainer: Article 6" 3684:Hourcade, J.-C.; et al., 3034:Courtnell, Jane (2023-02-01). 2797: 2773: 2757:"Climate Explainer: Article 6" 2561: 2326:California Air Resources Board 2172:Criteria for assessing quality 2150:) receive carbon tickets (碳票; 2097:Industrial pollutants such as 2035:, in landfills, or from other 1967:Sustainable Developments Goals 13: 1: 9368:Renewable Energy Certificates 9328:Cost of electricity by source 9250:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 9126:High-voltage shore connection 8596:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 8131:Climate emergency declaration 4818:Holger, Dieter (2023-01-17). 4489:. IPCC. 2022. Fig.SPM.1, p.7. 4350:10.1080/20414005.2023.2174690 4331:Minas, Stephen (2022-07-03). 3848:Holger, Dieter (2023-01-17). 3453:Gillenwater, Michael (2012). 2937:. World Resources Institute. 2520: 1923:will become more attractive. 1827:NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe 1631:Certified Emission Reductions 1094:Socially responsible business 870:Bright green environmentalism 595:Socially responsible business 9383:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 9181:Transmission system operator 9141:Mains electricity by country 8718:Automatic generation control 8579:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 7805:Middle East and North Africa 7141: 6849:Bourke, India (2021-11-18). 6582:Astor, Maggie (2022-05-18). 6507:Center for American Progress 5845:"The SBTi Net Zero Criteria" 5613:"Our reforestation projects" 5582:Butler, Rhett (2012-07-27). 4454:Stebbing, Jen (2022-11-01). 4124:(3): 143–189. Archived from 3921:Astor, Maggie (2022-05-18). 3657:Bashmakov, I.; et al., 3175:"Emissions Trading – UNFCCC" 3154:Center for American Progress 2157: 1538: 1421:Certified Emission Reduction 1345:Environmental pricing reform 126:in various settings such as 7: 9408:List of electricity sectors 9403:Electric energy consumption 9121:High-voltage direct current 9096:Electric power transmission 9086:Electric power distribution 8763:Energy return on investment 7308: 4793:ClimateTrade (2022-08-04). 2912:. New York: Penguin Books. 2814:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3149652/v1 2728:Masie, Desné (2023-08-03). 2656:Blake, Heidi (2023-10-16). 2393: 2162: 1860:projects. They include the 1811:Chicago Mercantile Exchange 1627:Clean Development Mechanism 1595:Clean Development Mechanism 1493:Clean Development Mechanism 1417:Verified Emission Reduction 1099:Social return on investment 600:Sustainability organization 362:Environmental impact design 164: 134:have received criticism as 10: 9478: 9323:Carbon offsets and credits 9041:Three-phase electric power 8413:Global surface temperature 8304:Popular culture depictions 8216:Ecosystem-based adaptation 7946:Carbon capture and storage 7868:Carbon offsets and credits 7189: 6984: 6779:10.1016/j.tree.2023.08.012 6474:"FAQs | The Gold Standard" 6246:10.1038/s41558-022-01379-5 4550:Lam, Austin (2022-12-03). 4480:"Summary for Policymakers" 4337:Transnational Legal Theory 4071:"California Cap and Trade" 4018:US EPA, OAR (2016-03-16). 3011:"What is a Carbon Offset?" 2908:Hawken, Paul, ed. (2021). 2511:Timeline of carbon offsets 1949: 1930: 1874:carbon capture and storage 1785: 1662: 1570: 1462: 1084:Pollution haven hypothesis 1079:Natural resource economics 1064:High-performance buildings 382:High-performance buildings 302:Carbon offsets and credits 219:Carbon capture and storage 120:carbon capture and storage 29: 9416: 9391: 9378:Renewable Energy Payments 9301: 9238: 9200: 9054: 8991: 8902: 8867:Fossil fuel power station 8857: 8850: 8839: 8710: 8625:Climate change portal 8612: 8551: 8518:Extreme event attribution 8436: 8405: 8401: 8390: 8334: 8269: 8191: 8141:School Strike for Climate 8113: 8109: 8095: 8064: 8020:Climate-smart agriculture 7981: 7938: 7848: 7844: 7831: 7755: 7618: 7565: 7408: 7404: 7391: 7314: 7303: 7232: 7201: 7197: 7184: 7167:Climate change adaptation 7162:Climate change mitigation 7157:Effects of climate change 7147: 7136: 7053:10.1596/978-1-4648-1895-0 5396:. Ecosystem Marketplace. 5030:10.1596/978-1-4648-1895-0 4971:University College London 4602:"Offset Project Entities" 3498:Martin, Laura J. (2022). 3307:"Avoiding Overestimation" 2843:Christian Science Monitor 2252:Limitations and drawbacks 1910:be open to criticisms of 1819:Intercontinental Exchange 1769: 1567:Emissions trading systems 1478:Acid Rain Trading Program 1471:created one of the first 1449:retire the carbon credits 1435:" in order to discourage 847:Climate change mitigation 580:Effects of climate change 522:Climate-smart agriculture 472:Sustainability accounting 452:Climate change litigation 196:Co-benefits of mitigation 182:Climate change mitigation 81:carbon dioxide-equivalent 9457:Greenhouse gas emissions 9161:Single-wire earth return 9101:Electrical busbar system 8758:Energy demand management 8528:Global warming potential 8335:International agreements 7982:Preserving and enhancing 7426:Arctic methane emissions 7348:Years in climate change 7255:Greenhouse gas emissions 7152:Causes of climate change 6931:10.3167/IJSQ.2022.120105 5151:"Carbon Offset Projects" 5091:. Climate Focus. Page 5. 3200:"Carbon Offset Programs" 3080:10.3167/IJSQ.2022.120105 2935:"Bottom Line on Offsets" 2595:10.3389/ffgc.2023.958879 2355:Verified Carbon Standard 2180:Baseline and Measurement 2055:building in Chicago Loop 2053:Chicago Climate Exchange 1973:Types of offset projects 1933:Verified Carbon Standard 1862:Verified Carbon Standard 1815:European Energy Exchange 1800:greenhouse gas emissions 1745: 1573:Carbon emissions trading 1497:carbon emissions trading 1433:mitigation contributions 1287:Environmental technology 930:Ecological modernization 885:Corporate sustainability 570:Corporate sustainability 477:Sustainability reporting 429:Verified Carbon Standard 347:Environmental accounting 201:Greenhouse gas emissions 65:greenhouse gas emissions 44:projects, such as these 9292:Residual-current device 9282:Power system protection 9272:Generator interlock kit 8559:Climate change scenario 8211:Disaster risk reduction 7863:Carbon emission trading 7673:U.S. insurance industry 7653:Civilizational collapse 7500:sea surface temperature 7055:(inactive 2024-09-12). 7002:Third Assessment Report 6048:"Spot the greenwashing" 5032:(inactive 2024-09-12). 