Flying and gliding animals

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force that is proportion to surface area and to velocity squared, and this force will partially counter the force of gravity, slowing the animal's descent to a safer speed. If this drag is oriented at an angle to the vertical, the animal's trajectory will gradually become more horizontal, and it will cover horizontal as well as vertical distance. Smaller adjustments can allow turning or other maneuvers. This can allow a parachuting animal to move from a high location on one tree to a lower location on another tree nearby. Specifically in gliding mammals, there are 3 types of gliding paths respectively being S glide, J glide, and "straight-shaped" glides where species either gain altitude post launch then descend, rapidly decrease height before gliding, and maintaining a constant angled descent.

1267: 432:) are taller than the canopy trees of the other forests. Forest structure and distance between trees are influential in the development of gliding within varying species. A higher start provides a competitive advantage of further glides and farther travel. Gliding predators may more efficiently search for prey. The lower abundance of insect and small vertebrate prey for carnivorous animals (such as lizards) in Asian forests may be a factor. In Australia, many mammals (and all mammalian gliders) possess, to some extent, prehensile tails. Globally, smaller gliding species tend to have feather-like tails and larger species have fur covered round bushy tails, but smaller animals tend to rely on parachuting rather than developing gliding membranes. The gliding membranes, 396:-efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. Although moving through the canopy running along the branches may be less energetically demanding, the faster transition between trees allows for greater foraging rates in a particular patch. Glide ratios can be dependent on size and current behavior. Higher foraging rates are supported by low glide ratios as smaller foraging patches require less gliding time over shorter distances and greater amounts of food can be acquired in a shorter time period. Low ratios are not as energy efficient as the higher ratios, but an argument made is that many gliding animals eat low energy foods such as leaves and are restricted to gliding because of this, whereas flying animals eat more high energy foods such as 614:

Because the animal can utilize lift and drag to generate greater aerodynamic force, it can glide at a shallower angle than parachuting animals, allowing it to cover greater horizontal distance in the same loss of altitude, and reach trees further away. Successful flights for gliding animals are achieved through 5 steps: preparation, launch, glide, braking, and landing. Gliding species are better able to control themselves mid-air, with the tail acting as a rudder, making it capable to pull off banking movements or U-turns during flight. During landing, arboreal mammals will extend their fore and hind limbs in front of itself to brace for landing and to trap air in order to maximize air resistance and lower impact speed.

124: 404:, and insects. Mammals tend to rely on lower glide ratios to increase the amount of time foraging for lower energy food. An equilibrium glide, achieving a constant airspeed and glide angle, is harder to obtain as animal size increases. Larger animals need to glide from much higher heights and longer distances to make it energetically beneficial. Gliding is also very suitable for predator avoidance, allowing for controlled targeted landings to safer areas. In contrast to flight, gliding has evolved independently many times (more than a dozen times among extant vertebrates); however these groups have not radiated nearly as much as have groups of flying animals. 4027: 1352:

speed to around 30 body lengths per second and as it breaks the surface and is freed from the drag of the water it can be traveling at around 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph). The glides are usually up to 30–50 metres (100–160 ft) in length, but some have been observed soaring for hundreds of metres using the updraft on the leading edges of waves. The fish can also make a series of glides, each time dipping the tail into the water to produce forward thrust. The longest recorded series of glides, with the fish only periodically dipping its tail in the water, was for 45 seconds (Video here). It has been suggested that the genus

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https://web.archive.org/web/20230114001218/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/50102765/2001Videlerb-libre.pdf?1478273987=&response-content-disposition=inline;+filename=Fish_locomotion.pdf&Expires=1673655620&Signature=eRas7abQ181AUhI4Ut7g1~5FPbOypY5EP56bFO9zZPOMH-pzJIWEWGgmzcMaINmrCuP9r1ZtOkq3nO8BwSyWgnh4jjJc9mpNQ5JEHdlli4~qW8r7Xa-Tuduf8VpSuv3fDcqg8jeANUhigtlEx82~3GU8PXXWu2KxiRNGWH3UkzLQXBlMaEM5jK59gZrtK9q6dn8PRYPQmKzlowp4koZDKRMnQbK07qlvAvOlK2ulFZvhJNShzRrE04v2L7bqaeRsImIZMB9F2-sCLYtnw9JzkKhyPTmBj~xSalrM0sfUzIp1jSbj0pVzirtGwMzJvGskfIFJNoWfEbORKEzC5bodsg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA

759: 4031: 5482: 2137: 1051: 1981: 1006: 972: 1301:. Smaller squids will fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 metres (160 ft). Small fins towards the back of the mantle do not produce much lift, but do help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The 881: 528:

ratio), they tend to fossilize infrequently and poorly compared to the larger, heavier-boned terrestrial species they share habitat with. Fossils of flying animals tend to be confined to exceptional fossil deposits formed under highly specific circumstances, resulting in a generally poor fossil record, and a particular lack of transitional forms. Furthermore, as fossils do not preserve behavior or muscle, it can be difficult to discriminate between a poor flyer and a good glider.

534:, approximately 350 million years ago. The developmental origin of the insect wing remains in dispute, as does the purpose prior to true flight. One suggestion is that wings initially evolved from tracheal gill structures and were used to catch the wind for small insects that live on the surface of the water, while another is that they evolved from paranotal lobes or leg structures and gradually progressed from parachuting, to gliding, to flight for originally arboreal insects. 1589: 6197: 941: 1310: 2074: 25: 1826:. Found in Southeast Asia, the colugo is probably the mammal most adapted for gliding, with a patagium that is as large as geometrically possible. They can glide as far as 70 metres (230 ft) with minimal loss of height. They have the most developed propatagium out of any gliding mammal with a mean launch velocity of approximately 3.7 m/s; the Mayan Colugo has been known to initiate glides without jumping. 1409: 445: 623: 496:(though see above for possible independent acquisitions within bird and bat groups). In contrast to gliding, which has evolved more frequently but typically gives rise to only a handful of species, all three extant groups of powered flyers have a huge number of species, suggesting that flight is a very successful strategy once evolved. 1560:. They live in trees, feeding on tree ants, but nest on the forest floor. They can glide for up to 60 metres (200 ft) and over this distance they lose only 10 metres (30 ft) in height. Unusually, their patagium (gliding membrane) is supported on elongated ribs rather than the more common situation among gliding 3283:

says. "These bats are indeed flying very fast at times, but this is based on their ground speed," says Anders Hedenström at the University of Lund in Sweden. "Since they did not measure winds at the place and time where the bats are flying, one can therefore not exclude that the top speeds are not bats flying in a gust."

2162:, long considered the earliest gliding mammal until the discovery of contemporary gliding haramiyidans. It lived around 164 million years ago and used a fur-covered skin membrane to glide through the air; it lived around 165 million years ago, during the Middle-Late Jurassic of what is now China. The closely related 658:

generate lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole.

1108:) have been found that were fully feathered on all four limbs, giving them four 'wings' that they are believed to have used for gliding or flying. A recent study indicates that flight may have been acquired independently in various different lineages though it may have only evolved in theropods of the 1397:

has the ability to jump and possibly glide a short distance. It can move through the air several times the length of its body. While it does this, the fish flaps its large pectoral fins, giving it its common name. However, it is debated whether the freshwater butterfly fish can truly glide, Saidel et

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mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect's body and then fling apart. As they fling open, the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing. This bound vortex then moves across the wing and, in the clap, acts as the starting vortex for the other wing. Circulation and lift

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flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will

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Unlike most air vehicles, in which the objects that generate lift (wings) and thrust (engine or propeller) are separate and the wings remain fixed, flying animals use their wings to generate both lift and thrust by moving them relative to the body. This has made the flight of organisms considerably

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The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface-area-to-mass

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But not everyone is convinced. Graham Taylor at the University of Oxford says that errors in estimating bat speed by measuring the distance moved between successive positions could be huge. "So I think it would be premature to knock birds off their pedestal as nature's fastest fliers just yet," he

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fishes of small to medium size. The largest flying fish can reach lengths of 45 centimetres (18 in) but most species measure less than 30 cm (12 in) in length. They can be divided into two-winged varieties and four-winged varieties. Before the fish leaves the water it increases its

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were the next to evolve flight, approximately 228 million years ago. These reptiles were close relatives of the dinosaurs, and reached enormous sizes, with some of the last forms being the largest flying animals ever to inhabit the Earth, having wingspans of over 9.1 m (30 ft). However,

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is considerably different, due to their small size, rigid wings, and other anatomical differences. Turbulence and vortices play a much larger role in insect flight, making it even more complex and difficult to study than the flight of vertebrates. There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect

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During gliding, lift plays an increased role. Like drag, lift is proportional to velocity squared. Gliding animals will typically leap or drop from high locations such as trees, just as in parachuting, and as gravitational acceleration increases their speed, the aerodynamic forces also increase.

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During a free-fall with no aerodynamic forces, the object accelerates due to gravity, resulting in increasing velocity as the object descends. During parachuting, animals use the aerodynamic forces on their body to counteract the force or gravity. Any object moving through air experiences a drag

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Animal aerial locomotion can be divided into two categories: powered and unpowered. In unpowered modes of locomotion, the animal uses aerodynamic forces exerted on the body due to wind or falling through the air. In powered flight, the animal uses muscular power to generate aerodynamic forces to

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Hartman, Scott; Mortimer, Mickey; Wahl, William R.; Lomax, Dean R.; Lippincott, Jessica; Lovelace, David M. (10 July 2019). "A new paravian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of North America supports a late acquisition of avian flight". PeerJ. 7: e7247. doi:10.7717/peerj.7247. PMC 6626525. PMID

1517: 596:, and some large birds. Powered flight is very energetically expensive for large animals, but for soaring their size is an advantage, as it allows them a low wing loading, that is a large wing area relative to their weight, which maximizes lift. Soaring is very energetically efficient. 627: 753:

have the largest wingspan at 3.2 metres (10 ft). Studies have shown that it is physically possible for flying animals to reach 18-metre (59 ft) wingspans, but there is no firm evidence that any flying animal, not even the azhdarchid pterosaurs, got that

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is the most capable glider of those snakes studied. It glides by stretching out its body sideways and opening its ribs so the belly is concave, and by making lateral slithering movements. It can remarkably glide up to 100 metres (330 ft) and make 90 degree

