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South Africa, Sasol operated 16 advanced reactors of this type with a capacity of approximately 330,000 tons per annum each. The circulating catalyst process can be replaced by fluid-bed technology. Early experiments with cobalt catalyst particles suspended in oil have been performed by
Fischer. The bubble column reactor with a powdered iron slurry catalyst and a CO-rich syngas was particularly developed to pilot plant scale by Kölbel at the Rheinpreuben Company in 1953. Since 1990, low-temperature FT slurry processes are under investigation for the use of iron and cobalt catalysts, particularly for the production of a hydrocarbon wax, or to be hydrocracked and isomerized to produce diesel fuel, by Exxon and Sasol. Slurry-phase (bubble column) low-temperature FT synthesis is efficient. This technology is also under development by the Statoil Company (Norway) for use on a vessel to convert associated gas at offshore oil fields into a hydrocarbon liquid.
1397:
Gazprom LLC. In 2014 INFRA commissioned and operated on a continuous basis a new, larger scale full cycle Pilot Plant. It represents the second generation of INFRA's testing facility and is differentiated by a high degree of automation and extensive data gathering system. In 2015, INFRA built its own catalyst factory in
Troitsk (Moscow, Russia). The catalyst factory has a capacity of over 15 tons per year, and produces the unique proprietary Fischer–Tropsch catalysts developed by the company's R&D division. In 2016, INFRA designed and built a modular, transportable GTL (gas-to-liquid) M100 plant for processing natural and associated gas into synthetic crude oil in Wharton (Texas, USA). The M100 plant is operating as a technology demonstration unit, R&D platform for catalyst refinement, and economic model to scale the Infra GTL process into larger and more efficient plants.
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1946–50 and named the 'Hydrocol' process. A large scale
Fischer–Tropsch Hydrocol plant (350,000 tons per annum) operated during 1951–57 in Brownsville, Texas. Due to technical problems, and impractical economics due to increasing petroleum availability, this development was discontinued. Fluid-bed FT synthesis has been reinvestigated by Sasol. One reactor with a capacity of 500,000 tons per annum is in operation. The process has been used for C
1557:
114:
981:. Promoters are additives that enhance the behavior of the catalyst. For F-T catalysts, typical promoters including potassium and copper, which are usually added as salts. The choice of promoters depends on the primary metal, iron vs cobalt. Iron catalysts need alkali promotion to attain high activity and stability (e.g. 0.5 wt%
950:
analysis. Its high price preclude industrial applications. Cobalt catalysts are more active for FT synthesis when the feedstock is natural gas. Natural gas has a high hydrogen to carbon ratio, so the water-gas shift is not needed for cobalt catalysts. Cobalt-based catalysts are more sensitive than their iron counterparts.
1338:
Starting as a biomass technology licensor In Summer of 2012 SGC Energia (SGCE) successfully commissioned a pilot multi tubular
Fischer–Tropsch process unit and associated product upgrading units at the Pasadena, Tx Technology Center. The technology center focused on the development and operations of
916:
for the
Fischer–Tropsch process: iron, cobalt, nickel, and ruthenium. Since FT process typically transforms inexpensive precursors into complex mixtures that require further refining, FT catalysts are based on inexpensive metals, especially iron and cobalt. Nickel generates too much methane, so it is
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This type of reactor contains several tubes with small diameters. These tubes contain catalysts and are surrounded by cooling water which removes the heat of the reaction. A fixed-bed reactor is suitable for operation at low temperatures and has an upper-temperature limit of 257 °C (530 K).
804:
These are used for high-temperature FT synthesis (nearly 340 °C) to produce low-molecular-weight unsaturated hydrocarbons on alkalized fused iron catalysts. The fluid-bed technology (as adapted from the catalytic cracking of heavy petroleum distillates) was introduced by
Hydrocarbon Research in
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and
Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program is to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other aircraft. The test program concluded in 2007. This program is part of
1458:. Syntroleum is working to commercialize its licensed Fischer–Tropsch technology via coal-to-liquid plants in the United States, China, and Germany, as well as gas-to-liquid plants internationally. Using natural gas as a feedstock, the ultra-clean, low sulfur fuel has been tested extensively by the
813:
alkene production. A high-temperature process with a circulating iron catalyst ('circulating fluid bed', 'riser reactor', 'entrained catalyst process') was introduced by the
Kellogg Company and a respective plant built at Sasol in 1956. It was improved by Sasol for successful operation. At Secunda,
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This type of reactor contains two banks of heat exchangers which remove heat; the remainder of which is removed by the products and recycled in the system. The formation of heavy waxes should be avoided, since they condense on the catalyst and form agglomerations. This leads to fluidization. Hence,
726:
Generally, the
Fischer–Tropsch process is operated in the temperature range of 150–300 °C (302–572 °F). Higher temperatures lead to faster reactions and higher conversion rates but also tend to favor methane production. For this reason, the temperature is usually maintained at the low to
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or with the feedstock to be treated, i.e., the catalysts are generated in situ. Owing to the multistep nature of the FT process, analysis of the catalytically active species is challenging. Furthermore, as is known for iron catalysts, a number of phases may coexist and may participate in diverse
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for conversion of natural gas into synthetic oil. The plant modeled the full cycle of the GTL chemical process including the intake of pipeline gas, sulfur removal, steam methane reforming, syngas conditioning, and
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. In 2013 the first pilot plant was acquired by VNIIGAZ
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is the most active of the Fischer–Tropsch catalysts in the sense that It works at the lowest reaction temperatures and produces higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. Ruthenium catalysts consist of the metal, without any promoters, thus providing relatively simple system suitable for mechanistic
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Construction is underway for Velocys' commercial reference plant incorporating its microchannel Fischer–Tropsch technology; ENVIA Energy's Oklahoma City GTL project being built adjacent to Waste Management's East Oak landfill site. The project is being financed by a joint venture between Waste
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increases the formation of long-chained hydrocarbons. The very long-chained hydrocarbons are waxes, which are solid at room temperature. Therefore, for production of liquid transportation fuels it may be necessary to crack some of the FT products. In order to avoid this, some researchers have
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Heat removal is done by internal cooling coils. The synthesis gas is bubbled through the waxy products and finely-divided catalyst which is suspended in the liquid medium. This also provides agitation of the contents of the reactor. The catalyst particle size reduces diffusional heat and mass
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A demonstration-scale Fischer–Tropsch plant was built and operated by Rentech, Inc., in partnership with ClearFuels, a company specializing in biomass gasification. Located in Commerce City, Colorado, the facility produces about 10 barrels per day (1.6 m/d) of fuels from natural gas.
1466:. Syntroleum has worked to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help the Air Force to reduce its dependence on imported petroleum. The Air Force, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a
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for structural promotion and maybe some manganese can be applied for selectivity control (e.g. high olefinicity). The choice of promoters depends on the primary metal, i.e., iron vs cobalt. While group 1 alkali metals (e.g., potassium), help iron catalysts, they poison cobalt catalysts.