2408:Renewable energy portal 1589:Regulations and schemes 1360:Green industrial policy 1074:Marginal abatement cost 997:Fiscal environmentalism 814:Personal carbon trading 784:Carbon fee and dividend 779:Carbon emission trading 751:Environmental economics 441:Frameworks and treaties 32:personal carbon trading 9076:Distributed generation 8748:Electric power quality 8552:Research and modelling 8236:Nature-based solutions 8056:Nature-based solutions 7998:Carbon dioxide removal 7915:Fossil fuel divestment 7900:Climate risk insurance 7810:Small island countries 7431:Arctic sea ice decline 6890:10.1093/biosci/biaa094 4431:Emissions with CORSIA" 4150:"Joint Implementation" 3716:The Nature Conservancy 2244:Removal Certificates. 2056: 1557:positive externalities 1297:Fossil fuel divestment 532:Nature-based solutions 507:Carbon dioxide removal 397:Public interest design 367:Fossil fuel divestment 322:Climate risk insurance 249:Low-carbon electricity 234:Fossil fuel divestment 116:carbon dioxide removal 53: 9348:Fossil fuel phase-out 9116:Electricity retailing 9111:Electrical substation 9091:Electric power system 8513:Earth's energy budget 8396:Background and theory 8284:Climate crisis (term) 7956:Fossil fuel phase-out 7850:Economics and finance 7815:by individual country 7757:By country and region 7732:Security and conflict 7727:Psychological impacts 7416:Abrupt climate change 7339:Charles David Keeling 7172:By country and region 6744:10.1093/biosci/biv118 6225:Nature Climate Change 6150:MIT Technology Review 5987:Smith, Kevin (2007). 4460:Respira International 3755:Ecosystem Marketplace 3040:Green Business Bureau 2808:(Report). In Review. 2473:African carbon market 2436:Global warming portal 2220:across the voluntary 2050: 1991:carbon-negative fuels 1864:issued by Verra, the 1650:assigned amount units 1355:Free public transport 1302:Fossil fuel phase-out 824:Social cost of carbon 467:Social responsibility 239:Fossil fuel phase-out 40: 8704:Electricity delivery 8342:Glasgow Climate Pact 8003:Carbon sequestration 7578:Mass mortality event 7047:. World Bank. 2022. 6559:Into the Atmosphere" 6478:www.goldstandard.org 6385:Into the Atmosphere" 6322:The Associated Press 6199:World Economic Forum 5317:climate.ec.europa.eu 5024:. World Bank. 2022. 3905:Into the Atmosphere" 3779:www.goldstandard.org 3479:Smithsonian Magazine 3433:www.goldstandard.org 2279:carbon sequestration 2083:industrial processes 1802:in 2019 were 59 GtCO 1643:Joint Implementation 1582:GHG emission trading 1350:Environmental tariff 975:full-cost accounting 940:Efficient energy use 925:Ecological footprint 920:Ecological economics 512:Carbon sequestration 352:Environmental design 244:Fossil fuel vehicles 132:carbon sequestration 9313:Availability factor 9265:Sulfur hexafluoride 9146:Overhead power line 9046:Virtual power plant 9021:Induction generator 8974:Sustainable biofuel 8783:Home energy storage 8773:Grid energy storage 8738:Droop speed control 8481:Climate sensitivity 8256:The Adaptation Fund 7712:Infectious diseases 7619:Social and economic 7018:on 27 February 2017 6806:Carbon Offset Guide 6237:2022NatCC..12..539B 5883:. 26 September 2022 5684:. Berlin, Germany: 5536:Carbon Offset Guide 5427:Scientific American 5341:Carbon Offset Guide 5155:Carbon Offset Guide 5108:The Treepoints Blog 4824:Wall Street Journal 4606:Carbon Offset Guide 4154:Carbon Offset Guide 3854:Wall Street Journal 3611:Carbon Offset Guide 3335:Carbon Offset Guide 3311:Carbon Offset Guide 3262:. September 6, 2022 3204:Carbon Offset Guide 3015:Carbon Offset Guide 2986:"What are Offsets?" 2823:20.500.11850/620307 2586:2023FrFGC...6.8879H 2338:perverse incentives 1853:unregulated markets 1766:project land area. 1681: 1533:sulfur hexafluoride 1282:Carbon-neutral fuel 945:Energy conservation 590:Ethical consumerism 585:Energy conservation 297:Building insulation 9187:Transmission tower 8798:Nameplate capacity 8052:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 8024:Forest management 8008:Direct air capture 7973:Sustainable energy 7930:Net zero emissions 7925:Low-carbon economy 7920:Green Climate Fund 7707:Indigenous peoples 7610:Plant biodiversity 7398:Effects and issues 6968:Human Rights Watch 6589:The New York Times 6052:The New York Times 5532:"Industrial Gases" 5512:on 18 October 2012 5337:"Renewable Energy" 4858:. 9 September 2022 4775:. January 29, 2021 4699:. United Kingdom. 3990:Climate Change 101 3928:The New York Times 3696:on 11 January 2012 2891:2017-06-25 at the 2884:The New York Times 2878:2008-12-17 at the 2865:2023-01-20 at the 2851:2017-05-24 at the 2464:Environment portal 2376:Human Rights Watch 2265:noted in his 2015 2099:hydrofluorocarbons 2057: 2033:anaerobic digester 1879:net zero emissions 1813:, CTX Global, the 1680: 1639:change in land use 1529:hydrofluorocarbons 1482:US Clean Water Act 1322:Sustainable energy 1307:Low-carbon economy 1146:consumer behaviour 610:Consumer behaviour 560:Conscious business 517:Direct air capture 392:Low-carbon economy 269:Sustainable energy 108:hydroelectric dams 54: 9434: 9433: 9338:Environmental tax 9218:Cascading failure 8987: 8986: 8823:Utility frequency 8670: 8669: 8608: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8543:Radiative forcing 8386: 8385: 8382: 8381: 8206:Adaptive capacity 8091: 8090: 8087: 8086: 7951:Energy transition 7827: 7826: 7823: 7822: 7547:Tropical cyclones 7473:Urban heat island 7387: 7386: 7299: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7260:Carbon accounting 7214:Greenhouse effect 7180: 7179: 7011:978-0-521-80769-2 6772:(12): 1109–1111. 6737:(10): 1011–1018. 6324:. 13 April 2022. 6176:. 4 November 2021 6000:978-90-71007-18-7 5881:www.whitecase.com 5790:. The Age Company 5695:978-1-916682-42-9 5568:978-1-939339-47-8 3700:IPCC TAR WG3 2001 3673:IPCC TAR WG3 2001 3509:978-0-674-97942-0 2919:978-0-14-313697-2 2785:gspp.berkeley.edu 2351:rainforest offset 2267:encyclical letter 2087:individual action 2043:Energy efficiency 1885:Determining value 1727: 1726: 1578:Emissions trading 1473:tradable emission 1437:carbon neutrality 1413: 1412: 1277:Carbon neutrality 1266:2000-watt society 1260:Energy transition 1171:development goals 1089:Social accounting 809:Environmental tax 804:Emissions trading 709: 708: 342:Emissions trading 229:Energy transition 124:methane emissions 112:energy efficiency 94:projects such as 57:Carbon offsetting 16:(Redirected from 9469: 9452:Renewable energy 9424: 9423: 9333:Energy subsidies 9287:Protective relay 9228:Rolling blackout 8855: 8854: 8845: 8813:Power-flow study 8753:Electrical fault 8697: 8690: 8683: 8674: 8673: 8658: 8657: 8646: 8645: 8634: 8633: 8623: 8622: 8621: 8586:Paleoclimatology 8403: 8402: 8392: 8391: 8153:Ecological grief 8136:Climate movement 8111: 8110: 8097: 8096: 8077:Plant-based diet 7968:Renewable energy 7846: 7845: 7833: 7832: 7668:Economic impacts 7600:Invasive species 7456:Coastal flooding 7406: 7405: 7393: 7392: 7329:Svante Arrhenius 7305: 7304: 7275:from agriculture 7265:Carbon footprint 7250:Greenhouse gases 7199: 7198: 7186: 7185: 7138: 7137: 7123: 7116: 7109: 7100: 7099: 7095: 7089: 7081: 7079: 7077: 7033: 7027: 7019: 7014:, archived from 6979: 6978: 6976: 6975: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6943: 6933: 6909: 6903: 6902: 6892: 6871: 6865: 6864: 6862: 6861: 6846: 6840: 6839: 6837: 6836: 6822: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6812: 6798: 6792: 6791: 6781: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6720: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6710: 6695: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6685: 6670: 6664: 6663: 6661: 6660: 6653:www.greenbiz.com 6645: 6639: 6638: 6636: 6634: 6614: 6608: 6607: 6605: 6604: 6579: 6573: 6572: 6570: 6569: 6550: 6544: 6542: 6540: 6539: 6524: 6518: 6517: 6515: 6514: 6509:. 