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can make 180 degree turns, and locate the trunk using visual cues, succeeding in landing 80% of the time. Unique among gliding animals, Cephalotini and Pseudomyrmecinae ants glide abdomen first, the Forminicae however glide in the more conventional head first

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and are highly sensitive to light and noise. When a flying squirrel wishes to cross to a tree that is further away than the distance possible by jumping, it extends the cartilage spur on its elbow or wrist. This opens out the flap of furry skin (the

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have an extensive fossil record, along with many forms documenting both their evolution from small theropod dinosaurs and the numerous bird-like forms of theropod which did not survive the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Indeed,

1778:) that stretches from its wrist to its ankle. It glides spread-eagle and with its tail fluffed out like a parachute, and grips the tree with its claws when it lands. Flying squirrels have been reported to glide over 200 metres (660 ft). 628: 436:, are classified in the 4 groups of propatagium, digipatagium, plagiopatagium and uropatagium. These membranes consist of two tightly bounded layers of skin connected by muscles and connective tissue between the fore and hind limbs. 808:, said to attain about 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) based on ground speed by an aircraft tracking device; that measurement does not separate any contribution from wind speed, so the observations could be caused by strong 321:

dinosaurs do suggest multiple (at least 3) independent acquisitions of powered flight however, and a recent study proposes independent acquisitions amidst the different bat clades as well. Powered flight uses muscles to generate

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do not glide. Living in the rainforest canopy like many other gliders, gliding ants use their gliding to return to the trunk of the tree they live on should they fall or be knocked off a branch. Gliding was first discovered for

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is unique among dinosaurs for the development of membranous wings, unlike the feathered airfoils of other theropods. Much like modern anomalures it developed a bony rod to help support the wing, albeit on the wrist and not the

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have been observed to glide for hundreds of metres on the drafts on the edge of waves with only their initial leap from the water to provide height, but may be obtaining additional lift from wave motion. On the other hand,

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stretching from the torso to a dramatically lengthened fourth finger. There were hundreds of species, most of which are thought to have been intermittent flappers, and many soarers. The largest known flying animals are

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Kiat, Yosef; O’Connor, Jingmai K. (20 February 2024). "Functional constraints on the number and shape of flight feathers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 121 (8). doi:10.1073/pnas.2306639121. ISSN

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and several species of gliding squirrels are found in the forests of northern Asia and North America. Various factors produce these disparities. In the forests of Southeast Asia, the dominant canopy trees (usually

1832:, a type of lemur, and possibly some other primates (possible limited gliding or parachuting). A number of primates have been suggested to have adaptations that allow limited gliding or parachuting: sifakas, 1469:

glides using the membranes between the toes of its limbs, and small membranes located at the heel, the base of the leg, and the forearm. Some of the frogs are quite accomplished gliders, for example, the

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terrestrial ancestor used wings for a speed boost and to help catch prey). It may also have been a non-linear process, as several non-avian dinosaurs seem to have independently acquired powered flight.

359:: gliding in rising or otherwise moving air that requires specific physiological and morphological adaptations that can sustain the animal aloft without flapping its wings. The rising air is due to 284:. This allows slowly falling directed horizontal movement, with streamlining to decrease drag forces for aerofoil efficiency and often with some maneuverability in air. Gliding animals have a lower 238:

and using aerodynamic forces to control trajectory and angle of descent. Energy is continually lost to drag without being replaced, thus these methods of locomotion have limited range and duration.

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Pei, Rui; Pittman, Michael; Goloboff, Pablo A.; Dececchi, T. Alexander; Habib, Michael B.; Kaye, Thomas G.; Larsson, Hans C. E.; Norell, Mark A.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Xu, Xing (6 August 2020).

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are hardly noticeable until they jump. On jumping, the animal extends all four legs and stretches the loose folds of skin. The subfamily contains seven species. Of the six species in the genus

338:, respectively. Both can continue as long as the source of external power is present. Soaring is typically only seen in species capable of powered flight, as it requires extremely large wings. 1149:. The flightless workers of these insects have secondarily gained some capacity to move through the air. Gliding has evolved independently in a number of arboreal ant species from the groups 560:

is arguably the most famous transitional fossil in the world, both due to its mix of reptilian and avian anatomy and the luck of being discovered only two years after Darwin's publication of

963:: The first of all animals to evolve flight, they are also the only invertebrates that have evolved flight. As they comprise almost all insects, the species are too numerous to list here. 1373:. A group related to the Exocoetidae, one or two hemirhamphid species possess enlarged pectoral fins and show true gliding flight rather than simple leaps. Marshall (1965) reports that 411:. (Despite seemingly suitable rain forest habitats, few gliders are found in India or New Guinea and none in Madagascar.) Additionally, a variety of gliding vertebrates are found in 815:

Slowest. Most flying animals need to travel forward to stay aloft. However, some creatures can stay in the same spot, known as hovering, either by rapidly flapping the wings, as do

1037:. There are approximately 1,240 bat species, representing about 20% of all classified mammal species. Most bats are nocturnal and many feed on insects while flying at night, using 1848:, has thick hairs on its forearms that have been argued to provide drag, and a small membrane under its arms that has been suggested to provide lift by having aerofoil properties. 1235:(parachuting). The young of some species of spiders travel through the air by using silk draglines to catch the wind, as may some smaller species of adult spider, such as the 624: 1922:, and was originally classed with the flying phalangers, but is now recognised as separate. Its flying membrane only extends to the elbow, rather than to the wrist as in 1564:

of having the patagium attached to the limbs. When extended, the ribs form a semicircle on either side the lizard's body and can be folded to the body like a folding fan.

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Gliding immature insects. The wingless immature stages of some insect species that have wings as adults may also show a capacity to glide. These include some species of

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are the most recent to evolve (about 60 million years ago), most likely from a fluttering ancestor, though their poor fossil record has hindered more detailed study.

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is much larger, with estimates of the wingspan ranging from 9 to 12 metres (30 to 39 ft). Some other recently discovered azhdarchid pterosaur species, such as

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Meng, Qing-Jin; Grossnickle, David M.; Di, Liu; Zhang, Yu-Guang; Neander, April I.; Ji, Qiang; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2017). "New gliding mammaliaforms from the Jurassic".

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The taxonomy and paleobiology of the Late Triassic (Carnian-Norian: Adamanian-Apachean) drepnosaurs (Diapsida: Archosauromorpha: Drepanosauromorpha): Bulletin 46

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Emerson, Sharon B.; Koehl, M. A. R. (1990). "The interaction of behavioral and morphological change in the evolution of a novel locomotor type: "flying" frogs".

775:. However, to move about under one's own power and not be overly affected by the wind requires a certain amount of size. The smallest flying vertebrates are the 1404:. In the wild, they have been observed jumping out of the water and gliding (although reports of them achieving powered flight has been brought up many times). 5096:

Saidel, W.M.; Strain, G.F.; Fornari, S.K. (2004). "Characterization of the aerial escape response of the African butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi Peters".

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While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own as it is the simplest form of flight. Gliding is a very

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while gliding, but does not use a power strike like flying animals. It has been found that some flying fish can glide as effectively as some flying birds.

4543: 1260: 1184: 566:. However, the ecology of this transition is considerably more contentious, with various scientists supporting either a "trees down" origin (in which an 2883:

Wang, Shizhao; Zhang, Xing; He, Guowei; Liu, Tianshu (September 2013). "Lift Enhancement by Dynamically Changing Wingspan in Forward Flapping Flight".

2058:. This bizarre drepanosaur displays limb proportions, particularly the elongated forelimbs, that are consistent with a flying or gliding animal with 1250: 3404: 4604:", co-published by William Collins Pty. Ltd. and ABC Enterprises for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney, 1988 (revised edition 1992), 1616:, from Southeast Asia. These lizards have small flaps of skin along their limbs, torso, tail, and head that catch the air and enable them to glide. 4257:

Mendelson, Joseph R; Savage, Jay M; Griffith, Edgardo; Ross, Heidi; Kubicki, Brian; Gagliardo, Ronald (2008). "Spectacular new gliding species of

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Smallest. There is no minimum size for getting airborne. Indeed, there are many bacteria floating in the atmosphere that constitute part of the

1490: 6131: 804:, which when diving travels at 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph) or faster. The fastest animal in flapping horizontal flight may be the 1792:. There are seven species, divided in three genera. All but one species have gliding membranes between their front and hind legs. The genus 371:. Under the right conditions, soaring creates a gain of altitude without expending energy. Large wingspans are needed for efficient soaring. 1069:

Pterosaurs were the first flying vertebrates, and are generally agreed to have been sophisticated flyers. They had large wings formed by a

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Most maneuverable glider. Many gliding animals have some ability to turn, but which is the most maneuverable is difficult to assess. Even

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harder to understand than that of vehicles, as it involves varying speeds, angles, orientations, areas, and flow patterns over the wings.

3098:"A long-term survey unveils strong seasonal patterns in the airborne microbiome coupled to general and regional atmospheric circulations" 89: 42: 3031:"On the Size and Flight Diversity of Giant Pterosaurs, the Use of Birds as Pterosaur Analogues and Comments on Pterosaur Flightlessness" 6136: 5216:"Holaspis, a lizard that glided by accident: mosaics of cooption and adaptation in a tropical forest lacertid (Reptilia, Lacertidae. )" 61: 3266: 5739: 1769:) trees as landing sites; they are known to rapidly climb trees, but take some time to locate a good landing spot. They tend to be 745:

has the greatest wingspan of any living flying animal at 3.63 metres (11.9 ft). Among living animals which fly over land, the

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climb or to maintain steady, level flight. Those who can find air that is rising faster than they are falling can gain altitude by

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has been observed to glide for distances over 30 metres (100 ft), at speeds of up to 11.2 metres per second (37 ft/s).

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Demes, B.; Forchap, E.; Herwig, H. (1991). "They seem to glide. Are there aerodynamic effects in leaping prosimian primates?".

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McCracken, Gary F.; Safi, Kamran; Kunz, Thomas H.; Dechmann, Dina K. N.; Swartz, Sharon M.; Wikelski, Martin (November 2016).

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thought to be capable of gliding or flying, that are not classified as birds (though they are closely related). Some species (

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Hartman, Scott; Mortimer, Mickey; Wahl, William R.; Lomax, Dean R.; Lippincott, Jessica; Lovelace, David M. (10 July 2019).