1275:, a country with large coal reserves, but little oil. With a capacity of 165000 Bpd at its Secunda plant. The first commercial plant opened in 1952. Sasol uses coal and natural gas as feedstocks and produces a variety of synthetic petroleum products, including most of the country's
731:, both of which are desirable. Typical pressures range from one to several tens of atmospheres. Even higher pressures would be favorable, but the benefits may not justify the additional costs of high-pressure equipment, and higher pressures can lead to catalyst deactivation via
1290:, another South African company, operates a refinery with a 36,000 barrels a day plant that completed semi-commercial demonstration in 2011, paving the way to begin commercial preparation. The technology can be used to convert natural gas, biomass or coal into synthetic fuels.
231:
products is a multi-step reaction with several intermediate compounds. The growth of the hydrocarbon chain may be visualized as involving a repeated sequence in which hydrogen atoms are added to carbon and oxygen, the C–O bond is split and a new C–C bond is formed. For one
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Carbon dioxide is not a typical feedstock for FT catalysis. Hydrogen and carbon dioxide react over a cobalt-based catalyst, producing methane. With iron-based catalysts unsaturated short-chain hydrocarbons are also produced. Upon introduction to the catalyst's support,
82:. This process has received intermittent attention as a source of low-sulfur diesel fuel and to address the supply or cost of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons. Fischer–Tropsch process is discussed as a step of producing carbon-neutral liquid hydrocarbon fuels from CO
1233:
Another plant in Ras Laffan, called Oryx GTL, has been commissioned in 2007 with a capacity of 34,000 barrels per day (5,400 m/d). The plant utilizes the Sasol slurry phase distillate process, which uses a cobalt catalyst. Oryx GTL is a joint venture between
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In the United States and India, some coal-producing states have invested in Fischer–Tropsch plants. In Pennsylvania, Waste Management and Processors, Inc. was funded by the state to implement FT technology licensed from Shell and Sasol to convert so-called
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transfer limitations. A lower temperature in the reactor leads to a more viscous product and a higher temperature (> 297 °C, 570 K) gives an undesirable product spectrum. Also, separation of the product from the catalyst is a problem.
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Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016.
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their XTLH solution which optimized processing of low value carbon waste streams into advanced fuels and wax products. This unit also serves as an operations training environment for the 1100 BPD Juniper GTL facility constructed in Westlake, LA.
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margarine made from synthetic oils was found to be nutritious and of agreeable taste, and it was incorporated into diets contributing as much as 700 calories per day. The process required at least 60 kg of coal per kg of synthetic butter.
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Using conventional FT technology the process ranges in carbon efficiency from 25 to 50 percent and a thermal efficiency of about 50% for CTL facilities idealised at 60% with GTL facilities at about 60% efficiency idealised to 80% efficiency.
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Balonek, Christine M.; Lillebø, Andreas H.; Rane, Shreyas; Rytter, Erling; Schmidt, Lanny D.; Holmen, Anders (2010-08-01). "Effect of Alkali Metal Impurities on Co–Re Catalysts for Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis from Biomass-Derived Syngas".
508:(GTL) technology, the hydrocarbons are low molecular weight materials that often would be discarded or flared. Stranded gas provides relatively cheap gas. For GTL to be commercially viable, gas must remain relatively cheaper than oil.
1102:(replacement) fuels. FT production accounted for an estimated 9% of German war production of fuels and 25% of the automobile fuel. Many refinements and adjustments have been made to the process since Fischer and Tropsch's time.
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Excess temperature leads to carbon deposition and hence blockage of the reactor. Since large amounts of the products formed are in liquid state, this type of reactor can also be referred to as a trickle flow reactor system.
1951:
Fratalocchi, Laura; Visconti, Carlo Giorgio; Groppi, Gianpiero; Lietti, Luca; Tronconi, Enrico (2018). "Intensifying heat transfer in Fischer-Tropsch tubular reactors through the adoption of conductive packed foams".
1454:, a publicly traded United States company, has produced over 400,000 U.S. gallons (1,500,000 L) of diesel and jet fuel from the Fischer–Tropsch process using natural gas and coal at its demonstration plant near
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Davis, S.J., Lewis, N.S., Shaner, M., Aggarwal, S., Arent, D., Azevedo, I.L., Benson, S.M., Bradley, T., Brouwer, J., Chiang, Y.M. and Clack, C.T., 2018. Net-zero emissions energy systems. Science, 360(6396),
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catalysts at 230 °C, converting natural gas to petroleum liquids at a rate of 140,000 barrels per day (22,000 m/d), with additional production of 120,000 barrels (19,000 m) of oil equivalent in
883:
is the chain growth probability or the probability that a molecule will continue reacting to form a longer chain. In general, α is largely determined by the catalyst and the specific process conditions.
458:
2216:
Khodakov, Andrei Y.; Chu, Wei; Fongarland, Pascal (2007-05-01). "Advances in the Development of Novel Cobalt Fischer−Tropsch Catalysts for Synthesis of Long-Chain Hydrocarbons and Clean Fuels".
351:
Addition of isotopically labelled alcohol to the feed stream results in incorporation of alcohols into product. This observation establishes the facility of C–O bond scission. Using C-labelled
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plants (CTL). Low-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT) uses an iron- or cobalt-based catalyst. This process is best known for being used in the first integrated GTL-plant operated and built by
616:
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functions as a reverse water-gas shift catalyst, further increasing the yield of the reaction. The short-chain hydrocarbons were upgraded to liquid fuels over solid acid catalysts, such as
953:
Illustrative of real world catalyst selection, high-temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT), which operates at 330–350 °C, uses an iron-based catalyst. This process was used extensively by
904: < 10). This way they can drive the reaction so as to minimize methane formation without producing many long-chained hydrocarbons. Such efforts have had only limited success.
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over cobalt catalysts results in incorporation of these olefins into the growing chain. Chain growth reaction thus appears to involve both 'olefin insertion' as well as 'CO-insertion'.
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47:, typically at temperatures of 150–300 °C (302–572 °F) and pressures of one to several tens of atmospheres. The Fischer–Tropsch process is an important reaction in both
762:
Efficient removal of heat from the reactor is the basic need of FT reactors since these reactions are characterized by high exothermicity. Four types of reactors are discussed:
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2813:
496:, depending upon the energy source of the gasification process. However, most coal-based plants rely on the feed coal to supply all the energy requirements of the process.
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of the metals. Control of these constituents may be relevant to product distributions. Aside from iron and cobalt, nickel and ruthenium are active for converting the CO/H
900:
proposed using zeolites or other catalyst substrates with fixed sized pores that can restrict the formation of hydrocarbons longer than some characteristic size (usually
3195:
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Zamorano, Marti (2006-12-22). "B-52 synthetic fuel testing: Center commander pilots first Air Force B-52 flight using solely synthetic fuel blend in all eight engines".