7 October 2022 6499: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6470: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6459: 6453: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6433: 6421:The Boston Globe 6411: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6356:. 3 April 2022. 6344: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6305: 6303: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6258: 6248: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6207: 6206: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6166: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6142: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6122: 6116: 6115: 6113: 6112: 6089: 6083: 6076: 6070: 6069: 6067: 6066: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6027:www.spglobal.com 6019: 6013: 6012: 5984: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5974: 5960: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5949: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5889: 5888: 5873: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5862: 5856: 5849: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5824: 5817: 5808: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5795: 5785: 5776: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5756: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5736: 5730: 5721: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5683: 5672: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5657: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5629: 5628: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5552: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5508:. 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Archived from 5357: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5323: 5309: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5295: 5289: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5270: 5230: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5220: 5205: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5182: 5174: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5161: 5147: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5066: 5058: 5056: 5054: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5006: 4992: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4929: 4920: 4911: 4910: 4908: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4863: 4856:www.abatable.com 4848: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4838: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4805: 4790: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4780: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4754: 4745: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4670:Collins, Leigh. 4667: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4638: 4637: 4631: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4612: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4581: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4537: 4522: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4512: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4484: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4423: 4417: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4352: 4343:(2–3): 287–320. 4328: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4318: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4278: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4261: 4252: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4235: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4204: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4136: 4130: 4115: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4085: 4084: 4082: 4081: 4067: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4030: 4015: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3998: 3987: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3969: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3918: 3916: 3915: 3896: 3894: 3893: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3868: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3835: 3829:The Conversation 3820: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3810: 3804:ecobusinesslinks 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3786: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3761: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3726: 3725: 3723: 3722: 3708: 3702: 3697: 3692:, archived from 3681: 3675: 3670: 3669:on 5 August 2009 3665:, archived from 3654: 3648: 3647: 3641: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3622: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3560: 3559: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3535: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3486: 3485: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3461: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3415: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3392: 3391: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3360: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3341: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3317: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3294: 3293: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3257: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3223: 3214: 3213: 3211: 3210: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3124: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3091: 3059: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3046: 3031: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3021: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2998: 2997: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2947: 