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Ballooning and soaring are not powered by muscle, but rather by external aerodynamic sources of energy: the wind and rising

75: 4689: 2118:, having converted their pectoral and pelvic fins into broad wings very similar to those of their modern counterparts. The 1139:, an ancestrally wingless sister taxa to the winged insects. The bristletails median caudal filament is important for the 5376: 5247:

McGuire, J. A. (2003). "Allometric Prediction of Locomotor Performance: An Example from Southeast Asian Flying Lizards".

4000: 2272: 345:: being carried up into the air from the aerodynamic effect on long strands of silk in the wind. Certain silk-producing 181:

animals in getting from tree to tree, although there are other possibilities. Gliding, in particular, has evolved among

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Hylidae. Within each lineage there are a range of gliding abilities from non-gliding, to parachuting, to full gliding.

1266: 57: 4709: 4669: 4649: 4629: 4609: 4589: 3988: 3538: 2707: 2129: 2030:, has a wingspan of 30 centimetres (12 in), and was estimated to be able to glide about 30 metres (100 ft). 108: 4947:

Szalay, FS, Sargis, EJ, and Stafford, BJ (2000) "Small marsupial glider from the Paleocene of Itaboraí, Brazil." in

783:, both of which may weigh less than 2 grams (0.071 oz). They are thought to represent the lower size limit for 4426:"Gliding Performance of the Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys Sabrinus) in Mature Mixed Forest of Eastern Canada" 3618:

Yanoviak, Stephen. P.; Dudley, Robert; Kaspari, Michael (February 2005). "Directed aerial descent in canopy ants".

4347: 4324: 1993:

from the Late Permian (259-252 million years ago). Weigeltisaurids represent the oldest known gliding vertebrates

1601:. Note the gliding adaptations: flaps of skin on the legs, feet, sides of the body, and on the sides of the head. 4522: 4442: 4425: 2634:

Dudley, Robert; Byrnes, Greg; Yanoviak, Stephen P.; Borrell, Brendan; Brown, Rafe M.; McGuire, Jimmy A. (2012).

2460:"Glide performance and aerodynamics of non-equilibrium glides in northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus)" 1788:). These brightly coloured African rodents are not squirrels but have evolved to a resemble flying squirrels by 5840: 5369: 3381: 524:(most of which fly at some point in their life cycle) have more species than all other animal groups combined. 46: 4547: 6231: 4467:"Take-off and landing kinetics of a free-ranging gliding mammal, the Malayan colugo (Galeopterus variegatus)" 2441: 2348:"A new paravian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of North America supports a late acquisition of avian flight" 2320: 2257: 894:

Most efficient glider. This can be taken as the animal that moves most horizontal distance per metre fallen.

571: 4844:(Mammaliaformes, Triconodontidae) from the Jurassic of Argentina and its bearing on triconodont phylogeny". 2128:

is the oldest member of this clade, suggesting that these fish began exploring aerial niches soon after the

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many times, without any single common ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times in separate animals:

123: 6174: 5870: 1009: 326:, which allows the animal to produce lift and thrust. The animal may ascend without the aid of rising air. 5185:

Schiøtz, A.; Vosloe, H. (1959). "The gliding flight of Holaspis guentheri Gray, a west-African lacertid".

5952: 5503: 5481: 4133: 3944: 3786: 4063: 725:, may have also wingspans of a similar size or even slightly larger. Although it is widely thought that 82: 6153: 5902: 5431: 4297: 4172: 2768:

Alexander, David E. (July 2018). "A century and a half of research on the evolution of insect flight".

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are the exception). Bird flight is one of the most studied forms of aerial locomotion in animals. See

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will use powered flight to rise, then soar on thermals, then descend via free-fall to catch its prey.

5897: 3164: 2294:"Potential for Powered Flight Neared by Most Close Avialan Relatives, but Few Crossed Its Thresholds" 2198:

known from the Middle-Late Jurassic of China had extensive patagia, highly convergent with those of

271:. Some gliding animals may use their gliding membranes for drag rather than lift, to safely descend. 230:

These modes of locomotion typically require an animal start from a raised location, converting that

6241: 6236: 6167: 5850: 4644:", published by Angus and Robertson (Publishers) Pty. Ltd, Sydney, in 1941 (revised edition 1973), 4321:"Ptychozoon: the geckos that glide with flaps and fringes (gekkotans part VIII) – Tetrapod Zoology" 2154: 1752: 1455: 1413: 1390: 562: 4776: 3731:"New observations on airborne jet propulsion (flight) in squid, with a review of previous reports" 550: 5825: 5356: 4757: 2262: 1462:), have adaptations for gliding, the main feature being enlarged toe membranes. For example, the 1375: 805: 35: 3096:

Cáliz, Joan; Triadó-Margarit, Xavier; Camarero, Lluís; Casamayor, Emilio O. (27 November 2018).

1584:. They have fringed toes and tail sides and can flatten their bodies for gliding or parachuting. 839: 6221: 5984: 5947: 5937: 5882: 5830: 5775: 5734: 5678: 5673: 5658: 4777:"An early Late Triassic long-necked reptile with a bony pectoral shield and gracile appendages" 4568: 3821: 1891: 350: 3322: 2727: 2635: 758: 5749: 5352: 5332: 2862: 2651: 2458:

Bahlman, Joseph W.; Swartz, Sharon M.; Riskin, Daniel K.; Breuer, Kenneth S. (6 March 2013).

1422: 1417: 998: 4134:"The specialized locomotory apparatus of the freshwater hatchetfish family Gasteropelecidae" 3669: 6090: 5855: 5815: 5810: 5688: 5615: 5600: 5149: 5133:

Xu, Xing; Zhou, Zhonghe; Wang, Xiaolin; Kuang, Xuewen; Zhang, Fucheng; Du, Xiangke (2003).

5105: 5068: 5013: 4958: 4906: 4853: 4090: 3890: 3627: 3221: 3109: 3042: 2963: 2951: 2902: 2000:. There are a number of unrelated extinct lizard-like reptiles with similar "wings" to the 1789: 919: 915: 911:

have measured lift–drag ratios of 20, and thus fall just 1 meter for every 20 in still air.

448: 6100: 2044:

unusually had a membrane on their elongated hind limbs, extending their otherwise normal,

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Worldwide, the distribution of gliding animals is uneven, as most inhabit rain forests in

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have also evolved this gliding flight ability, typically as a means of evading predators.

8: 6181: 5962: 5683: 5610: 5117: 2090: 2084: 1682: 1471: 1463: 1294: 1240: 1232: 1038: 784: 742: 567: 342: 285: 5153: 5109: 5072: 5017: 4962: 4910: 4857: 4818: 4704:", published by Thomas Nelson (Australia) Ltd., Melbourne, 1968 (revised edition 1977), 4094: 3894: 3799: 3631: 3225: 3113: 3046: 2955: 2906: 846: 709:

with a wingspan of up to 7.5 metres (25 ft). However, the more recently discovered

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flight likely worked in a similar manner, though no living pterosaurs remain for study.

6095: 5887: 5865: 5845: 5698: 5663: 5416: 5272: 5235: 5202: 5173: 5121: 5084: 5037: 4982: 4974: 4930: 4879: 4499: 4466: 4406: 4278: 4231: 4149: 4114: 3921: 3878: 3711: 3707: 3651: 3595: 3570: 3527: 3242: 3209: 3140: 3097: 3073: 3030: 2967: 2918: 2892: 2844: 2793: 2492: 2459: 2374: 2347: 1953: 1941: 1897: 845:, a large vulture, being sucked into a jet engine 11,550 metres (37,890 ft) above 635: 5134: 2136: 1765:

preferring boreal and montane coniferous forests, specifically landing on red spruce (

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with adaptations to increase drag forces. Very small animals may be carried up by the

6226: 6200: 5907: 5875: 5768: 5714: 5693: 5653: 5533: 5451: 5301: 5264: 5165: 5029: 4986: 4934: 4922: 4705: 4685: 4665: 4645: 4625: 4605: 4585: 4504: 4486: 4447: 4398: 4239: 4196: 4153: 4106: 4050: 4006: 3984: 3926: 3908: 3643: 3600: 3534: 3507: 3499: 3458: 3450: 3348: 3302: 3247: 3168: 3145: 3127: 3078: 3060: 3011: 2785: 2733: 2703: 2655: 2549: 2541: 2497: 2479: 2379: 2325: 2252: 2033: 1588: 1302: 1177: 832: 323: 5276: 5239: 5125: 5088: 4883: 4801:

Renesto, Silvo; Spielmann, Justin A.; Lucas, Spencer G.; Spagnoli, Giorgio Tarditi.

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Marshall, N.B. (1965) The Life of Fishes. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 402 pp.

3715: 2971: 2922: 2848: 2797: 2571: 541:

they spanned a large range of sizes, down to a 250 mm (10 in) wingspan in

6160: 6105: 5972: 5805: 5724: 5498: 5293: 5256: 5227: 5194: 5177: 5157: 5113: 5076: 5041: 5021: 4970: 4966: 4914: 4869: 4861: 4494: 4478: 4437: 4388: 4270: 4223: 4188: 4145: 4098: 3916: 3898: 3742: 3703: 3655: 3635: 3590: 3582: 3489: 3476:

Munk, Yonatan; Yanoviak, Stephen P.; Koehl, M. a. R.; Dudley, Robert (1 May 2015).

3442: 3431:"Aerodynamic Stability and Maneuverability of the Gliding Frog Polypedates Dennysi" 3237: 3229: 3188: 3135: 3117: 3068: 3050: 3001: 2959: 2910: 2836: 2777: 2695: 2647: 2636:"Gliding and the Functional Origins of Flight: Biomechanical Novelty or Necessity?" 2609: 2531: 2487: 2471: 2420: 2410: 2369: 2359: 2315: 2305: 2140: 2014: 2005: 1985: 1851: 1597: 1593: 1401: 1341: 1297:, will leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of 1154: 993:

Birds (flying, soaring) – Most of the approximately 10,000 living species can fly (

850: 801: 681: 673: 531: 429: 274: 264: 231: 178: 154: 5297: 1050: 6115: 6055: 6040: 6025: 6010: 5979: 5932: 5668: 5572: 5555: 5426: 5215: 4865: 4802: 4523:"Darren Naish: Tetrapod Zoology: Literally, flying lemurs (and not dermopterans)" 3903: 3430: 3055: 2104: 2045: 2009: 1911: 1734: 1723: 1486: 1478: 994: 895: 776: 3477: 2520:"Ecological and Biomechanical Insights into the Evolution of Gliding in Mammals" 1980: 1358:

is on an evolutionary borderline between flight and gliding. It flaps its large

1005: 177:. Gliding has evolved on many more occasions. Usually the development is to aid 6080: 6035: 6030: 5912: 5820: 5729: 5620: 5543: 5490: 5461: 5421: 5396: 2598:"Gliding patterns of Siberian flying squirrels in relation to forest structure" 2194: 2164: 2115: 1989: 1810:). There are two species of colugo. Despite their common name, colugos are not 1557: 1522: 1348: 1290: 971: 857: 715: 677: 589: 543: 408: 368: 356: 277:: falling at an angle less than 45° from the horizontal with lift from adapted 250: 235: 219: 198: 5231: 3747: 3730: 3555: 2781: 2597: 2310: 2293: 2168:

is also thought to have been able to glide, based on postcranial similarities.