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announced its plans to produce biodiesel by the Fischer–Tropsch process alongside the manufacturing processes at its European paper and pulp plants, using waste
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3526:
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2146:"Preliminary Screening — Technical and Economic Assessment of Synthesis Gas to Fuels and Chemicals with Emphasis on the Potential for Biomass-Derived Syngas"
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that converts biomass to syngas and fuels using the Shell FT process structure. The company went bankrupt in 2011 due to impracticalities in the process.
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Deutschmann, Olaf; Knözinger, Helmut; Kochloefl, Karl; Turek, Thomas (2011). "Heterogeneous Catalysis and Solid Catalysts, 3. Industrial Applications".
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Around the 1930s and 1940s, Arthur Imhausen developed and implemented an industrial process for producing edible fats from these synthetic oils through
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Unruh, Dominik; Pabst, Kyra; Schaub, Georg (2010-04-15). "Fischer−Tropsch Synfuels from Biomass: Maximizing Carbon Efficiency and Hydrocarbon Yield".
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Pearce, Ben K. D.; Pudritz, Ralph E. (2015). "Seeding the Pregenetic Earth: Meteoritic Abundances of Nucleobases and Potential Reaction Pathways".
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Inderwildi, Oliver R.; Jenkins, Stephen J.; King, David A. (2008). "Mechanistic Studies of Hydrocarbon Combustion and Synthesis on Noble Metals".
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close to one, the total amount of methane formed can be minimized compared to the sum of all of the various long-chained products. Increasing
340:(CH), and hydroxymethylidyne (COH). Furthermore, and critical to the production of liquid fuels, are reactions that form C–C bonds, such as
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The Fischer–Tropsch process involves a series of chemical reactions that produce a variety of hydrocarbons, ideally having the formula (C
1834:
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1384:. Rentech closed down their pilot plant in 2013, and abandoned work on their FT process as well as the proposed commercial facilities.
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98:
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2338:"Chemical State of Potassium on the Surface of Iron Oxides: Effects of Potassium Precursor Concentration and Calcination Temperature"
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middle part of the range. Increasing the pressure leads to higher conversion rates and also favors the formation of long-chained
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are synthesized under variable calcination temperatures (400–800 °C). Addition of Cu for reduction promotion, addition of
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or coal or related solid feedstocks (sources of carbon) must first convert the solid fuel into gases. These gases include CO, H
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are obtained through precipitation from iron nitrate solutions. Such solutions can be used to deposit the metal salt onto the
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catalyst. This reactivity can be important for synthesis gas derived from coal or biomass, which tend to have relatively low H
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1626: – Chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and another compound or element, a generic term for this type of process
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300:) of C–O bonds, and the formation of C–C bonds. Such reactions are assumed to proceed via initial formation of surface-bound
2490:"Improvements in or relating to Methods of Producing Hydrocarbon Oils from Gaseous Mixtures of Hydrogen and Carbon Monoxide"
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Imhausen, Arthur (1943). "Die Fettsäure-Synthese und ihre Bedeutung für die Sicherung der deutschen Fettversorgung".
1935:
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is a molecule that illustrates the kind of reduced carbon species speculated to occur in the Fischer–Tropsch process.
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In addition to the active metal (usually Fe or Co), two other components comprise the catalyst: promoters and the
317:
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Leckel, Dieter (2009-05-21). "Diesel Production from Fischer−Tropsch: The Past, the Present, and New Concepts".
1428:(BG) and Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis can in principle be combined to produce renewable transportation fuels (
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Dorner, Robert; Dennis R. Hardy; Frederick W. Williams; Heather D. Willauer (2010). "Heterogeneous catalytic CO
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Kaneko, Takao; Derbyshire, Frank; Makino, Eiichiro; Gray, David; Tamura, Masaaki (2001). "Coal Liquefaction".
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3056:"Audi steps up research into carbon-neutral synthetic fuels with new e-diesel pilot plant; power-to-liquids"
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Examination of the above equation reveals that methane will always be the largest single product so long as
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1217:, Qatar, is the second largest FT plant in the world after Sasol's Secunda plant in South Africa. It uses
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The world's largest scale implementation of Fischer–Tropsch technology is a series of plants operated by
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In general the product distribution of hydrocarbons formed during the Fischer–Tropsch process follows an
484:("syngas") is obtained from biomass/coal gasification is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The H
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A Fischer–Tropsch-type process has also been suggested to have produced a few of the building blocks of
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In the usual implementation, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the feedstocks for FT, are produced from
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Management, NRG Energy, Ventech and Velocys. The feedstock for this plant will be a combination of
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742::CO ratio is around 1.8–2.1. Iron-based catalysts can tolerate lower ratios, due to the intrinsic
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2983:"Fairley, Peter. Growing Biofuels – New production methods could transform the niche technology.
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Hoque, Md Ariful; Guzman, Marcelo I.; Selegue, John P.; Gnanamani, Muthu Kumaran (2022-10-21).
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A variety of synthesis-gas compositions can be used. For cobalt-based catalysts the optimal H
1617: – standardized laboratory test for determining the oil yield from a conventional shale
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928:(see below). Such treated materials transform into active catalysts by heating under CO, H
8:
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2814:"Frontline Bioenergy completes Series B financing, gasifier partnership with SGC Energia"
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in Germany in 1936. Being petroleum-poor but coal-rich, Germany used the process during
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2005:
Gates, Bruce C. (February 1993). "Extending the Metal Cluster-Metal Surface Analogy".
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1794:"Single-Step Production of Alcohols and Paraffins from CO2 and H2 at Metric Ton Scale"
1142:. The products were fractionally distilled and the edible fats were obtained from the
192:= 1) is unwanted. Most of the alkanes produced tend to be straight-chain, suitable as
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Chemical reactions that convert carbon monoxide and hydrogen into liquid hydrocarbons
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Schulz, H. (1999). "Short history and Present Trends of Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis".
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for improvements to the process in the 1930s and 1940s. Aicher's company was named
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2936:"Governor Rendell leads with innovative solution to help address PA energy needs"
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1659: – Method for producing hydrogen and carbon monoxide from hydrocarbon fuels
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Several reactions are required to obtain the gaseous reactants required for FT
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Unconventional ideas about unconventional gas (Society of Petroleum Engineers)
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1602: – method of production of liquid hydrocarbons for use as synthetic fuel
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348:, but homogeneous Fischer–Tropsch catalysts are of no commercial importance.
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196:. In addition to alkane formation, competing reactions give small amounts of
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2018:
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Höök, Mikael; Fantazzini, Dean; Angelantoni, André; Snowden, Simon (2013).
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Biological Fischer-Tropsch-type chemistry can be carried out by the enzyme
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resulting from paper and pulp manufacturing processes as source material.
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and food-grade wax. The scale is 12,000 barrels per day (1,900 m/d).
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2789:""Setting the stage for the future of smaller-scale GTL", Gas Processing"
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40:
2680:"Success factors for the commercialisation of Gas-to-Liquids technology"
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Moulijn, Jacob A.; Makkee, Michiel; van Diepen, Annelies E. (May 2013).