2946: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2905: 2896: 2837: 2828: 2827: 2825: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2768: 2767: 2753: 2744: 2743: 2741: 2740: 2725: 2716: 2715: 2713: 2712: 2689: 2680: 2679: 2677: 2676: 2653: 2644: 2643: 2641: 2640: 2617: 2608: 2607: 2597: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2555: 2549: 2542: 2533: 2478:Cap and dividend 2466: 2461: 2460: 2452: 2447: 2446: 2445: 2438: 2433: 2432: 2424: 2419: 2418: 2410: 2405: 2404: 2367:invasive species 2316:Oversight issues 2306:renewable energy 2103:perfluorocarbons 2061:carbon intensity 2037:industrial waste 2009:Renewable energy 2004: 1983:renewable energy 1682: 1679: 1635:clean technology 1525:perfluorocarbons 1405: 1398: 1391: 1271:Alternative fuel 1161:design standards 1069:Impact investing 875:Circular economy 842:Carbon footprint 761: 738: 737: 721:greenhouse gases 717:greenhouse gases 701: 694: 687: 669: 668: 657: 656: 650: 646: 645: 644: 387:Impact investing 259:Renewable energy 169: 168: 104:biogas digesters 92:renewable energy 42:Renewable energy 21: 9477: 9476: 9472: 9471: 9470: 9468: 9467: 9466: 9437: 9436: 9435: 9430: 9412: 9396: 9394: 9387: 9318:Capacity factor 9306: 9304: 9297: 9277:Numerical relay 9255:Circuit breaker 9243: 9241: 9234: 9196: 9136:Load management 9106:Electrical grid 9071:Demand response 9064: 9059: 9050: 9031:Microgeneration 8983: 8898: 8846: 8837: 8833:Vehicle-to-grid 8706: 8701: 8671: 8666: 8619: 8617: 8600: 8547: 8538:Orbital forcing 8432: 8397: 8378: 8352:Paris Agreement 8330: 8326:Warming stripes 8265: 8231:Managed retreat 8226:Loss and damage 8187: 8121:Business action 8105: 8083: 8060: 7983: 7977: 7934: 7895:Climate finance 7840: 7819: 7751: 7614: 7590:Extinction risk 7566:Flora and fauna 7561: 7522:Permafrost thaw 7517:Ozone depletion 7446:Extreme weather 7400: 7383: 7310: 7291: 7228: 7193: 7176: 7143: 7132: 7127: 7083: 7082: 7075: 7073: 7071: 7021: 7020: 7012: 6987: 6982: 6973: 6971: 6962: 6961: 6957: 6910: 6906: 6872: 6868: 6859: 6857: 6847: 6843: 6834: 6832: 6830:www.science.org 6824: 6823: 6819: 6810: 6808: 6800: 6799: 6795: 6756: 6752: 6721: 6717: 6708: 6706: 6703:Popular Science 6697: 6696: 6692: 6683: 6681: 6672: 6671: 6667: 6658: 6656: 6647: 6646: 6642: 6632: 6630: 6615: 6611: 6602: 6600: 6580: 6576: 6567: 6565: 6558: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6537: 6535: 6526: 6525: 6521: 6512: 6510: 6501: 6500: 6496: 6487: 6485: 6472: 6471: 6467: 6457: 6455: 6451: 6445: 6441: 6431: 6429: 6412: 6408: 6398: 6396: 6384: 6377: 6373: 6363: 6361: 6346: 6345: 6341: 6331: 6329: 6316: 6315: 6311: 6301: 6299: 6284: 6280: 6217: 6213: 6204: 6202: 6201:. 22 April 2021 6193: 6192: 6188: 6179: 6177: 6168: 6167: 6163: 6154: 6152: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6131: 6123: 6119: 6110: 6108: 6090: 6086: 6077: 6073: 6064: 6062: 6044: 6040: 6031: 6029: 6021: 6020: 6016: 6001: 5985: 5981: 5972: 5970: 5962: 5961: 5957: 5947: 5945: 5935: 5931: 5922: 5920: 5899: 5895: 5886: 5884: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5860: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5843: 5842: 5838: 5828: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5809: 5802: 5793: 5791: 5783: 5777: 5770: 5760: 5758: 5754: 5748: 5744: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5715: 5705: 5703: 5696: 5688:. p. 124. 5681: 5673: 5664: 5655: 5653: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5626: 5624: 5619:. 14 May 2019. 5611: 5610: 5606: 5597: 5595: 5584:"Deforestation" 5580: 5576: 5569: 5553: 5549: 5540: 5538: 5530: 5529: 5525: 5515: 5513: 5504: 5503: 5499: 5490: 5488: 5481:carboncodex.app 5475: 5474: 5470: 5461: 5459: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5436: 5434: 5421: 5420: 5416: 5406: 5404: 5400: 5389: 5385: 5384: 5380: 5370: 5368: 5359: 5358: 5354: 5345: 5343: 5335: 5334: 5330: 5321: 5319: 5311: 5310: 5303: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5281: 5277: 5268: 5266: 5239:Land Use Policy 5231: 5227: 5218: 5216: 5207: 5206: 5199: 5189: 5187: 5180: 5176: 5175: 5168: 5159: 5157: 5149: 5148: 5141: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5112: 5110: 5100: 5096: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5060: 5059: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5018: 5017: 5013: 5004: 5002: 4996:"Methodologies" 4994: 4993: 4986: 4976: 4974: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4951: 4949: 4940: 4939: 4935: 4927: 4921: 4914: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4886: 4884: 4875: 4874: 4870: 4861: 4859: 4850: 4849: 4845: 4836: 4834: 4816: 4812: 4803: 4801: 4791: 4787: 4778: 4776: 4767: 4766: 4762: 4752: 4750: 4743: 4739: 4738: 4734: 4726: 4720: 4716: 4706: 4704: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4680: 4678: 4668: 4664: 4656: 4648: 4644: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4610: 4608: 4600: 4599: 4595: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4573: 4569: 4560: 4558: 4548: 4544: 4535: 4533: 4532:. 29 March 2022 4524: 4523: 4519: 4510: 4508: 4506:CarbonMarketCap 4498: 4494: 4482: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4464: 4462: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4430: 4425: 4424: 4420: 4411: 4409: 4401: 4400: 4396: 4387: 4385: 4378: 4374: 4329: 4325: 4316: 4314: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4291: 4289: 4279: 4275: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4242: 4233: 4231: 4223: 4222: 4218: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4191: 4182: 4180: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4158: 4156: 4148: 4147: 4143: 4134: 4132: 4128: 4118:World Economics 4113: 4107: 4103: 4097:World Bank 2022 4095: 4088: 4079: 4077: 4069: 4068: 4061: 4052: 4050: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4028: 4026: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3985: 3981: 3980: 3976: 3967: 3965: 3941: 3939: 3913: 3911: 3904: 3891: 3889: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3866: 3864: 3846: 3842: 3833: 3831: 3821: 3817: 3808: 3806: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3784: 3782: 3773: 3772: 3768: 3759: 3757: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3738:World Bank 2022 3736: 3729: 3720: 3718: 3710: 3709: 3705: 3682: 3678: 3655: 3651: 3639: 3633: 3629: 3620: 3618: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3570: 3566: 3557: 3555: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3533: 3531: 3522: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3496: 3492: 3483: 3481: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3451: 3447: 3438: 3436: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3413: 