6215: 6085: 6075: 6070: 6065: 5994: 5927: 5835: 5550: 5466: 5456: 5033: 4624:", published by University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Queensland, 1980, 4490: 4451: 4402: 4393: 4377:"Sentinels of Ecological Processes: The Case of the Northern Flying Squirrel" 4376: 4157: 4110: 3912: 3503: 3454: 3353:"This bird really can fly over Mount Everest, wind tunnel experiments reveal" 3298:

The Bird Almanac: A Guide to Essential Facts and Figures of the World's Birds

3131: 3064: 2840: 2659: 2545: 2483: 2234: 2159: 2079: 2026: 1886: 1741:). There are more than 40 living species divided between 14 genera of flying 1738: 1632: 1448: 1209: 1136: 1104: 964: 873: 828: 780: 750: 746: 738: 721: 665: 556: 424: 4192: 3446: 3122: 1952:

is the size of a very small mouse and is the smallest mammalian glider. The

880: 6110: 6060: 6020: 5989: 5942: 5632: 5322: 5268: 5169: 4926: 4508: 4482: 4243: 4200: 3930: 3647: 3604: 3586: 3511: 3462: 3251: 3149: 3082: 3015: 2939: 2789: 2689: 2553: 2501: 2475: 2383: 2329: 2188: 2124: 2054: 1877: 1822:

to primates; however, some mammalogists suggest they are a sister group to

1819: 1785: 1619: 1544: 1529: 1359: 1317: 1282: 1244: 1236: 1213: 772: 734: 670: 254: 5305: 5001: 2699: 1745:. Flying squirrels are found in Asia (most species), North America (genus 6050: 6015: 5627: 5577: 5560: 5518: 5513: 5508: 3210:"Airplane tracking documents the fastest flight speeds recorded for bats" 2614: 2536: 2519: 2176: 2111: 1964:, but does not glide. Both species have a stiff-haired feather-like tail. 1933: 1929: 1906: 1881: 1841: 1797: 1698: 1669: 1499: 1482: 1451: 1365: 1344: 1329: 1313: 1298: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1093: 987: 923: 903: 899: 816: 793: 650: 456: 420: 260: 129: 5361: 5161: 4918: 3639: 3569:

Yanoviak, Stephen P; Kaspari, Michael; Dudley, Robert (23 August 2009).

3233: 3193: 2218: 2048:-like patagia significantly. The forelimbs are in contrast much smaller. 5528: 5471: 5441: 5436: 5206: 5080: 4978: 4874: 4274: 4235: 4102: 3778: 3694:

Packard, A. (1972). "Cephalopods and fish: the limits of convergence".

3494: 2425: 2364: 2206: 2172: 1961: 1937: 1923: 1863: 1855: 1807: 1719: 1661: 1649: 1612: 1604: 1561: 1430: 1309: 1163: 1158: 1028: 940: 710: 701: 537: 517: 489: 463: 364: 202: 182: 4664:", published by Australian Universities Press Pty. Ltd, Sydney, 1974, 3006: 2989: 2914: 2415: 2398: 1385:

have been observed exhibiting a gliding response to escape predator's

926:

have been observed as having considerable capacity to turn in the air.

5605: 5025: 4078: 3783:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

3405:"Flying snakes wiggle their bodies to glide down smoothly from trees" 3095: 2239: 2214: 2210: 2020: 1949: 1919: 1915: 1859: 1781: 1770: 1761: 1756: 1747: 1674: 1549: 1441: 1437: 1436:

Gliding has evolved independently in two families of tree frogs, the

1354: 1201: 1172: 1135:. Directed aerial gliding descent is found in some tropical arboreal 1062: 1054: 960: 908: 898:

are known to glide up to 200 metres (660 ft), but have measured

861: 824: 729:

reached the size limit of a flying animal, the same was once said of

706: 659: 593: 575: 353:

for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.

346: 306: 242: 166: 158: 134: 5198: 4544:"Literally, flying lemurs (and not dermopterans) – Tetrapod Zoology" 4465:

Byrnes, Greg; Lim, Norman T.-L; Spence, Andrew J (5 February 2008).

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in West Africa. The animal that flies highest most regularly is the

699:

Largest. The largest known flying animal was formerly thought to be

24: 5922: 5917: 5892: 5791: 5637: 5538: 5446: 5326: 5260: 2729:

Tropical Rain Forests: An Ecological and Biogeographical Comparison

2229: 2182: 2119: 2108: 2037: 1872: 1867: 1775: 1742: 1702: 1690: 1686: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1370: 1275: 1255: 1217: 1088: 1084: 1070: 820: 809: 788: 433: 360: 318: 281: 206: 2897: 2757:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 312–529. 375:

Many species will use multiple of these modes at various times; a

5957: 5565: 2755:

Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference

2143:

predate bats as mammalian aeronauts by at least 110 million years

2059: 1815: 1722:. A few other mammals can glide or parachute; the best known are 1496: 1333: 1225: 1109: 1021: 953: 509: 493: 416: 335: 278: 246: 3478:"The descent of ant: field-measured performance of gliding ants" 1516: 349:, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight 5523: 4173:"Aerodynamic Stability and Maneuverability of the Gliding Frog 3879:"Aerial Jumping in the Trinidadian Guppy (Poecilia reticulata)" 3267:"Speedy bat flies at 160 km/h, smashing bird speed record" 2752: 2222: 2199: 2041: 1926:. It has elongated limbs compared to its non-gliding relatives. 1837: 1829: 1803: 1727: 1694: 1581: 1536: 1408: 1286: 1205: 521: 505: 501: 412: 401: 393: 302: 298: 190: 162: 150: 146: 138: 5346: 5860: 3571:"Gliding hexapods and the origins of insect aerial behaviour" 2831:

Kaplan, Matt (2011). "Ancient bats got in a flap over food".

1845: 1833: 1811: 1678: 1553: 1540: 1382: 1087:(gliding and flying). There were several species of theropod 980: 869: 865: 481: 397: 3173:(Hymenoptera, Mymaridae), with comments on its sister genus 669:

flight. Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling

5967: 5760: 5719: 5587: 5400: 4443:

10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<1026:GPOTNF>2.0.CO;2

4256: 2726:

Corlett, Richard T.; Primack, Richard B. (6 January 2011).

2633: 1884:

are the most common species. The lone species in the genus

1337: 1189: 827:, and some others, or carefully using thermals, as do some 685:

are increased, at the price of wear and tear on the wings.

513: 485: 470: 444: 376: 310: 268: 194: 186: 170: 4684:", published by Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1970, 2291: 1477:

can maneuver in the air, making two kinds of turn, either

5408: 5392: 5059:

Davenport, J. (1994). "How and why do flying fish fly?".

4800: 3207: 2457: 1823: 1715: 1239:

family. This behavior is commonly known as "ballooning".

1034: 945: 654: 582: 497: 480:

Powered flight has evolved unambiguously only four times—

314: 174: 4602:

Nature of Australia – A portrait of the island continent

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can glide back to the trunk of a tree should they fall.

872:. They are sometimes seen flying well above the peak of 800:

Fastest. The fastest of all known flying animals is the

4840:

Gaetano, L.C.; Rougier, G.W. (2011). "New materials of

4833: 4471:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

4002:

Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology 10/2005

3475: 3029:

Witton, Mark P.; Habib, Michael B. (15 November 2010).

1610:. There are six species of gliding gecko, of the genus 1379:

can cover 50 metres (160 ft) in two separate hops.

831:. The slowest flying non-hovering bird recorded is the 133:). Birds are one of only four taxonomic groups to have 5220:

Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Zoology Series

5000:

Storch, G.; Engesser, B.; Wuttke, M. (February 1996).

4896: 3945:"trinidadian guppies poecilia: Topics by Science.gov" 3617: 3568: 2399:"The evolution of flight in bats: A novel hypothesis" 2341: 2339: 4999: 3877:

Soares, Daphne; Bierman, Hilary S. (16 April 2013).

3177:, and discussion on small size limits in arthropods" 2640:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

588:

Only a few animals are known to have specialised in

149:

are capable of aerial locomotion, either by powered

5095: 4807:. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. 4724:", published by Paul Hamlyn Pty. Ltd., Sydney, 1975 4584:", published by Reed Books Pty. Ltd., Sydney, 1991 1673:snakes. Five species of snake from Southeast Asia, 1511:Several lizards and snakes are capable of gliding: 741:with males reaching 21 kilograms (46 lb). The 49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5283: 4348:"Why Bats Are One of Evolution's Greatest Puzzles" 3526: 2336: 1629:which has similar flaps and folds and also glides. 975:Birds are a successful group of flying vertebrate. 516:have the most species of any class of terrestrial 2321:20.500.11820/1f69ce4d-97b2-4aac-9b29-57a7affea291 2228:A gliding rodent belonging to the extinct family 1818:. Molecular evidence suggests that colugos are a 1796:contains two particularly small species known as 6213: 4315: 4313: 4311: 3670:"Scientist Discovers Rainforest Ants That Glide" 2753:Simmons, N.B.; D.E. Wilson, D.C. Reeder (2005). 2442:"New theory on bat flight has experts a-flutter" 1940:contains two genera, each with one species. The 1659:are found in the two species of the gecko genus 263:: falling at an angle greater than 45° from the 5132: 4464: 3102:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2983: 2981: 2687: 2397:Anderson, Sophia C.; Ruxton, Graeme D. (2020). 1253:. Some species of arboreal spider of the genus 197:are tall and widely spaced. Several species of 4839: 2882: 2725: 2595: 2396: 1502:. The other frog family that contains gliders. 787:flight. The smallest flying invertebrate is a 301:has evolved at least four times: first in the 6132:Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour 5776: 5377: 5312:The Pterosaurs: From Deep Time by David Unwin 5286:Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie 5184: 4308: 3876: 3774: 3772: 3553: 2855: 2439: 1261:Skydiving spiders discovered in South America 733:. The heaviest living flying animals are the 570:ancestor evolved gliding, then flight) or a " 5347:Insect flight, photographs of flying insects 5002:"Oldest fossil record of gliding in rodents" 4213: 3822:"Vertebrate Flight: gliding and parachuting" 2978: 2942:(January 2005). "Dissecting Insect Flight". 2596:Suzuki, Kk; Yanagawa, H (28 February 2019). 2517: 888: 797:, at 0.15 mm (0.0059 in) (150 μm). 604: 3843:"Flying fish perform as well as some birds" 3264: 3028: 2087:dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of China. 439: 16:Animals that have evolved aerial locomotion 6137:International Society for Applied Ethology 5783: 5769: 5384: 5370: 4682:A Guide to the Native Mammals of Australia 3769: 3162: 2934: 2932: 2824: 2721: 2719: 2688:Jackson, Stephen; Schouten, Peter (2012). 835:, at 8 kilometres per hour (5.0 mph). 387: 185:animals, especially in the rainforests in 5740:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water 5391: 5058: 4873: 4774: 4571:– Environment, New South Wales Government 4498: 4441: 4392: 4345: 4076: 3920: 3902: 3746: 3594: 3493: 3265:Photopoulos, Julianna (9 November 2016). 3241: 3201: 3192: 3139: 3121: 3072: 3054: 3005: 2896: 2767: 2613: 2560: 2535: 2491: 2424: 2414: 2373: 2363: 2319: 2309: 1784:or scaly-tailed flying squirrels (family 1755:). They inhabit tropical, temperate, and 1454:. A number of the Rhacophoridae, such as 1057:included the largest known flying animals 449:Analogous flying adaptions in vertebrates 245:: decreasing altitude under the force of 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 3814: 2652:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110014 2518:Byrnes, Greg; Spence, Andrew J. (2012). 2135: 2072: 2066: 2036:. These strange reptiles from the Upper 2004:lizards. These include the Late Permian 1979: 1587: 1515: 1407: 1308: 1265: 1049: 1004: 970: 939: 879: 757: 621: 443: 382: 122: 5246: 4261:(Anura: Hylidae) from Central Panama". 3693: 3347: 2929: 2716: 1800:, but similarly they are not true mice. 1001:for birds that can soar as well as fly. 838:Highest flying. There are records of a 532:Insects were the first to evolve flight 288:(wing length/breadth) than true flyers. 6214: 5213: 4755: 4423: 4370: 4368: 4295: 4005:. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. 2006. 3169:"A new genus and species of fairyfly, 2964:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.121940 2830: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2464:Journal of the Royal Society Interface 1894:has only a vestigial gliding membrane. 1844:. Most notably, the sifaka, a type of 1078: 688: 5764: 5365: 5061:Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 4374: 4346:Magazine, Smithsonian; Black, Riley. 4170: 4131: 4083:Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 3728: 3524: 3428: 3156: 2770:Arthropod Structure & Development 2629: 2627: 2625: 2602:IForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 2591: 2589: 2453: 2451: 693: 329: 4957:(Suppl 3): 1–86. 25 September 2000. 4758:"Ancient Gliding Reptile Discovered" 4171:McCay, Michael G. (15 August 2001). 3429:McCAY, Michael G. (15 August 2001). 3370: 3294: 2987: 2938: 2513: 2511: 47:adding citations to reliable sources 18: 4819:"Earliest flying mammal discovered" 4365: 2990:"The aerodynamics of insect flight" 2666: 2524:Integrative and Comparative Biology 2273:Aerial locomotion in marine animals 1854:or wrist-winged gliders (subfamily 1570:. There are two species of gliding 617: 249:, using no adaptations to increase 13: 5335:from Vertebrate Flight Exhibit at 5135:"Four-winged dinosaurs from China" 5118:10.1023/b:ebfi.0000043153.38418.cd 5052: 4951:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 4846:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 4298:"Tiny lizard falls like a feather" 4150:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb02733.x 4132:Wiest, Francine C. (August 1995). 3800:"Fast flying fish glides by ferry" 3708:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1972.tb00975.x 2622: 2586: 2448: 1116: 676:. Some very small insects use the 641:, repeated at one fifteenth speed. 508:order, about 20% of all mammalian 14: 6253: 5316: 4733: 4660:Morcombe, Michael & Irene – " 4079:"How and why do flying fish fly?" 2508: 2440:Ivan Semeniuk (5 November 2011). 2130:Permian-Triassic extinction event 1904:). The only species of the genus 930: 876:at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). 292: 6196: 6195: 5480: 4775:Dzik, J.; Sulej, Tomasz (2016). 4424:Vernes, Karl (1 November 2001). 2944:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 1398:al. (2004) argue that it cannot. 766:with a Cessna 172 light aircraft 23: 5353:Map of Life - "Gliding mammals" 5098:Environmental Biology of Fishes 4993: 4941: 4890: 4811: 4794: 4768: 4749: 4727: 4714: 4694: 4674: 4654: 4634: 4614: 4594: 4582:Key Guide to Australian Mammals 4574: 4562: 4536: 4458: 4417: 4339: 4289: 4250: 4207: 4181:Journal of Experimental Biology 4164: 4125: 4077:Davenport, John (1 June 1994). 4070: 4019: 3993: 3973: 3962: 3937: 3870: 3861: 3835: 3792: 3755: 3722: 3687: 3662: 3611: 3562: 3547: 3518: 3482:Journal of Experimental Biology 3469: 3435:Journal of Experimental Biology 3422: 3396: 3341: 3315: 3288: 3258: 3181:Journal of Hymenoptera Research 3089: 3022: 2994:Journal of Experimental Biology 2988:Sane, S. P. (1 December 2003). 2876: 2814: 2804: 2761: 2746: 864:between its nesting grounds in 599: 504:, have the most species of any 34:needs additional citations for 5841:Bee learning and communication 4971:10.1080/02724634.2000.10010765 4720:Serventy, Vincent (editor) – " 3402: 2433: 2390: 2285: 1: 4784:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 4756:Mosher, Dave (12 June 2007). 4722:Australia's Wildlife Heritage 4296:Walker, Matt (17 July 2009). 3983:. San Diego: Academic Press. 2278: 2258:Flying mythological creatures 1973: 1625:. A possible sister-taxon to 1429: 1061: 369:other meteorological features 157:. This trait has appeared by 5790: 4866:10.1080/02724634.2011.589877 3981:Freshwater Fish Distribution 3904:10.1371/journal.pone.0061617 3735:Journal of Molluscan Studies 3295:Bird, David Michael (2004). 3056:10.1371/journal.pone.0013982 2732:. Wiley. pp. 197, 200. 2691:Gliding Mammals of the World 2147: 2018:, and the Cretaceous lizard 1996:Extinct reptiles similar to 1968: 1710: 1126: 1016:) displaying the "hand wing" 967:is an active research field. 592:: the larger of the extinct 225: 58:"Flying and gliding animals" 7: 5333:Learn the Secrets of Flight 4829:– via news.bbc.co.uk. 4642:Furred Animals of Australia 3969:Poecilia reticulata (Guppy) 3810:– via news.bbc.co.uk. 3729:Macia, S. (1 August 2004). 3533:. Oxford University Press. 3323:"Ruppell's griffon vulture" 2246: 1638:. At least some species of 1506: 1274: 1121: 868:and its winter quarters in 10: 6258: 5596:Flying and gliding animals 5432:Fin and flipper locomotion 4375:Smith, Winston P. (2012). 3327:Smithsonian's National Zoo 3214:Royal Society Open Science 2268:Organisms at high altitude 1806:or "flying lemurs" (order 1535:. There are 28 species of 1224: 1045: 1026: 1020: 985: 952: 6191: 6145: 6124: 6003: 5898:Evolutionary neuroscience 5798: 5707: 5646: 5586: 5489: 5478: 5407: 5232:10.1017/s0968047002000171 4842:Argentoconodon fariasorum 2782:10.1016/j.asd.2017.11.007 2311:10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.105 2098: 1655:. Similar adaptations to 1460:Rhacophorus nigropalmatus 1041:to home in on their prey. 1010:Townsends's big-eared bat 935: 884:Airborne flying squirrel. 5851:Behavioral endocrinology 4736:"Family Pseudocheiridae" 4394:10.1525/bio.2012.62.11.4 2841:10.1038/nature.2011.9304 2568:"Life in the Rainforest" 2155:Volaticotherium antiquum 2024:. The largest of these, 1984:Life restoration of the 1753:Siberian flying squirrel 1391:Freshwater butterflyfish 979: 764:Quetzalcoatlus northropi 563:On the Origin of Species 440:Powered flight evolution 212: 6046:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt 5826:Animal sexual behaviour 5357:University of Cambridge 5298:10.1127/zma/78/1991/373 5249:The American Naturalist 4949:"Abstracts of Papers". 