344:. Many related stoichiometric reactions have been simulated on discrete
218:
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3619:
2695:
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Carl Mesters (2016). "A Selection of Recent Advances in C1 Chemistry".
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2362:
2064:"Carbon Neutral Fuels and Chemicals from Standalone Biomass Refineries"
1694:"Hydrocarbon liquefaction: viability as a peak oil mitigation strategy"
1475:
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One of the largest implementations of Fischer–Tropsch technology is in
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Max Planck Institute for Coal Research at Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany.
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2764:"PetroSA technology ready for next stage | Archive | BDlive"
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to produce liquid hydrocarbons. The original process was developed by
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Catalysts are supported on high-surface-area binders/supports such as
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102:
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3814:
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3117:"Catalytic Support for use in Carbon Dioxide Hydrogenation Reactions"
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For example, British Patent No. 573,982, applied 1941, published 1945
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512:
24:
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Bibliography of the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis and Related Processes
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Bibliography of the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis and Related Processes
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2155:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. p. 95. Archived from
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Carbon monoxide for FT catalysis is derived from hydrocarbons. In
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1835:"Mission Net-Zero: Charting the Path for E-fuels in the Military"
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1410:(leftovers from the mining process) into low-sulfur diesel fuel.
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1287:
1255:
1039:
966:
934:
622:
469:
356:
309:
197:
1691:
757:
3850:
3782:
3698:
3644:
2954:"Schweitzer wants to convert Otter Creek coal into liquid fuel"
1950:
1886:
Dry, Mark E. (2002). "The Fischer–Tropsch process: 1950–2000".
1538:
formation requires some naturally occurring FT-like processes.
1311:
1227:
1218:
1128:
1098:
1089:
1035:
728:
325:
308:
is speculated to undergo dissociation, possibly into oxide and
305:
139:
36:
933:
steps in the reaction. Such phases include various oxides and
3824:
3767:
3757:
3710:
2880:
2864:"UPM-Kymmene says to establish beachhead in biodiesel market"
2839:"Successful Operation of a 1 BPD Fischer Tropsch Pilot Plant"
1498:
1268:
1262:
1239:
954:
113:
3567:
1753:"U.S. Product Supplied for Crude Oil and Petroleum Products"
3792:
3762:
3522:
Gas origin theories to be studied (AAPG Explorer Nov. 2002)
3233:
2335:
1653: – Methanation process of carbon dioxide with hydrogen
1479:
1467:
1436:
747:
59:
3352:
Lee, Chi Chung; Hu, Yilin; Ribbe, Markus W. (2010-08-06).
1917:
3772:
1792:
Chen, Chi; Garedew, Mahlet; Sheehan, Stafford W. (2022).
1527:
1523:
1088:, applied 1926, published 1930. It was commercialized by
704:
674:
658:
604:
588:
563:
443:
423:
410:
394:
2289:
1443:
in small scale with two steps, the second one being FT.
453:{\displaystyle {\ce {8 CO + 17 H2 -> C8H18 + 8 H2O}}}
3552:
Implementing the "Hydrogen Economy" with Synfuels (pdf)
2677:
2118:
1661:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1135:(not related to a company of the same name in Canada).
519:. Otherwise, sulfur-containing impurities deactivate ("
2645:
Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
1638: – Gaseous materials produced for use in industry
1478:
for the first time powered solely by a 50–50 blend of
3441:
Catalysis in the refining of Fischer–Tropsch syncrude
3011:
2215:
646:
551:
368:
219:
Fischer–Tropsch intermediates and elemental reactions
1670:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1646:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1619:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1604:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1552:
1293:
492:. Coal-based FT plants produce varying amounts of CO
312:
ligands. Other potential intermediates are various C
3488:
3477:
3295:Gerlach, Deidra L.; Lehnert, Nicolai (2011-08-22).
1194:, Burgenland, Austria. Operated by SGCE and Velocys
799:
Fluid-bed and circulating catalyst (riser) reactors
515:. First, reactant gases entering a reactor must be
3489:Anderson, H. C.; Wiley, J. L.; Newell, A. (1955).
3478:Anderson, H. C.; Wiley, J. L.; Newell, A. (1954).
2956:. Billings Gazette. August 2, 2005. Archived from
2007:Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English
1791:
1673:Pages displaying short descriptions with no spaces
1127:In Britain, Alfred August Aicher obtained several
1062:The F-T process attracted attention as a means of
875:is the weight fraction of hydrocarbons containing
783:risers are operated over 297 °C (570 K).
765:
710:
610:
452:
2708:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1848:Arno de Klerk (2013). "Fischer–Tropsch Process".
1698:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
711:{\displaystyle {\ce {CH4 + CO2 -> 2CO + 2H2}}}
43:. These reactions occur in the presence of metal
4068:
3439:de Klerk, Arno; Furimsky, Edward (15 Dec 2010).
3438:
3297:"Fischer–Tropsch Chemistry at Room Temperature?"
3140:
3930:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels
2723:"Construction of World's First Synthesis Plant"
1944:
1850:Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
1632: – One of the primary theories on peak oil
1446:
611:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O + CO -> H2 + CO2}}}
3517:Abiogenic gas debate (AAPG Explorer Nov. 2002)
3424:(1st ed.). Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH.
3294:
3190:
3188:
2182:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1920:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
530:Several reactions are employed to adjust the H
281:Transfer of 2 H to the carbon to yield CH
188:is typically 10–20. The formation of methane (
55:technology for producing liquid hydrocarbons.
3583:
3239:
3176:
3174:
2285:
2283:
2144:Spath, P. L.; Dayton, D. C. (December 2003).
1847:
1832:
1644: – low temperature carbonization process
1368:Commercial-scale facilities were planned for
945:mixture to hydrocarbons. Although expensive,
758:Design of the Fischer–Tropsch process reactor
267:Transfer of 2 H to the oxygen to yield H
74:. The process then converts these gases into
2684:South African Journal of Business Management
2642:
1837:. NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence.
1517:
118:Methylidynetricobaltnonacarbonyl
3563:Effect of alkali metals on cobalt catalysts
3533:Process of synthesis of liquid hydrocarbons
3512:Fischer–Tropsch fuels from coal and biomass
3185:
2603:. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. pp. 78–79.
2568:
2566:
2211:
2209:
2143:
463:
3590:
3576:
3351:
3171:
2280:
2030:
2028:
1464:United States Department of Transportation
633:, which converts the methane into CO and H
320:, hydroxycarbene (HCOH), hydroxymethyl (CH
99:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research
3935:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
3393:
3320:
3255:
3088:conversion to value-added hydrocarbons".
2420:
2418:
2379:
2361:
2071:Indian Journal of Environment Engineering
1973:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1809:
1717:
1170:such as that synthesized from propylene.
1120:scientists in a Fischer–Tropsch plant in
1078:in 1926. They filed a number of patents,
972:
891:is less than 0.5; however, by increasing
776:
693:
683:
476:, and alkanes. This conversion is called
432:
383:
373:
288:The conversion of CO to alkanes involves
3419:
3180:
3068:
2735:, February 1952, p. 264, bottom of page.