3411: 3403: 3402: 3398: 3389: 3387: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3348: 3339: 3337: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3315: 3313: 3305: 3304: 3300: 3291: 3289: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3250: 3246: 3236: 3234: 3224: 3217: 3208: 3206: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3183: 3181: 3173: 3172: 3168: 3158: 3156: 3146: 3142: 3132: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3117: 3113: 3060: 3053: 3044: 3042: 3032: 3028: 3019: 3017: 3009: 3008: 3004: 2995: 2993: 2984: 2983: 2979: 2969: 2967: 2960:"Carbon offset" 2958: 2957: 2953: 2944: 2942: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2906: 2899: 2893:Wayback Machine 2882: 2880:Wayback Machine 2869: 2867:Wayback Machine 2855: 2853:Wayback Machine 2840: 2838: 2831: 2802: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2779: 2778: 2774: 2765: 2763: 2755: 2754: 2747: 2738: 2736: 2726: 2719: 2710: 2708: 2690: 2683: 2674: 2672: 2654: 2647: 2638: 2636: 2618: 2611: 2566: 2562: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2540: 2534: 2527: 2523: 2507: 2502: 2462: 2455: 2448: 2443: 2441: 2434: 2427: 2420: 2413: 2406: 2399: 2396: 2353:credits of the 2346: 2318: 2254: 2243: 2210: 2197:Double counting 2174: 2165: 2160: 2132:Soil management 2120: 2112: 2095: 2079:Fuel efficiency 2045: 2024: 2011: 2002: 1998: 1975: 1954: 1948: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1921: 1917: 1901: 1892: 1887: 1846: 1824: 1805: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1781: 1772: 1748: 1667: 1661: 1623: 1591: 1575: 1569: 1541: 1522: 1510: 1465: 1409: 1380: 1379: 1335: 1327: 1326: 1261: 1253: 1252: 1238:Thermoeconomics 992:Ethical banking 880:Climate finance 865: 857: 856: 837: 829: 828: 769: 726: 705: 642: 640: 639: 632: 631: 550: 549:Related content 542: 541: 497: 487: 486: 462:Paris Agreement 457:Ethical banking 447:Business ethics 442: 434: 433: 317:Climate finance 292: 284: 283: 214: 167: 147:Paris Agreement 86: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9475: 9465: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9447:Carbon finance 9432: 9431: 9429: 9428: 9417: 9414: 9413: 9411: 9410: 9405: 9399: 9397: 9393:Statistics and 9392: 9389: 9388: 9386: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9345: 9343:Feed-in tariff 9340: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9320: 9315: 9309: 9307: 9302: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9295: 9289: 9284: 9279: 9274: 9269: 9268: 9267: 9262: 9252: 9246: 9244: 9239: 9236: 9235: 9233: 9232: 9231: 9230: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9204: 9202: 9198: 9197: 9195: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9163: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9138: 9133: 9131:Interconnector 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9081:Dynamic demand 9078: 9073: 9067: 9065: 9055: 9052: 9051: 9049: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9011:Combined cycle 9008: 9003: 8997: 8995: 8989: 8988: 8985: 8984: 8982: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8965: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8908: 8906: 8900: 8899: 8897: 8896: 8891: 8890: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8863: 8861: 8852: 8848: 8847: 8840: 8838: 8836: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8788:Load-following 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8743:Electric power 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8714: 8712: 8708: 8707: 8700: 8699: 8692: 8685: 8677: 8668: 8667: 8665: 8664: 8652: 8640: 8628: 8613: 8610: 8609: 8606: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8582: 8581: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8555: 8553: 8549: 8548: 8546: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8504: 8503: 8493: 8491:Cloud feedback 8488: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8472: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8446: 8440: 8438: 8434: 8433: 8431: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8409: 8407: 8399: 8398: 8388: 8387: 8384: 8383: 8380: 8379: 8377: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8349: 8347:Kyoto Protocol 8344: 8338: 8336: 8332: 8331: 8329: 8328: 8323: 8322: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8301: 8299:Media coverage 8296: 8291: 8289:Climate spiral 8286: 8281: 8275: 8273: 8267: 8266: 8264: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8197: 8195: 8189: 8188: 8186: 8185: 8180: 8178:Public opinion 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8144: 8143: 8133: 8128: 8126:Climate action 8123: 8117: 8115: 8107: 8106: 8093: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8085: 8084: 8082: 8081: 8080: 8079: 8068: 8066: 8062: 8061: 8059: 8058: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8045: 8040: 8038:REDD and REDD+ 8035: 8030: 8022: 8017: 8015:Carbon farming 8012: 8011: 8010: 8005: 7995: 7989: 7987: 7979: 7978: 7976: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7959: 7958: 7948: 7942: 7940: 7936: 7935: 7933: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7876: 7875: 7865: 7860: 7854: 7852: 7842: 7841: 7829: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7821: 7820: 7818: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7761: 7759: 7753: 7752: 7750: 7749: 7747:Water security 7744: 7742:Water scarcity 7739: 7737:Urban flooding 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7698: 7697: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7676: 7675: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7639: 7638: 7633: 7622: 7620: 7616: 7615: 7613: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7595:Forest dieback 7592: 7587: 7582: 7581: 7580: 7569: 7567: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7532:Sea level rise 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7513: 7512: 7507: 7505:stratification 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7477: 7476: 7475: 7470: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7412: 7410: 7402: 7401: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7381: 7380: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7315: 7312: 7311: 7301: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7293: 7292: 7290: 7289: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7270:Carbon leakage 7267: 7262: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7221: 7211: 7209:Climate system 7205: 7203: 7195: 7194: 7182: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7134: 7133: 7130:Climate change 7126: 7125: 7118: 7111: 7103: 7097: 7096: 7069: 7039: 7010: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6980: 6955: 6904: 6866: 6841: 6817: 6793: 6750: 6715: 6690: 6665: 6655:. 