4193:10.1242/jeb.204.16.2817 3748:10.1093/mollus/70.3.297 3447:10.1242/jeb.204.16.2817 3123:10.1073/pnas.1812826115 2263:Insect thermoregulation 2238:is known from the late 1759:environments, with the 1376:Euleptorhamphus viridis 1323: 1314:Band-winged flying fish 1014:Corynorhinus townsendii 889:Gliding and parachuting 806:Mexican free-tailed bat 605:Gliding and parachuting 388:Gliding and parachuting 5985:Tool use by non-humans 5938:Philosophical ethology 5883:Comparative psychology 5831:Animal welfare science 5735:Terrestrial locomotion 5679:Evolution of cetaceans 5674:Origin of avian flight 5659:Evolution of tetrapods 5214:Arnold, E. N. (2002). 4600:van der Beld, John – " 4483:10.1098/rspb.2007.1684 4263:Journal of Herpetology 3979:Berra, Tim M. (2001). 3587:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0029 3554:Basic Biology (2015). 2476:10.1098/rsif.2012.0794 2144: 2088: 1994: 1990:Weigeltisaurus jaekeli 1930:Feather-tailed possums 1602: 1527: 1467:Rhacophorus prominanus 1440:Rhacophoridae and the 1426: 1402:Freshwater hatchetfish 1320: 1271: 1058: 1017: 976: 949: 885: 767: 642: 477: 142: 5750:Undulatory locomotion 5699:Homologous structures 4702:Wildlife of Australia 4700:Serventy, Vincent – " 3525:Tudge, Colin (2000). 2700:10.1071/9780643104051 2139: 2076: 1983: 1958:Distoechurus pennatus 1720:freely flying mammals 1646:, are known to glide. 1591: 1519: 1456:Wallace's flying frog 1423:The Malay Archipelago 1418:Alfred Russel Wallace 1414:Wallace's flying frog 1411: 1312: 1269: 1100:Microraptor zhaoianus 1053: 1008: 999:List of soaring birds 974: 943: 920:Chinese gliding frogs 883: 761: 634: 574:" origin (in which a 447: 383:Evolution and ecology 126: 6232:Evolution of animals 6091:William Homan Thorpe 5856:Behavioural genetics 5816:Animal consciousness 5811:Animal communication 5694:Analogous structures 5689:Convergent evolution 4662:Mammals of Australia 4640:Troughton, Ellis – " 4622:Spotlight on Possums 4430:Journal of Mammalogy 4352:Smithsonian Magazine 3384:on 24 September 2015 3351:(3 September 2019). 2615:10.3832/ifor2954-011 2304:(20): 4033–4046.e8. 2213:) is known from the 2077:Life restoration of 1858:). Possums found in 1790:convergent evolution 1393:(possibly gliding). 1332:. There are over 50 1295:Pacific flying squid 1243:make up part of the 1171:and non-cephalotine 1133:Gliding bristletails 916:paradise tree snakes 43:improve this article 5846:Behavioural ecology 5745:Rotating locomotion 5684:Comparative anatomy 5162:10.1038/nature01342 5154:2003Natur.421..335X 5110:2004EnvBF..71...63S 5073:1994RFBF....4..184D 5018:1996Natur.379..439S 4963:2000JVPal..20S...1. 4919:10.1038/nature23476 4911:2017Natur.548..291M 4858:2011JVPal..31..829G 4620:Russell, Rupert – " 4580:Cronin, Leonard – " 4477:(1638): 1007–1013. 4175:Polypedates dennysi 4095:1994RFBF....4..184D 3895:2013PLoSO...861617S 3849:. 11 September 2010 3640:10.1038/nature03254 3632:2005Natur.433..624Y 3529:The Variety of Life 3234:10.1098/rsos.160398 3226:2016RSOS....360398M 3194:10.3897/jhr.32.4663 3114:2018PNAS..11512229C 3108:(48): 12229–12234. 3047:2010PLoSO...513982W 2956:2005AnRFM..37..183W 2907:2014PhFl...26f1903W 2863:"Vertebrate Flight" 2091:Scansoriopterygidae 2067:Non-avian dinosaurs 1892:Leadbeater's possum 1683:paradise tree snake 1594:Kuhl's flying gecko 1475:Rhacophorus dennysi 1472:Chinese flying frog 1464:Malayan flying frog 1383:Trinidadian guppies 1143:and gliding control 1079:Non-avian dinosaurs 743:wandering albatross 689:Limits and extremes 6175:Behavioral Ecology 6096:Nikolaas Tinbergen 5888:Emotion in animals 5866:Cognitive ethology 5664:Evolution of birds 5417:Aquatic locomotion 5081:10.1007/BF00044128 4821:. 13 December 2006 4680:Ride, W. D. L. – " 4275:10.1670/08-025R1.1 4138:Journal of Zoology 4103:10.1007/BF00044128 4037:on 14 January 2023 4026:. 14 January 2023 3765:. 16 January 2012. 3696:Biological Reviews 3495:10.1242/jeb.106914 3349:Pennisi, Elizabeth 2537:10.1093/icb/icr069 2365:10.7717/peerj.7247 2145: 2089: 2040:of Kyrgyzstan and 1995: 1954:feathertail possum 1946:Acrobates pygmaeus 1942:feathertail glider 1936:). This family of 1902:Petauroides volans 1814:; true lemurs are 1603: 1528: 1427: 1395:Pantodon buchholzi 1347:. They are mostly 1321: 1285:. Several oceanic 1272: 1241:Ballooning spiders 1233:Ballooning spiders 1059: 1018: 977: 950: 886: 860:directly over the 768: 694:Flying and soaring 643: 636:Large milkweed bug 478: 330:Externally powered 143: 6209: 6208: 6101:Jakob von Uexküll 5871:Comfort behaviour 5758: 5757: 5715:Animal locomotion 5654:Evolution of fish 5534:facultative biped 5323:Canopy Locomotion 5148:(6921): 335–340. 5012:(6564): 439–441. 4905:(7667): 291–296. 4550:on 16 August 2010 4187:(16): 2817–2826. 4058:Missing or empty 4012:978-3-938616-39-0 3847:Los Angeles Times 3626:(7026): 624–626. 3441:(16): 2817–2826. 3308:978-1-55297-925-9 3301:. Firefly Books. 3007:10.1242/jeb.00663 3000:(23): 4191–4208. 2915:10.1063/1.4884130 2885:Physics of Fluids 2739:978-1-4443-9227-2 2416:10.1111/mam.12211 2253:Animal locomotion 2085:scansoriopterygid 2034:Sharovipterygidae 1868:gliding membranes 1852:Flying phalangers 1592:The underside of 1568:Gliding lacertids 1489:into the turn (a 1481:into the turn (a 1340:belonging to the 1303:neon flying squid 1270:Neon flying squid 1194:Cephalotes atreus 1185:Cephalotes atreus 1178:Daceton armigerum 840:Rüppell's vulture 833:American woodcock 632: 324:aerodynamic force 189:(most especially 119: 118: 111: 93: 6249: 6199: 6198: 6161:Animal Cognition 6154:Animal Behaviour 6106:Wolfgang Wickler 5806:Animal cognition 5785: 5778: 5771: 5762: 5761: 5725:Robot locomotion 5499:Limb development 5484: 5457:Lobe-finned fish 5386: 5379: 5372: 5363: 5362: 5309: 5280: 5243: 5210: 5181: 5139: 5129: 5092: 5046: 5045: 5026:10.1038/379439a0 4997: 4991: 4990: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4877: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4798: 4792: 4791: 4781: 4772: 4766: 4765: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4731: 4725: 4718: 4712: 4698: 4692: 4678: 4672: 4658: 4652: 4638: 4632: 4618: 4612: 4598: 4592: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4546:. Archived from 4540: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4529: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4502: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4445: 4436:(4): 1026–1033. 4421: 4415: 4414: 4396: 4372: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4343: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4323:. Archived from 4317: 4306: 4305: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4222:(8): 1931–1946. 4211: 4205: 4204: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4061: 4056: 4054: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4036: 4030:. Archived from 4023: 4017: 4016: 3997: 3991: 3977: 3971: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3924: 3906: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3839: 3833: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3796: 3790: 3776: 3767: 3766: 3759: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3598: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3551: 3545: 3544: 3532: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3497: 3488:(9): 1393–1401. 3473: 3467: 3466: 3426: 3420: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3380:. Archived from 3374: 3368: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3245: 3205: 3199: 3198: 3196: 3171:Tinkerbella nana 3163:Huber, John T.; 3160: 3154: 3153: 3143: 3125: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3076: 3058: 3026: 3020: 3019: 3009: 2985: 2976: 2975: 2936: 2927: 2926: 2900: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2828: 2822: 2818: 2812: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2723: 2714: 2713: 2685: 2664: 2663: 2631: 2620: 2619: 2617: 2593: 2584: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2570:. Archived from 2564: 2558: 2557: 2539: 2515: 2506: 2505: 2495: 2470:(80): 20120794. 2455: 2446: 2445: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2428: 2418: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2377: 2367: 2343: 2334: 2333: 2323: 2313: 2289: 2107:is a lineage of 2015:Mecistotrachelos 2006:Weigeltisauridae 1735:Flying squirrels 1724:flying squirrels 1598:Ptychozoon kuhli 1412:Illustration of 1316:, with enlarged 1167:). All arboreal 1155:Pseudomyrmecinae 995:flightless birds 896:Flying squirrels 851:bar-headed goose 802:peregrine falcon 633: 232:potential energy 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 51: 27: 19: 6257: 6256: 6252: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6247: 6246: 6242:Gliding animals 6237:Natural history 6212: 6211: 6210: 6205: 6187: 6141: 6120: 6116:Solly Zuckerman 6056:Karl von Frisch 6041:Richard Dawkins 6026:John B. Calhoun 6011:Patrick Bateson 5999: 5933:Pain in animals 5794: 5789: 5759: 5754: 5703: 5669:Origin of birds 5642: 5582: 5504:Limb morphology 5485: 5476: 5462:Ray-finned fish 5427:Fish locomotion 5403: 5390: 5329:online magazine 5319: 5199:10.2307/1440407 5137: 5055: 5053:Further reading 5050: 5049: 4998: 4994: 4948: 4946: 4942: 4895: 4891: 4838: 4834: 4824: 4822: 4817: 4816: 4812: 4799: 4795: 4779: 4773: 4769: 4754: 4750: 4740: 4738: 4732: 4728: 4719: 4715: 4699: 4695: 4679: 4675: 4659: 4655: 4639: 4635: 4619: 4615: 4599: 4595: 4579: 4575: 4569:Gliding Possums 4567: 4563: 4553: 4551: 4542: 4541: 4537: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4520: 4516: 4463: 4459: 4422: 4418: 4387:(11): 950–961. 4373: 4366: 4356: 4354: 4344: 4340: 4330: 4328: 4327:on 10 June 2010 4319: 4318: 4309: 4294: 4290: 4255: 4251: 4228:10.2307/2409604 4212: 4208: 4169: 4165: 4130: 4126: 4075: 4071: 4059: 4057: 4048: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4025: 4024: 4020: 4013: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3963: 3953: 3951: 3949:www.science.gov 3943: 3942: 3938: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3805: 3803: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3787:Greenwood Press 3777: 3770: 3761: 3760: 3756: 3727: 3723: 3692: 3688: 3678: 3676: 3668: 3667: 3663: 3616: 3612: 3575:Biology Letters 3567: 3563: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3523: 3519: 3474: 3470: 3427: 3423: 3413: 3411: 3401: 3397: 3387: 3385: 3376: 3375: 3371: 3361: 3359: 3346: 3342: 3332: 3330: 3329:. 