2678:Meleloe K.E.; Walwyn D.R. (2016-09-01).
2657:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-080615-034616
2621:
2585:
2563:
2554:
2548:
2519:
2513:
2206:
2061:
1413:
1249:
1182:
1053:
112:
3301:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
3014:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
2938:. State of Pennsylvania. Archived from
2062:Sasidhar, Nallapaneni (November 2023).
2025:
1491:
1418:Choren Industries has built a plant in
1387:
818:
468:Fischer–Tropsch plants associated with
4069:
3225:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2559:. Dover Publications Inc. p. 256.
2424:
2415:
2034:
1906:
1852:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1–20.
1833:Trakimavicius, Lukas (December 2023).
1611: – Production of syngas from coal
3571:
2591:
2004:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1508:
1392:In 2010, INFRA built a compact Pilot
1076:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut for Chemistry
721:
138:). The more useful reactions produce
108:
4003:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
3062:
2745:"technologies & processes" Sasol
2627:
1198:
1178:
248:O, several reactions are necessary:
2993:from the original on August 9, 2020
2630:The Development of Modern Chemistry
2463:"German Synthetic Fuels Scientists"
1885:
1685:
542:at the expense of carbon monoxide:
204:and other oxygenated hydrocarbons.
89:The process was first developed by
13:
3536:– Great Britain patent GB309002 –
3413:
3114:
2866:. NewsRoom Finland. Archived from
2636:
2573:"Synthetic Soap and Edible Fats".
2495:. January 14, 1941. Archived from
2268:from the original on 16 April 2015
1874:
1460:United States Department of Energy
825:Anderson–Schulz–Flory distribution
787:
499:
14:
4138:
3500:
3354:"Vanadium Nitrogenase Reduces CO"
2766:. Businessday.co.za. 2011-05-10.
2262:"Gas to Liquids (GTL) Technology"
1294:Shell middle distillate synthesis
1166:fraction which were reacted with
534::CO ratio. Most important is the
236:– group produced by CO + 2 H
215:(ΔH) of −165 kJ/mol CO combined.
4051:
4050:
2632:. Harper & Row. p. 683.
1583:
1569:
1555:
1342:
1109:, in a program initiated by the
629:, another important reaction is
488::CO ratio is adjusted using the
3345:
3288:
3134:
3123:from the original on 2014-09-11
3108:
3077:
3048:
3005:
2975:
2964:
2946:
2928:
2917:from the original on 2018-08-21
2908:Vol. 14, No. 4 – 2017 Pgs 14-17
2893:
2874:
2856:
2845:from the original on 2022-01-03
2831:
2820:from the original on 2022-01-03
2806:
2795:from the original on 2015-09-09
2781:
2770:from the original on 2012-04-03
2756:
2738:
2716:
2671:
2610:from the original on 2020-11-01
2481:
2455:
2396:
2329:
2254:
2173:
2137:
2112:
2055:
1998:
1858:10.1002/0471238961.fiscdekl.a01
1734:from the original on 2019-03-28
766:Multi tubular fixed-bed reactor
1841:
1826:
1785:
1775:
1745:
1666:Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program
1534:. Similarly, the hypothetical
1190:gasification with FT-pilot in
677:
575:
397:
1:
3597:
2049:10.1016/S0926-860X(99)00160-X
1900:10.1016/S0920-5861(01)00453-9
1811:10.1021/acsenergylett.2c00214
1679:
1435:In partnership with Sunfire,
1107:United States Bureau of Mines
827:, which can be expressed as:
538:, which provides a source of
2037:Applied Catalysis A: General
1954:Chemical Engineering Journal
1447:U.S. Air Force certification
1351:paper and pulp manufacturer
907:
252:Associative adsorption of CO
7:
4102:Synthetic fuel technologies
4033:Issues relating to biofuels
4023:Energy return on investment
2555:Whitmore, Frank C. (1951).
2123:. Wiley. pp. 193–200.
2121:Chemical Process Technology
1548:
527:required for FT reactions.
27:that converts a mixture of
10:
4143:
3558:Carbon-to-liquids research
3445:Royal Society of Chemistry
3274:10.1088/0004-637X/807/1/85
2881:http://www.rentechinc.com/
2592:Maier, Elke (April 2016).
2083:10.54105/ijee.B1845.113223
1362:
1330:and pipeline natural gas.
1320:
1282:
1260:
1202:
1111:Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act
1049:
912:Four metals are active as
754::CO ratios (< 1).
4046:
4008:Energy content of biofuel
3990:
3922:
3838:
3729:
3605:
3243:The Astrophysical Journal
2307:10.1007/s10562-010-0366-4
1966:10.1016/j.cej.2018.05.108
1518:Fischer–Tropsch in nature
255:Splitting of the C–O bond
223:Converting a mixture of H
207:The reaction is a highly
76:synthetic lubrication oil
4092:Organometallic chemistry
3982:Thermal depolymerization
3955:Industrial biotechnology
3507:Fischer–Tropsch archives
3422:Fischer–Tropsch refining
3071:Aerotech News and Review
2972:Choren official web site
2190:10.1002/14356007.o05_o03
1928:10.1002/14356007.a07_197
1400:
1245:
744:water-gas shift reaction
536:water-gas shift reaction
490:water-gas shift reaction
464:Feedstocks: gasification
23:(FT) is a collection of
4122:Organic redox reactions
3950:Fischer–Tropsch process
3940:Biomass heating systems
3420:de Klerk, Arno (2011).
3378:10.1126/science.1191455
2628:Ihde, Aaron J. (1964).
2406:, issued 1930-02-11
1922:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
1657:Steam methane reforming
1577:Renewable energy portal
1545:at ambient conditions.
1333:
989:). Potassium-doped α-Fe
922:heterogeneous catalysts
621:For FT plants that use
259:Dissociative adsorption
21:Fischer–Tropsch process
3544:Clean diesel from coal
3313:10.1002/anie.201102979
3026:10.1002/anie.200800685
2698:(inactive 2024-09-12).
2019:10.1002/anie.199302281
1719:10.1098/rsta.2012.0319
1472:Edwards Air Force Base
1258:
1195:
1059:
973:Promoters and supports
777:Entrained flow reactor
712:
612:
454:
121:
70:in a process known as
3453:10.1039/9781849732017
2985:MIT Technology Review
2841:. AICHE. April 2013.
2594:"Coal-in Liquid Form"
1485:Department of Defense
1414:Research developments
1378:Port St. Joe, Florida
1253:
1186:
1085:U.S. patent 1,746,464
1057:
713:
613:
455:
116:
4097:Petroleum production
2901:"GEO ExPro magazine"
2502:on December 17, 2008
2469:on 24 September 2015
1492:Carbon dioxide reuse
1426:Biomass gasification
1388:INFRA GTL Technology
1382:White River, Ontario
1374:Natchez, Mississippi
819:Product distribution
644:
549:
366:
316:fragments including
105:, Germany, in 1925.