19 June 2009 6640: 6609: 6574: 6556: 6545: 6519: 6494: 6465: 6439: 6406: 6382: 6371: 6339: 6309: 6278: 6231:(6): 539–546. 6211: 6186: 6161: 6137: 6117: 6084: 6078:Pope Francis, 6071: 6038: 6014: 5999: 5979: 5955: 5929: 5904:(2023-01-20). 5893: 5868: 5836: 5800: 5784:(fee required) 5768: 5742: 5713: 5694: 5662: 5646:My Carbon Plan 5633: 5617:Reforestaction 5604: 5574: 5567: 5547: 5523: 5497: 5468: 5443: 5414: 5378: 5352: 5328: 5301: 5275: 5225: 5197: 5166: 5139: 5119: 5094: 5074: 5046: 5011: 4984: 4958: 4933: 4912: 4893: 4868: 4843: 4810: 4785: 4760: 4732: 4714: 4688: 4662: 4642: 4617: 4593: 4567: 4542: 4517: 4492: 4471: 4446: 4428: 4427:"Offsetting CO 4418: 4394: 4372: 4323: 4299: 4273: 4240: 4216: 4189: 4165: 4141: 4101: 4086: 4059: 4035: 4010: 3974: 3902: 3873: 3840: 3815: 3791: 3781:. 14 June 2019 3766: 3742: 3727: 3703: 3676: 3649: 3646:. p. 660. 3627: 3598: 3564: 3540: 3515: 3508: 3490: 3465: 3445: 3435:. 12 June 2016 3420: 3409:ww2.arb.ca.gov 3396: 3385:cdm.unfccc.int 3372: 3346: 3322: 3298: 3273: 3244: 3215: 3191: 3179:United Nations 3166: 3140: 3111: 3051: 3026: 3002: 2977: 2951: 2925: 2918: 2897: 2829: 2796: 2772: 2745: 2717: 2681: 2662:The New Yorker 2645: 2609: 2560: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2518: 2517: 2506: 2505:External links 2503: 2501: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2453: 2450:Ecology portal 2439: 2425: 2411: 2395: 2392: 2345: 2342: 2317: 2314: 2302:carbon capture 2286:Delta Airlines 2253: 2250: 2241: 2209: 2206: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2173: 2170: 2164: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2148:rural villages 2119: 2116: 2110: 2105:(PFCs) have a 2094: 2091: 2044: 2041: 2023: 2020: 2010: 2007: 2000: 1987:carbon-neutral 1974: 1971: 1950:Main article: 1947: 1944: 1939: 1931:Main article: 1928: 1925: 1919: 1915: 1899: 1890: 1886: 1883: 1845: 1842: 1822: 1803: 1798:e, and global 1795: 1791: 1787: 1784: 1779: 1771: 1768: 1747: 1744: 1725: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1663:Main article: 1660: 1657: 1637:or beneficial 1622: 1621:Kyoto Protocol 1619: 1590: 1587: 1571:Main article: 1568: 1565: 1540: 1537: 1520: 1508: 1505:carbon dioxide 1501:climate change 1489:Kyoto Protocol 1464: 1461: 1411: 1410: 1408: 1407: 1400: 1393: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1375:Rail subsidies 1372: 1370:Green politics 1367: 1365:Green New Deal 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1340:Carbon leakage 1336: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1292:Feed-in tariff 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1268: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1254: 1251: 1250: 1248:Value of Earth 1245: 1240: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1104:Sustainability 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1060: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1009: 999: 994: 989: 988: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 910:Eco-innovation 907: 902: 900:Eco-capitalism 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 866: 863: 862: 859: 858: 855: 854: 849: 844: 838: 836:Climate change 835: 834: 831: 830: 827: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 789:Carbon finance 786: 781: 776: 770: 767: 766: 763: 762: 754: 753: 747: 746: 729:carbon pricing 724: 713:carbon dioxide 707: 706: 704: 703: 696: 689: 681: 678: 677: 676: 675: 663: 651: 634: 633: 630: 629: 628: 627: 622: 617: 612: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 555:Climate action 551: 548: 547: 544: 543: 540: 539: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 498: 493: 492: 489: 488: 485: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 443: 440: 439: 436: 435: 432: 431: 426: 425: 424: 419: 414: 409: 402:Sustainability 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 372:Green building 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 327:Eco-capitalism 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 293: 290: 289: 286: 285: 282: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 224:Coal phase-out 221: 215: 210: 209: 206: 205: 204: 203: 198: 193: 191:Climate change 185: 184: 178: 177: 166: 163: 155:carbon markets 100:biomass energy 84: 77:carbon dioxide 61:carbon trading 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9474: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9444: 9442: 9427: 9419: 9418: 9415: 9409: 9406: 9404: 9401: 9400: 9398: 9390: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9363:Pigouvian tax 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9321: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9310: 9308: 9300: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9260:Earth-leakage 9258: 9257: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9247: 9245: 9237: 9229: 9226: 9225: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9205: 9203: 9201:Failure modes 9199: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9151:Power station 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9036:Rankine cycle 9034: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9016:Cooling tower 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8994: 8990: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8939: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8909: 8907: 8905: 8901: 8895: 8892: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8869: 8868: 8865: 8864: 8862: 8860: 8859:Non-renewable 8856: 8853: 8849: 8844: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8778:Grid strength 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8733:Demand factor 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8715: 8713: 8709: 8705: 8698: 8693: 8691: 8686: 8684: 8679: 8678: 8675: 8663: 8662: 8653: 8651: 8650: 8641: 8639: 8638: 8629: 8627: 8626: 8615: 8614: 8611: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8580: 8577: 8576: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8564:Climate model 8562: 8560: 8557: 8556: 8554: 8550: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8502: 8499: 8498: 8497: 8496:Cloud forcing 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8455: 8452: 8451: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8441: 8439: 8435: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8410: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8393: 8389: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8354: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8339: 