25 April 2016 3321: 3320: 3316: 3309: 3293: 3289: 3275: 3273: 3263: 3259: 3206: 3202: 3161: 3157: 3094: 3090: 3027: 3023: 2986: 2979: 2937: 2930: 2881: 2877: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2829: 2825: 2819: 2815: 2809: 2805: 2766: 2762: 2751: 2747: 2740: 2724: 2717: 2710: 2686: 2667: 2632: 2623: 2594: 2587: 2577: 2575: 2566: 2565: 2561: 2530:(6): 991–1001. 2516: 2509: 2456: 2449: 2438: 2434: 2395: 2391: 2344: 2337: 2298:Current Biology 2290: 2286: 2281: 2249: 2150: 2141:Volaticotherids 2105:Thoracopteridae 2101: 2069: 2046:flying-squirrel 2010:Kuehneosauridae 2008:, the Triassic 1976: 1971: 1912:Pseudocheiridae 1713: 1574:, of the genus 1509: 1434: 1326: 1279: 1251:Gliding spiders 1229: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1117:Gliding animals 1081: 1066: 1048: 1031: 1025: 990: 984: 957: 938: 933: 891: 777:bee hummingbird 696: 691: 622: 620: 607: 602: 476: 442: 390: 385: 332: 295: 228: 215: 199:aquatic animals 127:Greylag geese ( 115: 104: 98: 95: 52: 50: 40: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6255: 6245: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6203: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6185: 6178: 6171: 6168:Animal Welfare 6164: 6157: 6149: 6147: 6143: 6142: 6140: 6139: 6134: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6081:Desmond Morris 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6036:Marian Dawkins 6033: 6031:Charles Darwin 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6007: 6005: 6001: 6000: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5913:Human ethology 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5821:Animal culture 5818: 5813: 5808: 5802: 5800: 5796: 5795: 5788: 5787: 5780: 5773: 5765: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5711: 5709: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5650: 5648: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5633:Pterosaur wing 5630: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5603: 5598: 5592: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5547: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5501: 5495: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5479: 5477: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5422:Cephalopod fin 5419: 5413: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5389: 5388: 5381: 5374: 5366: 5360: 5359: 5350: 5344: 5339: 5330: 5318: 5317:External links 5315: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5292:(3): 373–385. 5281: 5261:10.1086/346085 5255:(2): 337–349. 5244: 5226:(2): 155–163. 5211: 5193:(3): 259–260. 5182: 5130: 5093: 5067:(2): 184–214. 5054: 5051: 5048: 5047: 4992: 4940: 4889: 4852:(4): 829–843. 4832: 4810: 4793: 4767: 4748: 4726: 4713: 4693: 4673: 4653: 4633: 4613: 4593: 4573: 4561: 4535: 4514: 4457: 4416: 4364: 4338: 4307: 4302:BBC Earth News 4288: 4269:(4): 750–759. 4249: 4206: 4163: 4144:(4): 571–592. 4124: 4089:(2): 184–214. 4069: 4018: 4011: 3992: 3972: 3961: 3936: 3869: 3860: 3834: 3813: 3791: 3768: 3763:"The news hub" 3754: 3741:(3): 297–299. 3721: 3702:(2): 241–307. 3686: 3661: 3610: 3581:(4): 510–512. 3561: 3546: 3539: 3517: 3468: 3421: 3395: 3369: 3357:Science | AAAS 3340: 3314: 3307: 3287: 3257: 3220:(11): 160398. 3200: 3165:Noyes, John S. 3155: 3088: 3041:(11): e13982. 3021: 2977: 2950:(1): 183–210. 2928: 2875: 2854: 2823: 2813: 2803: 2776:(4): 322–327. 2760: 2745: 2738: 2715: 2708: 2665: 2646:(1): 179–201. 2621: 2608:(1): 114–117. 2585: 2574:on 9 July 2006 2559: 2507: 2447: 2432: 2409:(4): 426–439. 2389: 2335: 2283: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2245: 2244: 2243: 2226: 2203: 2195:Arboroharamiya 2169: 2165:Argentoconodon 2149: 2146: 2134: 2133: 2116:Perleidiformes 2100: 2097: 2096: 2095: 2068: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2051: 2049: 2031: 1986:Weigeltisaurid 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1965: 1960:) is found in 1927: 1910:of the family 1898:Greater glider 1895: 1849: 1827: 1801: 1779: 1751:) and Europe ( 1712: 1709: 1708: 1707: 1666: 1647: 1630: 1617: 1585: 1565: 1558:Southeast Asia 1508: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1494: 1433: 1428: 1406: 1405: 1399: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1380: 1363: 1325: 1322: 1307: 1306: 1293:, such as the 1291:Ommastrephidae 1289:of the family 1278: 1273: 1264: 1263: 1248: 1228: 1223: 1222: 1221: 1198: 1169:dolichoderines 1144: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1065: 1060: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1042: 1027:Main article: 1024: 1019: 1003: 1002: 986:Main article: 983: 978: 969: 968: 956: 951: 937: 934: 932: 931:Flying animals 929: 928: 927: 912: 890: 887: 878: 877: 843:Gyps rueppelli 836: 813: 798: 762:Comparison of 756: 755: 727:Quetzalcoatlus 716:Quetzalcoatlus 695: 692: 690: 687: 678:fling-and-clap 619: 618:Powered flight 616: 606: 603: 601: 598: 544:Nemicolopterus 475: 474: 467: 460: 452: 441: 438: 415:, a family of 409:Southeast Asia 389: 386: 384: 381: 373: 372: 354: 331: 328: 313:, and last in 294: 293:Powered flight 291: 290: 289: 275:Gliding flight 272: 258: 236:kinetic energy 227: 224: 214: 211: 117: 116: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6254: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6222:Animal flight 6220: 6219: 6217: 6202: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6179: 6177: 6176: 6172: 6170: 6169: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6158: 6156: 6155: 6151: 6150: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6129: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6086:Thomas Sebeok 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6076:Konrad Lorenz 6074: 6072: 6071:Julian Huxley 6069: 6067: 6066:Heini Hediger 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6002: 5996: 5995:Zoomusicology 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5928:Neuroethology 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5873: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5836:Anthrozoology 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5786: 5781: 5779: 5774: 5772: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5706: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5585: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5467:Pectoral fins 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5387: 5382: 5380: 5375: 5373: 5368: 5367: 5364: 5358: 5354: 5351: 5349:– Rolf Nagels 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5334: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5136: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5057: 5056: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4944: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4836: 4820: 4814: 4806: 4805: 4797: 4790:(4): 805–823. 4789: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4752: 4737: 4734:Myers, Phil. 4730: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4710:0-17-005168-4 4707: 4703: 4697: 4691: 4690:0 19 550252 3 4687: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4670:0-7249-0017-9 4667: 4663: 4657: 4651: 4650:0-207-12256-3 4647: 4643: 4637: 4631: 4630:0-7022-1478-7 4627: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4610:0-7333-0241-6 4607: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4590:0-7301-0355-2 4587: 4583: 4577: 4570: 4565: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4524: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4420: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4369: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4303: 4299: 4292: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4176: 4167: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4128: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4065: 4052: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4014: 4008: 4004: 4003: 3996: 3990: 3989:0-12-093156-7 3986: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3965: 3950: 3946: 3940: 3932: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3889:(4): e61617. 3888: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3864: 3848: 3844: 3838: 3823: 3817: 3802:. 20 May 2008 3801: 3795: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3775: 3773: 3764: 3758: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3557: 3550: 3542: 3540:0-19-860426-2 3536: 3531: 3530: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3425: 3410: 3409:New Scientist 3406: 3399: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3344: 3328: 3324: 3318: 3310: 3304: 3300: 3299: 3291: 3284: 3272: 3271:New Scientist 3268: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3204: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3176: 3172: 3166: 3159: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2984: 2982: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2940:Wang, Z. Jane 2935: 2933: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2891:(6): 061903. 