4077:Biofuels technology
4038:Sustainable biofuel
3370:2010Sci...329..642L
3266:2015ApJ...807...85P
3090:Energy Environ. Sci
2601:Max Planck Research
2522:Kolloid-Zeitschrift
2354:2022Mate...15.7378H
1763:on 28 February 2011
1710:2013RSPTA.37220319H
1630:Hubbert peak theory
1536:abiogenic petroleum
1224:natural gas liquids
1122:Louisiana, Missouri
1115:Operation Paperclip
706:
676:
660:
606:
590:
565:
445:
425:
412:
396:
342:migratory insertion
209:exothermic reaction
103:Mülheim an der Ruhr
3144:Energy & Fuels
2987:November 23, 2005"
2886:2010-11-27 at the
2750:2008-11-16 at the
2728:2022-04-29 at the
2696:10.10520/EJC194106
2534:10.1007/BF01502087
2428:Energy & Fuels
2363:10.3390/ma15207378
1798:ACS Energy Letters
1704:(2006): 20120319.
1668: – US-program
1509:Process efficiency
1370:Rialto, California
1306:facility converts
1259:
1254:A SASOL garage in
1209:The LTFT facility
1196:
1133:Synthetic Oils Ltd
1060:
879:carbon atoms, and
722:Process conditions
708:
694:
664:
648:
608:
594:
578:
553:
450:
433:
413:
400:
384:
211:due to a standard
122:
109:Reaction mechanism
25:chemical reactions
4107:German inventions
4064:
4063:
3977:Sabatier reaction
3462:978-1-84973-080-8
3307:(35): 7984–7986.
3157:10.1021/ef9009185
2733:Popular Mechanics
2557:Organic Chemistry
2441:10.1021/ef900064c
2294:Catalysis Letters
2232:10.1021/cr050972v
2130:978-1-4443-2025-1
1757:tonto.eia.doe.gov
1651:Sabatier reaction
1609:Coal gasification
1347:In October 2006,
1302:, Malaysia. This
1199:Ras Laffan, Qatar
1179:Commercialization
1113:, employed seven
1074:, working at the
697:
686:
667:
651:
597:
581:
574:
568:
556:
448:
436:
416:
403:
387:
376:
213:reaction enthalpy
49:coal liquefaction
4134:
4054:
4053:
3898:Pongamia pinnata
3592:
3585:
3578:
3569:
3568:
3496:
3485:
3474:
3435:
3408:
3407:
3397:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3324:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3259:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3224:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3207:
3201:. Archived from
3200:
3192:
3183:
3178:
3169:
3168:
3151:(4): 2634–2641.
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3115:Dorner, Robert.
3112:
3106:
3105:
3102:10.1039/C001514H
3081:
3075:
3074:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3009:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2979:
2973:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2916:
2905:
2897:
2891:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2760:
2754:
2742:
2736:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2707:
2699:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2609:
2598:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2570:
2561:
2560:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2501:
2494:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2465:. Archived from
2459:
2453:
2452:
2435:(5): 2342–2358.
2422:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2383:
2365:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2287:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2226:(5): 1692–1744.
2219:Chemical Reviews
2213:
2204:
2203:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2161:
2153:NREL/TP510-34929
2150:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2068:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2032:
2023:
2022:
2002:
1996:
1995:
1977:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1915:
1904:
1903:
1894:(3–4): 227–241.
1883:
1872:
1871:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1813:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1759:. Archived from
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1721:
1689:
1674:
1671:
1662:
1647:
1620:
1605:
1593:
1591:Chemistry portal
1588:
1587:
1586:
1579:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1560:
1559:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1087:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1019:
1018:
1008:
1007:
1006:
988:
979:catalyst support
926:catalyst support
920:Typically, such
854:
852:
851:
846:
843:
746:activity of the
717:
715:
714:
709:
707:
705:
702:
695:
684:
675:
672:
665:
659:
656:
649:
617:
615:
614:
609:
607:
605:
602:
595:
589:
586:
579:
572:
566:
564:
561:
554:
459:
457:
456:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
434:
424:
421:
414:
411:
408:
401:
395:
392:
385:
374:
332:), methylene (CH
296:(cleavage with H
4142:
4141:
4137:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4132:
4131:
4117:1925 in Germany
4112:1925 in science
4067:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4042:
4018:Energy forestry
3986:
3918:
3880:Jatropha curcas
3841:
3834:
3742:Camelina sativa
3732:
3725:
3601:
3596:
3547:by Kevin Bullis
3538:Hermann Plauson
3503:
3463:
3432:
3416:
3414:Further reading
3411:
3350:
3346:
3293:
3289:
3238:
3234:
3218:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3198:
3196:"Archived copy"
3194:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3139:
3135:
3126:
3124:
3113:
3109:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3067:
3063:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3010:
3006:
2996:
2994:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2965:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2890:(official site)
2888:Wayback Machine
2879:
2875:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2848:
2846:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2823:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2798:
2796:
2791:. August 2015.
2787:
2786:
2782:
2773:
2771:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2752:Wayback Machine
2743:
2739:
2730:Wayback Machine
2721:
2717:
2701:
2700:
2676:
2672:
2641:
2637:
2626:
2622:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2596:
2590:
2586:
2572:
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2564:
2553:
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2505:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2472:
2470:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2334:
2330:
2288:
2281:
2271:
2269:
2260:
2259:
2255:
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2207:
2200:
2178:
2174:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2148:
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2138:
2131:
2117:
2113:
2103:
2101:
2066:
2060:
2056:
2033:
2026:
2003:
1999:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1916:
1907:
1888:Catalysis Today
1884:
1875:
1868:
1846:
1842:
1831:
1827:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1776:
1766:
1764:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1737:
1735:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1660:
1645:
1642:Karrick process
1618:
1603:
1600:Bergius process
1589:
1584:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1554:
1551:
1520:
1511:
1494:
1456:Tulsa, Oklahoma
1449:
1416:
1403:
1390:
1365:
1345:
1336:
1323:
1296:
1285:
1265:
1248:
1207:
1201:
1181:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1083:
1052:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1005:
1002:
1001:
1000:
998:
996:
992:
986:
982:
975:
944:
931:
910:
874:
847:
844:
842:
834:
833:
831:
821:
812:
808:
801:
790:
788:Slurry reactors
779:
768:
760:
753:
741:
724:
703:
698:
673:
668:
657:
652:
647:
645:
642:
641:
636:
603:
598:
587:
582:
562:
557:
552:
550:
547:
546:
533:
502:
500:Feedstocks: GTL
495:
487:
475:
466:
442:
437:
422:
417:
409:
404:
393:
388:
369:
367:
364:
363:
335:
331:
323:
315:
302:metal carbonyls
299:
284:
277:
274:Desorption of H
270:
264:
247:
243:
239:
235:
226:
221:
179:
171:
163:
153:
137:
129:
111:
85:
29:carbon monoxide
17:
12:
11:
5:
4140:
4130:
4129:
4127:Name reactions
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3919:
3917:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3894:
3883:
3876:
3871:
3869:Chinese tallow
3866:
3859:
3854:
3846:
3844:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3737:
3735:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3716:Water hyacinth
3713:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3696:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3684:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3611:
3609:
3603:
3602:
3595:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3548:
3540:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3502:
3501:External links
3499:
3498:
3497:
3495:. Vol. 2.