8337: 8333: 8327: 8324: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8306: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8276: 8274: 8272: 8271:Communication 8268: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8251:Vulnerability 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8221:Flood control 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8198: 8196: 8194: 8190: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8142: 8139: 8138: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8118: 8116: 8112: 8108: 8104: 8098: 8094: 8078: 8075: 8074: 8073: 8070: 8069: 8067: 8063: 8057: 8054: 8051: 8048: 8044: 8043:reforestation 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8028:afforestation 8026: 8025: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 8000: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7990: 7988: 7986: 7980: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7963:Nuclear power 7961: 7957: 7954: 7953: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7943: 7941: 7937: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7874: 7871: 7870: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7858:Carbon budget 7856: 7855: 7853: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7834: 7830: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7760: 7758: 7754: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7696: 7695:Mental health 7693: 7692: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7674: 7671: 7670: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7637: 7636:United States 7634: 7632: 7629: 7628: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7621: 7617: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7579: 7576: 7575: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7564: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7490:deoxygenation 7488: 7486: 7485:acidification 7483: 7482: 7481: 7478: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7464: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7394: 7390: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7313: 7306: 7302: 7288: 7285: 7281: 7280:from wetlands 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7240:Deforestation 7238: 7237: 7235: 7231: 7225: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7187: 7183: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7124: 7119: 7117: 7112: 7110: 7105: 7104: 7101: 7093: 7087: 7072: 7070:9781464818950 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7040: 7037: 7036:0-521-01502-2 7031: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6998: 6993: 6989: 6988: 6969: 6965: 6959: 6951: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6908: 6900: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6870: 6856: 6855:New Statesman 6852: 6845: 6831: 6827: 6821: 6807: 6803: 6797: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6754: 6745: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6731: 6726: 6719: 6704: 6700: 6694: 6679: 6675: 6669: 6654: 6650: 6644: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6613: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6578: 6564: 6560: 6549: 6533: 6529: 6523: 6508: 6504: 6498: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6469: 6450: 6443: 6427: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6410: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6375: 6359: 6355: 6354: 6349: 6343: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6313: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6200: 6196: 6190: 6175: 6171: 6165: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6130: 6129: 6121: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6088: 6081: 6075: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6042: 6028: 6024: 6018: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5996: 5992: 5991: 5983: 5969: 5965: 5959: 5944: 5940: 5933: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5902:Harvey, Fiona 5897: 5882: 5878: 5872: 5853: 5846: 5840: 5821: 5814: 5807: 5805: 5789: 5782: 5775: 5773: 5753: 5746: 5727: 5720: 5718: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5687: 5680: 5679: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5608: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5570: 5564: 5560: 5559: 5551: 5537: 5533: 5527: 5511: 5507: 5501: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5457: 5453: 5447: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5399: 5395: 5394:Forest Trends 5388: 5382: 5367:on 2015-07-30 5366: 5362: 5356: 5342: 5338: 5332: 5318: 5314: 5308: 5306: 5286: 5279: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5229: 5214: 5210: 5204: 5202: 5186: 5185:Second Nature 5179: 5173: 5171: 5156: 5152: 5146: 5144: 5132: 5131: 5123: 5109: 5105: 5098: 5087: 5086: 5078: 5070: 5064: 5049: 5047:9781464818950 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5022: 5015: 5001: 4997: 4991: 4989: 4973:. 4 June 2021 4972: 4968: 4962: 4947: 4943: 4937: 4926: 4919: 4917: 4905: 4904: 4897: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4857: 4853: 4847: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4800: 4796: 4789: 4774: 4770: 4764: 4749: 4742: 4736: 4725: 4718: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4677: 4673: 4666: 4655: 4654: 4646: 4628: 4621: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4578: 4571: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4531: 4527: 4521: 4507: 4503: 4496: 4488: 4481: 4475: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4436: 4432: 4422: 4408: 4404: 4398: 4383: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4288: 4284: 4277: 4258: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4201: 4200: 4193: 4179: 4175: 4169: 4155: 4151: 4145: 4131:on 2011-07-17 4127: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4064: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4025: 4021: 4014: 3999:on 2017-10-05 3995: 3991: 3984: 3978: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3924: 3910: 3906: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3756: 3752: 3746: 3739: 3734: 3732: 3717: 3713: 3707: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3653: 3645: 3638: 3631: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3529: 3525: 3519: 3511: 3505: 3501: 3494: 3480: 3476: 3469: 3458: 3457: 3449: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3410: 3406: 3400: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3357: 3350: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3312: 3308: 3302: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3261: 3260:Gold Standard 3254: 