2890: 2886: 2879: 2864: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2827: 2817: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2764: 2756: 2749: 2741: 2735: 2731: 2730: 2722: 2720: 2711: 2709:9780643104051 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2692: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2616: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2592: 2590: 2573: 2569: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2514: 2512: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2454: 2452: 2443: 2436: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2403:Mammal Review 2400: 2393: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2342: 2340: 2331: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2284: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2241: 2237: 2236: 2235:Eomys quercyi 2231: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2190: 2185: 2184: 2179: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2167: 2166: 2161: 2160:eutriconodont 2157: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2142: 2138: 2131: 2127: 2126: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2110: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2092: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2056: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2028: 2027:Kuehneosaurus 2023: 2022: 2017: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1992: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1978: 1977: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1888: 1887:Gymnobelideus 1883: 1879: 1875: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1850: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1739:Petauristinae 1736: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1729: 1728:flying lemurs 1725: 1721: 1718:are the only 1717: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1640:Thecadactylus 1637: 1636:flying geckos 1635: 1634:Thecadactylus 1631: 1628: 1624: 1623:flying geckos 1622: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1609: 1608:flying geckos 1607: 1600: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1532: 1525: 1524: 1518: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1468: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1450: 1449:Rhacophoridae 1447: 1446: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1432: 1425: 1424: 1420:'s 1869 book 1419: 1415: 1410: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1360:pectoral fins 1357: 1356: 1350: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1319: 1318:pectoral fins 1315: 1311: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1277: 1268: 1262: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1179: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1130: 1111: 1107: 1106: 1105:Changyuraptor 1101: 1097: 1095: 1090: 1086: 1083: 1082: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1056: 1052: 1040: 1036: 1033: 1032: 1030: 1023: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1000: 996: 992: 991: 989: 982: 973: 966: 965:Insect flight 962: 959: 958: 955: 947: 942: 925: 921: 917: 913: 910: 905: 901: 897: 893: 892: 882: 875: 874:Mount Everest 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 854:Anser indicus 852: 848: 847:Côte d'Ivoire 844: 841: 837: 834: 830: 829:birds of prey 826: 822: 818: 814: 811: 807: 803: 799: 796: 795: 790: 789:fairyfly wasp 786: 782: 781:bumblebee bat 778: 774: 770: 769: 765: 760: 752: 751:marabou stork 748: 747:Andean condor 744: 740: 739:great bustard 736: 732: 728: 724: 723: 722:Hatzegopteryx 718: 717: 712: 708: 704: 703: 698: 697: 686: 683: 679: 675: 672: 667: 666:Insect flight 663: 661: 656: 652: 647: 640: 637: 615: 611: 597: 595: 591: 586: 584: 580: 577: 573: 569: 565: 564: 559: 558: 557:Archaeopteryx 552: 548: 546: 545: 539: 535: 533: 529: 525: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 472: 468: 465: 461: 458: 454: 453: 450: 446: 437: 435: 431: 426: 425:South America 422: 418: 414: 410: 405: 403: 399: 395: 380: 378: 370: 366: 362: 358: 355: 352: 351:gossamer silk 348: 344: 341: 340: 339: 337: 327: 325: 320: 317:. Studies on 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 287: 283: 280: 276: 273: 270: 266: 262: 259: 256: 252: 248: 244: 241: 240: 239: 237: 233: 223: 221: 210: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 140: 136: 132: 131: 125: 121: 113: 110: 102: 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: 63: 60: – 59: 55: 54:Find sources: 48: 44: 38: 37: 32:This article 30: 26: 21: 20: 6180: 6173: 6166: 6159: 6152: 6111:E. O. Wilson 6061:Jane Goodall 6021:Donald Broom 5990:Zoosemiotics 5943:Sociobiology 5595: 5289: 5285: 5252: 5248: 5223: 5219: 5190: 5186: 5145: 5141: 5104:(1): 63–72. 5101: 5097: 5064: 5060: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4954: 4950: 4943: 4902: 4898: 4892: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4823:. Retrieved 4813: 4803: 4796: 4787: 4783: 4770: 4761: 4751: 4739:. Retrieved 4729: 4721: 4716: 4701: 4696: 4681: 4676: 4661: 4656: 4641: 4636: 4621: 4616: 4601: 4596: 4581: 4576: 4564: 4552:. Retrieved 4548:the original 4538: 4526:. Retrieved 4517: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4433: 4429: 4419: 4384: 4380: 4355:. 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Retrieved 2857: 2832: 2826: 2816: 2806: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2754: 2748: 2728: 2690: 2643: 2639: 2605: 2601: 2576:. Retrieved 2572:the original 2562: 2527: 2523: 2467: 2463: 2435: 2406: 2402: 2392: 2355: 2351: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2233: 2209:(possibly a 2193: 2189:Maiopatagium 2187: 2181: 2175: 2173:haramiyidans 2163: 2158:. A gliding 2153: 2125:Potanichthys 2123: 2078: 2055:Hypuronector 2053: 2025: 2019: 2013: 2001: 1997: 1988: 1957: 1948:), found in 1945: 1918:is found in 1905: 1901: 1885: 1878:sugar glider 1871: 1842:saki monkeys 1820:sister group 1793: 1786:Anomaluridae 1767:Picea rubens 1766: 1760: 1746: 1714: 1685:of southern 1668: 1660: 1656: 1653:flying gecko 1650: 1644:T. rapicauda 1643: 1639: 1633: 1626: 1620: 1611: 1605: 1596: 1575: 1543: 1530: 1521: 1510: 1500:flying frogs 1491:crabbed turn 1474: 1466: 1459: 1452:flying frogs 1435: 1421: 1394: 1374: 1366:live bearers 1353: 1283:Flying squid 1254: 1245:aeroplankton 1237:money spider 1214:stick insect 1193: 1192:rainforest. 1183: 1176: 1162: 1147:Gliding ants 1137:bristletails 1103: 1099: 1092: 1039:echolocation 1013: 924:gliding ants 902:of about 2. 853: 842: 817:hummingbirds 792: 773:aeroplankton 763: 735:kori bustard 730: 726: 720: 714: 700: 671:leading edge 664: 648: 644: 638: 612: 608: 600:Biomechanics 587: 581: 576:fast-running 561: 555: 549: 542: 536: 530: 526: 479: 430:dipterocarps 421:flying frogs 406: 391: 374: 333: 296: 286:aspect ratio 229: 216: 201:, and a few 193:) where the 145:A number of 144: 128: 120: 105: 99:October 2016 96: 86: 79: 72: 65: 53: 41:Please help 36:verification 33: 6051:Dian Fossey 6016:Marc Bekoff 6004:Ethologists 5628:Insect wing 5578:Webbed foot 5519:unguligrade 5514:plantigrade 5509:digitigrade 5342:Canopy life 4875:11336/68497 4762:LiveScience 4259:Ecnomiohyla 3779:Piper, Ross 3403:Lu, Donna. 3378:"Fillipone" 3276:11 November 2426:10023/20607 2242:of Germany. 2207:metatherian 2177:Vilevolodon 2112:flying fish 1934:Acrobatidae 1907:Petauroides 1882:Biak glider 1798:flying mice 1737:(subfamily 1699:Philippines 1670:Chrysopelea 1621:Lupersaurus 1580:, found in 1562:vertebrates 1548:, found in 1483:banked turn 1345:Exocoetidae 1330:Flying fish 1299:flying fish 1151:Cephalotini 1141:glide ratio 1094:Microraptor 1074:pterosaurs. 988:Bird flight 909:albatrosses 904:Flying fish 900:glide ratio 825:dragonflies 794:Kikiki huna 520:. Finally, 518:vertebrates 457:Pterosauria 455:pterosaur ( 423:) lives in 261:Parachuting 253:or provide 130:Anser anser 6216:Categories 5953:Structures 5948:Stereotypy 5556:Cephalopod 5472:Pelvic fin 5442:Dorsal fin 5437:Caudal fin 4381:BioScience 3954:13 January 3388:30 October 2821:0027-8424. 2279:References 2205:A gliding 2083:a gliding 1962:New Guinea 1938:marsupials 1924:Petaurinae 1864:New Guinea 1856:Petaurinae 1808:Dermoptera 1782:Anomalures 1662:Cosymbotus 1657:Ptychozoon 1651:Cosymbotus 1642:, such as 1627:Ptychozoon 1613:Ptychozoon 1606:Ptychozoon 1431:Amphibians 1336:of flying 1173:myrmicines 1164:Camponotus 1159:Formicinae 1063:Pterosaurs 1055:Pterosaurs 1029:Bat flight 948:in flight. 821:hoverflies 731:Pteranodon 713:pterosaur 711:azhdarchid 702:Pteranodon 594:pterosaurs 538:Pterosaurs 490:pterosaurs 464:Chiroptera 365:ridge lift 347:arthropods 343:Ballooning 309:, next in 307:pterosaurs 305:, then in 265:horizontal 203:amphibians 183:rainforest 167:pterosaurs 69:newspapers 6182:Behaviour 6125:Societies 5963:Honeycomb 5647:Evolution 5606:Bird wing 5551:Arthropod 5544:quadruped 5034:0028-0836 4987:220412294 4935:205259206 4491:0962-8452 4452:0022-2372 4403:1525-3244 4216:Evolution 4158:0952-8369 4111:1573-5184 3913:1932-6203 3504:0022-0949 3455:0022-0949 3187:: 17–44. 3132:0027-8424 3065:1932-6203 2898:1309.2726 2811:31333906. 2660:1543-592X 2546:1557-7023 2484:1742-5689 2358:: e7247. 2240:Oligocene 2215:Paleocene 2211:marsupial 2021:Xianglong 1950:Australia 1920:Australia 1916:marsupial 1860:Australia 1771:nocturnal 1762:Glaucomys 1757:Subarctic 1748:Glaucomys 1675:Melanesia 1550:Sri Lanka 1442:New World 1438:Old World 1371:Halfbeaks 1355:Exocoetus 1202:cockroach 1085:Theropods 961:Pterygota 862:Himalayas 810:tailwinds 791:species, 785:endotherm 707:pterosaur 682:Weis-Fogh 660:Pterosaur 572:ground up 506:mammalian 282:membranes 226:Unpowered 159:evolution 6227:Ethology 6201:Category 6146:Journals 5973:Instinct 5923:Learning 5918:Instinct 5893:Ethogram 5876:Grooming 5799:Branches 5792:Ethology 5638:Wingspan 5621:feathers 5616:skeleton 5601:Bat wing 5561:Tetrapod 5447:Fish fin 5327:Mongabay 5277:29494470 5269:12675377 5240:49552361 5170:12540892 5126:11856131 5089:34720887 4927:28792929 4884:85069761 4741:15 April 4509:18252673 4411:55719726 4283:20233879 4244:28564439 4201:11683437 4119:34720887 4051:cite web 3931:23613883 3883:PLOS ONE 3827:15 April 3781:(2007), 3716:85088231 3679:15 April 3674:Newswise 3648:15703745 3605:19324632 3512:25788722 3463:11683437 3252:28018618 3167:(2013). 3150:30420511 3083:21085624 3035:PLOS ONE 3016:14581590 2972:18931425 2923:55341336 2868:15 April 2849:84015350 2798:19849219 2790:29169955 2578:15 April 2554:21719434 2502:23256188 2384:31333906 2330:32763170 2247:See also 2230:Eomyidae 2219:Itaboraí 2183:Xianshou 2120:Ladinian 2109:Triassic 2038:Triassic 1974:Reptiles 1932:(family 1880:and the 1873:Petaurus 1816:primates 1776:patagium 1743:squirrel 1703:Sulawesi 1691:Malaysia 1687:Thailand 1577:Holaspis 1572:lacertid 1520:Gliding 1507:Reptiles 1276:Molluscs 1256:Selenops 1218:true bug 1190:Peruvian 1161:(mostly 1089:dinosaur 1071:patagium 858:migrates 856:, which 779:and the 749:and the 737:and the 568:arboreal 500:, after 434:patagium 361:thermals 336:thermals 319:theropod 297:Powered 279:aerofoil 207:reptiles 137:powered 5903:Feeding 5708:Related 5566:dactyly 5452:Flipper 5306:1909482 5207:1440407 5178:1160118 5150:Bibcode 5106:Bibcode 5069:Bibcode 5042:4326465 5014:Bibcode 4979:4524139 4959:Bibcode 4907:Bibcode 4854:Bibcode 4825:5 March 4554:5 March 4528:5 March 4500:2600906 4357:5 March 4236:2409604 4091:Bibcode 4041:5 March 3922:3629028 3891:Bibcode 3853:5 March 3806:5 March 3656:4368995 3628:Bibcode 3596:2781901 3243:5180116 3222:Bibcode 3141:6275539 3110:Bibcode 3074:2981443 3043:Bibcode 2952:Bibcode 2903:Bibcode 2493:3565731 2375:6626525 2200:colugos 2148:Mammals 2060:patagia 1969:Extinct 1914:. 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