3486:
3484:. Vol. 1.
3475:
3461:
3436:
3430:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3344:
3287:
3232:
3184:
3170:
3133:
3107:
3096:(7): 884–890.
3085:
3076:
3061:
3047:
3020:(28): 5253–5.
3004:
2974:
2963:
2960:on 2009-01-01.
2945:
2942:on 2008-12-11.
2927:
2892:
2873:
2870:on 2007-03-17.
2855:
2830:
2816:. April 2011.
2805:
2780:
2755:
2737:
2715:
2670:
2635:
2620:
2584:
2562:
2547:
2528:(2): 105–108.
2512:
2480:
2454:
2414:
2395:
2328:
2279:
2253:
2205:
2199:978-3527306732
2198:
2172:
2136:
2129:
2111:
2054:
2024:
2013:(2): 228–229.
1997:
1943:
1936:
1905:
1873:
1867:978-0471238966
1866:
1840:
1825:
1804:(3): 988–992.
1784:
1774:
1744:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1663:
1654:
1648:
1639:
1636:Industrial gas
1633:
1627:
1621:
1612:
1606:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1580:
1566:
1550:
1547:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1507:
1493:
1490:
1470:took off from
1448:
1445:
1415:
1412:
1402:
1399:
1389:
1386:
1364:
1361:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1322:
1319:
1295:
1292:
1284:
1281:
1261:Main article:
1247:
1244:
1203:Main article:
1200:
1197:
1180:
1177:
1160:
1148:
1118:synthetic fuel
1051:
1048:
1024:
1015:
1003:
994:
990:
984:
974:
971:
959:coal-to-liquid
942:
929:
909:
906:
870:
864:
863:
838:
820:
817:
816:
815:
810:
806:
800:
797:
796:
795:
789:
786:
785:
784:
778:
775:
774:
773:
767:
764:
759:
756:
751:
739:
723:
720:
719:
718:
701:
692:
689:
682:
679:
671:
663:
655:
634:
619:
618:
601:
593:
585:
577:
571:
560:
531:
506:gas to liquids
501:
498:
493:
485:
473:
465:
462:
461:
460:
440:
431:
428:
420:
407:
399:
391:
382:
379:
372:
346:metal clusters
333:
329:
321:
313:
297:
294:hydrogenolysis
286:
285:
282:
279:
275:
272:
268:
265:
262:
256:
253:
245:
241:
237:
233:
224:
220:
217:
182:
181:
177:
165:
159:
151:
131:
125:
110:
107:
86:and hydrogen.
83:
80:synthetic fuel
53:gas to liquids
39:, into liquid
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4139:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4057:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4028:Food vs. fuel
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3921:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3705:
3702:
3701:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3670:vegetable oil
3668:
3667:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3588:
3586:
3581:
3579:
3574:
3573:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3504:
3494:
3493:
3487:
3483:
3482:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3443:. Cambridge:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3431:9783527326051
3427:
3423:
3418:
3417:
3405:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3364:(5992): 642.
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3322:2027.42/87158
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3244:
3236:
3228:
3222:
3208:on 2017-04-28
3204:
3197:
3191:
3189:
3182:
3181:de Klerk 2011
3177:
3175:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3145:
3137:
3122:
3118:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3080:
3072:
3065:
3058:. 2017-11-08.
3057:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
2992:
2988:
2986:
2978:
2971:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2949:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2896:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2859:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2819:
2815:
2809:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2741:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2719:
2711:
2705:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2631:
2624:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2551:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2421:
2419:
2405:
2399:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2301:(1–2): 8–13.
2300:
2296:
2295:
2286:
2284:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2212:
2210:
2201:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2162:on 2008-12-17
2158:
2154:
2147:
2140:
2132:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2043:(1–2): 3–12.
2042:
2038:
2031:
2029:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1975:11311/1072010
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1939:
1937:9783527306732
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1869:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1836:
1829:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1778:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1688:
1684:
1667:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1624:Hydrogenation
1622:
1616:
1615:Fischer assay
1613:
1610:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1581:
1578:
1572:
1567:
1564:
1563:Energy portal
1558:
1553:
1546:
1544:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1515:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1421:
1411:
1409:
1398:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:UPM (Finland)
1340:
1331:
1329:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1289:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1257:
1252:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1193:
1189:
1188:Fluidized bed
1185:
1176:
1173:
1172:"Coal butter"
1169:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:Franz Fischer
1065:
1056:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1032:
980:
970:
968:
964:
960:
956:
951:
948:
940:
936:
927:
923:
918:
915:
905:
903:
898:
894:
890:
885:
882:
878:
873:
869:
862:
858:
850:
841:
837:
830:
829:
828:
826:
803:
802:
792:
791:
781:
780:
770:
769:
763:
755:
749:
745:
736:
734:
730:
699:
690:
687:
680:
669:
661:
653:
640:
639:
638:
632:
631:dry reforming
628:
624:
599:
591:
583:
569:
558:
545:
544:
543:
541:
537:
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
497:
491:
483:
482:Synthesis gas
479:
471:
438:
429:
426:
418:
405:
389:
380:
377:
370:
362:
361:
360:
358:
354:
349:
347:
343:
339:
327:
319:
311:
307:
303:
295:
291:
290:hydrogenation
280:
273:
266:
260:
257:
254:
251:
250:
249:
230:
216:
214:
210:
205:
203:
200:, as well as
199:
195:
191:
187:
175:
169:
162:
157:
149:
145:
144:
143:
141:
135:
128:
119:
115:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
91:Franz Fischer
87:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3949:
3896:
3890:
3886:
3878:
3861:
3857:Big bluestem
3849:
3842:energy crops
3797:
3740:
3550:
3542:
3531:
3491:
3480:
3440:
3421:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3247:
3241:
3235:
3210:. Retrieved
3203:the original
3148:
3142:
3136:
3125:. Retrieved
3110:
3093:
3089:
3079:
3070:
3064:
3050:
3017:
3013:
3007:
2995:. Retrieved
2984:
2977:
2966:
2958:the original
2948:
2940:the original
2930:
2919:. Retrieved
2907:
2895:
2876:
2868:the original
2858:
2847:. Retrieved
2833:
2822:. Retrieved
2808:
2797:. Retrieved
2783:
2772:. Retrieved
2758:
2740:
2732:
2718:
2704:cite journal
2690:(3): 63–72.
2687:
2683:
2673:
2648:
2644:
2638:
2629:
2623:
2612:. Retrieved
2600:
2587:
2581:: 308. 1946.