3248: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3220: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3180: 3176: 3170: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3128: 3121: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3058: 3056: 3041: 3037: 3030: 3016: 3012: 3006: 2992:on 2019-11-21 2991: 2987: 2981: 2970:September 24, 2965: 2961: 2955: 2940: 2936: 2929: 2921: 2915: 2911: 2904: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2844: 2836: 2834: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2786: 2782: 2776: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2750: 2735: 2731: 2724: 2722: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2686: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2650: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2614: 2605: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2564: 2546: 2539: 2532: 2530: 2525: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2508: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2483:Cap and Share 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2470: 2465: 2459: 2454: 2451: 2440: 2437: 2431: 2426: 2423: 2422:Energy portal 2417: 2412: 2409: 2403: 2398: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2378:found that a 2377: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2341: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2322:additionality 2313: 2311: 2307: 2304:– as well as 2303: 2299: 2298:reforestation 2294: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2280: 2275: 2273: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2235: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2222:carbon market 2219: 2218:best practice 2215: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2184:Additionality 2182: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2169: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2115: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2090: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2049: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2019: 2017: 2016:additionality 2006: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1979:sequestration 1970: 1968: 1964: 1963:afforestation 1959: 1958:Gold Standard 1953: 1946:Gold Standard 1943: 1934: 1924: 1913: 1907: 1903: 1895: 1882: 1880: 1875: 1869: 1867: 1866:Gold Standard 1863: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1801: 1783: 1777: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1757: 1752: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1715: 1712: 1708: 1705: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1618: 1616: 1615:Gold Standard 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1564: 1560: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1518: 1517:nitrous oxide 1514: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1470: 1469:Clean Air Act 1460: 1458: 1453: 1450: 1444: 1442: 1441:Gold Standard 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1406: 1401: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1386: 1384: 1383: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1331: 1330: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1257: 1256: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1216:refurbishment 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1003: 1000: 998: 995: 993: 990: 986: 983: 981: 980:impact design 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 952: 951: 950:Environmental 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 935:Ecotechnology 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 915:Eco-investing 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 895:Disinvestment 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 867: 861: 860: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 839: 833: 832: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 794:Carbon offset 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 774:Carbon credit 772: 771: 765: 764: 760: 756: 755: 752: 749: 748: 744: 740: 739: 736: 734: 731:, along with 730: 722: 718: 714: 702: 697: 695: 690: 688: 683: 682: 680: 679: 674: 673: 664: 662: 661: 652: 649: 638: 637: 636: 635: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 607: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 575:Disinvestment 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 552: 546: 545: 538: 537:Reforestation 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 499: 496: 491: 490: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 444: 438: 437: 430: 427: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 404: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 294: 288: 287: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 254:Nuclear power 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 216: 213: 208: 207: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 188: 187: 186: 183: 180: 179: 175: 171: 170: 162: 158: 156: 152: 148: 144: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 110:, as well as 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 88: 82: 78: 74: 73:offset credit 70: 69:carbon credit 66: 62: 58: 51: 47: 46:wind turbines 43: 39: 33: 19: 18:Carbon offset 9462:Greenwashing 9358:Net metering 9322: 9305:and policies 9223:Power outage 9192:Utility pole 9156:Pumped hydro 9062:distribution 9057:Transmission 9006:Cogeneration 8808:Power factor 8659: 8647: 8635: 8616: 8449:Carbon cycle 8406:Measurements 8101:Society and 7985:carbon sinks 7890:Climate debt 7880:Carbon price 7867: 7702:Human rights 7537:Season creep 7495:heat content 7421:Anoxic event 7334:James Hansen 7074:. Retrieved 7043: 7016:the original 6996: 6992:IPCC TAR WG3 6972:. Retrieved 6970:. 2024-02-28 6967: 6958: 6941:10072/422013 6921: 6917: 6907: 6880: 6869: 6858:. Retrieved 6854: 6844: 6833:. Retrieved 6829: 6820: 6809:. Retrieved 6805: 6796: 6769: 6763: 6753: 6734: 6728: 6718: 6707:. Retrieved 6705:. 2020-05-29 6702: 6693: 6682:. Retrieved 6680:. 2021-07-05 6677: 6668: 6657:. Retrieved 6652: 6643: 6631:. Retrieved 6623:The Guardian 6622: 6612: 6601:. Retrieved 6587: 6577: 6566:. Retrieved 6562: 6548: 6536:. Retrieved 6534:. 2021-05-04 6532:the Guardian 6531: 6522: 6511:. Retrieved 6506: 6497: 6486:. Retrieved 6477: 6468: 6458:December 17, 6456:. Retrieved 6442: 6430:. Retrieved 6419: 6409: 6397:. Retrieved 6388: 6374: 6362:. Retrieved 6353:The Guardian 6351: 6342: 6330:. Retrieved 6321: 6312: 6300:. Retrieved 6291: 6281: 6228: 6224: 6214: 6203:. Retrieved 6198: 6189: 6178:. Retrieved 6173: 6164: 6153:. Retrieved 6149: 6140: 6127: 6120: 6109:. 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