2578:
2575:Chemical Age
2574:
2556:
2550:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2504:. Retrieved
2497:the original
2483:
2471:. Retrieved
2467:the original
2457:
2432:
2426:
2398:
2348:(20): 7378.
2345:
2341:
2331:
2298:
2292:
2270:. Retrieved
2256:
2223:
2217:
2181:
2175:
2164:. Retrieved
2157:the original
2152:
2139:
2120:
2114:
2102:. Retrieved
2074:
2070:
2057:
2040:
2036:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1919:
1891:
1887:
1849:
1843:
1828:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1777:
1765:. Retrieved
1761:the original
1756:
1747:
1736:. Retrieved
1701:
1697:
1687:
1540:
1521:
1512:
1495:
1450:
1434:
1424:
1417:
1404:
1391:
1366:
1346:
1337:
1328:landfill gas
1324:
1315:Diesel fuels
1297:
1286:
1273:South Africa
1266:
1232:
1208:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1104:
1097:
1094:World War II
1079:
1072:Hans Tropsch
1064:Nazi Germany
1061:
1033:
976:
969:, Malaysia.
952:
919:
911:
901:
896:
892:
888:
886:
880:
876:
871:
867:
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860:
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848:
839:
835:
822:
761:
737:
725:
620:
529:
517:desulfurized
510:
503:
478:gasification
467:
350:
318:formyl (CHO)
287:
227:and CO into
222:
206:
189:
185:
183:
173:
167:
160:
158: CO → C
155:
147:
142:as follows:
133:
126:
123:
95:Hans Tropsch
88:
72:gasification
57:
41:hydrocarbons
20:
18:
4013:Energy crop
3960:Pellet fuel
3945:Biorefinery
3909:Switchgrass
3753:Coconut oil
3731:Energy from
3665:Cooking oil
3650:Biogasoline
3625:Babassu oil
1960:: 829–837.
1543:nitrogenase
1308:natural gas
1277:diesel fuel
1236:QatarEnergy
1096:to produce
937:as well as
735:formation.
338:methylidyne
292:of CO, the
261:of 2 H
194:diesel fuel
150:+ 1) H
64:natural gas
35:, known as
4071:Categories
3923:Technology
3904:Salicornia
3887:Miscanthus
3810:Sugar beet
3682:cellulosic
3655:Bioliquids
3635:Biobutanol
3257:1505.01465
3212:2013-03-26
3127:2013-05-22
2997:August 29,
2921:2018-08-27
2849:2022-01-03
2824:2022-01-03
2799:2015-11-06
2774:2013-06-05
2651:: 223–38.
2614:2019-12-19
2506:2008-11-09
2404:US 1746464
2166:2008-06-12
2104:3 December
2077:(2): 1–8.
1782:p.eaas9793
1738:2009-06-03
1680:References
1476:California
1452:Syntroleum
1408:waste coal
1215:Ras Laffan
939:polymorphs
917:not used.
4082:Catalysis
3998:Agflation
3891:giganteus
3820:Sunflower
3815:Sugarcane
3733:foodstock
3640:Biodiesel
3599:Bioenergy
3471:101325929
3386:0036-8075
3331:1433-7851
3250:(1): 85.
3165:0887-0624
2449:0887-0624
2372:1996-1944
2342:Materials
2315:1011-372X
2240:0009-2665
2099:265385618
2091:2582-9289
1992:103286686
1984:1385-8947
1820:246930138
1532:asteroids
1439:produces
1310:into low-
1211:Pearl GTL
1140:oxidation
1124:in 1946.
957:in their
947:ruthenium
914:catalysts
908:Catalysts
678:⟶
627:feedstock
576:⟶
525:catalysts
513:catalysis
398:⟶
304:. The CO
229:aliphatic
45:catalysts
4056:Category
3991:Concepts
3874:Duckweed
3863:Camelina
3840:Non-food
3788:Rapeseed
3778:Palm oil
3721:Wood gas
3694:Methanol
3687:mixtures
3607:Biofuels
3404:20689010
3339:21761528
3282:93561811
3221:cite web
3121:Archived
3042:34524430
3034:18528839
2991:Archived
2912:Archived
2884:Archived
2843:Archived
2818:Archived
2793:Archived
2768:Archived
2748:Archived
2726:Archived
2665:27276549
2605:Archived
2542:93119728
2390:36295443
2323:98234730
2266:Archived
2248:17488058
1732:Archived
1728:24298075
1549:See also
1503:zeolites
1462:and the
1441:E-diesel
1430:biofuels
1205:Oryx GTL
1168:glycerol
1044:zeolites
935:carbides
540:hydrogen
353:ethylene
202:alcohols
33:hydrogen
3805:Soybean
3799:Sorghum
3748:Cassava
3677:Ethanol
3660:Biomass
3630:Bagasse
3615:Alcohol
3395:3141295
3366:Bibcode
3358:Science
3262:Bibcode
2381:9610504
2350:Bibcode
1767:3 April
1706:Bibcode
1530:within
1420:Germany
1363:Rentech
1357:biomass
1349:Finnish
1321:Velocys
1300:Bintulu
1288:PetroSA
1283:PetroSA
1256:Gauteng
1192:Güssing
1129:patents
1050:History
1040:alumina
967:Bintulu
855:= (1 −
853:
832:
729:alkanes
625:as the
623:methane
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470:biomass
357:propene
310:carbide
198:alkenes
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68:biomass
3851:Arundo
3783:Potato
3699:Stover
3645:Biogas
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1934:
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1380:; and
1312:sulfur
1228:ethane
1219:cobalt
1099:ersatz
1090:Brabag
1036:silica
866:where
521:poison
326:methyl
306:ligand
184:where
37:syngas
3970:stove
3825:Wheat
3768:Maize
3758:Grape
3711:Straw
3620:Algae
3467:S2CID
3278:S2CID
3252:arXiv
3206:(PDF)
3199:(PDF)
3038:S2CID
2915:(PDF)
2904:(PDF)
2608:(PDF)
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2538:S2CID
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2160:(PDF)
2149:(PDF)
2095:S2CID
2067:(PDF)
1988:S2CID
1816:S2CID
1499:ceria
1401:Other
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1304:Shell
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1263:Sasol
1246:Sasol
1240:Sasol
1042:, or
963:Shell
955:Sasol
809:and C
324:OH),
244:) + H
240:→ (CH
66:, or
4087:Coal
3965:mill
3914:Wood
3793:Rice
3763:Hemp
3704:corn
3457:ISBN
3426:ISBN
3400:PMID
3382:ISSN
3335:PMID
3327:ISSN
3227:link
3161:ISSN
3030:PMID
2999:2020
2710:link
2661:PMID
2475:2015
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2368:ISSN
2311:ISSN
2274:2015
2244:PMID
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2125:ISBN
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1980:ISSN
1932:ISBN
1862:ISBN
1769:2018
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1483:the
1480:JP-8
1468:B-52
1437:Audi
1334:SGCE
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1105:The
1080:e.g.
1070:and
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93:and
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3374:doi
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3317:hdl
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3270:doi
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