1592:(63 BC – about AD 20) also writes about sveberne in Geographicon VII, 1, 3. Common to all the people in this area is that they can easily change residence because of their sordid way of life; that they do not grow any fields and do not collect property, but live in temporary huts. They get their nourishment from their livestock for the most part, and like nomads, they pack all their goods in wagons and go on to wherever they want. Horazius writes in 17 BC (Carmen säculare, 3, 24, 9 ff .) about the people of Macedonia. The proud Getae also live happily, growing free food and cereal for themselves on land that they do not want to cultivate for more than a year, "vivunt et rigidi Getae, immetata quibus iugera liberal fruges et Cererem freunt, nec cultura placet longior annua." Several classical writers have descriptions of shifting cultivation people. Many peoples' various shifting cultivations characterized the migration Period in Europe. The exploitation of forests demanded constant displacement, and large areas were deforested.
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1528:. There "the barbarians showed us the place where the sun does not go to sleep. It happened because there the night was very short -- in some places two, in others three hours -- so that the sun shortly after its fall soon went up again." He says that Thule was a fertile land, "rich in fruits that were ripe only until late in the year, and the people there used to prepare a drink of honey. And they threshed the grain in large houses, because of the cloudy weather and frequent rain. In the spring they drove the cattle up into the mountain pastures and stayed there all summer." This description may fit well with Norwegian coast. Here is an instance of both dairy farming and drying/threshing in a building.
1035:
1000:
1586:
lived between the Rhine and the Elbe. About the
Germans, he wrote: No one has a particular field or area for themselves, for the magistrates and chiefs give fields every year to the people and the clans, which have gathered so much ground in such places that it seems good for them to continue on to somewhere else after a year. "Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios, sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui tum una coierunt, a quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt" book 6, 22.
1157:
1223:
1497:, forest areas drastically reduced in Northern Europe, and settlements were regularly moved. There is no good explanation for this mobility, and the transition to stable settlements from the late Viking period, as well as the transition from shifting cultivation to stationary use of arable land. At the same time plows appears as a new group of implements were found both in graves and in depots. It can be confirmed that early agricultural people preferred forest of good quality in the hillside with good drainage, and traces of cattle quarters are evident here.
1063:
1301:. One design element on the extremely well-preserved Pocklington shield, a scalloped border, "is not comparable to any other Iron Age finds across Europe, adding to its valuable uniqueness", said Paula Ware, managing director at MAP Archaeological Practice Ltd in late 2019. Horses were rarely included in Iron Age burials, making the find particularly significant. "The discoveries are set to widen our understanding of the Arras (Middle Iron Age) culture and the dating of artefacts to secure contexts is exceptional," according to Paula Ware.
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1570:. They built forts in the mountains, today a subject of much investigation. The forest has hidden them for a long time, but eventually, they will provide information about the people who built and used these buildings. The ruin of a large samnittisk temple and theater at Pietrabbondante is under investigation. These cultural relics have slumbered in the shadow of the glorious history of the Roman Empire.
1400:
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Prokopios, ca. AD 550, also describes a primitive hunter people he calls skrithifinoi. These pitiful creatures had neither wine nor corn, for they did not grow any crops. "Both men and women engaged incessantly just in hunting the rich forests and mountains, which gave them an endless supply of game and wild animals." Screrefennae and skrithifinoi is well
701:, a collection of Ancient Greek epic poems that related the story of the Trojan War, were a distillation in literary form of an oral tradition developed during the Greek Dark Age. The traditional material from which the literary epics were drawn treats the Mycenaean Bronze Age culture from the perspective of the Iron Age and later Greece.
1555:
in Europe slash and burners, remained for as long as the forests permitted. This exploitation of forests explains this rapid and elaborate move. But the forest could not tolerate this in the long run; it first ended in the
Mediterranean. The forest here did not have the same vitality as the powerful coniferous forest in Central Europe.
1656:
rich and the rulers are innumerable." The latter indicates a kind of extended family structure, and that forests are specifically mentioned as useful may be associated with shifting cultivation and livestock. The "livestock grazing, as with the Arabs, far out in the wilderness" can be interpreted in the same direction.
1655:
in 1068: "It is very fruitful, the earth holds many crops and honey, it has a greater livestock than all other countries, there are a lot of useful rivers and forests, with regard to women they do not know moderation, they have for their economic position two, three, or more wives simultaneously, the
1644:
who often have names such as; skridfinner, which is probably a later form, derived from skrithibinoi or some similar spelling. The two old terms, screrefennae and skrithifinoi, are probably origins in the sense of neither ski nor finn. Furthermore, in
Jordanes' ethnographic description of Scandza are
1585:
wrote about
Svebians, "Commentarii de Bello Gallico, "book 4.1; they are not by private and secluded fields, "privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est", they cannot stay more than one year in a place for cultivation's sake, "Neque longius anno remanere uno in loco colendi causa licet ". The Svebes
1546:
writes in AD 98 about the
Germans: fields are proportionate to the participating growers, but they share their crops with each other by reputation. Distribution is easy because there is great access to land. They change soil every year, and mark some off to spare, for they seek not a strenuous job in
2147:
The original text reads: Agri, pro numero cultorum, ab universis in vices occupantur, quos mox inter se, secundum dignationem, partiuntur: facilitatem partiendi camporum spatia praestant. Arva per annos mutant: et superest ager; nec enim cum ubertate et amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria
1645:
several tribes, and among these are finnaithae "who was always ready for battle" Mixi evagre and otingis that should have lived like wild beasts in mountain caves, "further from them" lived osthrogoth, raumariciae, ragnaricii, finnie, vinoviloth and suetidi that would last prouder than other people.
1554:
in Europe after the Roman Empire and immediately before the Viking Age suggests that it was still more profitable for the peoples of
Central Europe to move on to new forests after the best parcels were exhausted than to wait for the new forest to grow up. Therefore, the peoples of the temperate zone
1296:
In 2017, a Celtic warrior's grave, dated to about BC 320 to 174, was discovered at a housing development under construction in
Pocklington at the Yorkshire Wolds. After archeologists completed a very long excavation project, the site was found to include a bronze shield, remains of a chariot and the
1466:
In
Northern Europe, there was usually only one crop harvested before grass growth took over, while in the south, suitable fall was used for several years and the soil was quickly exhausted. Slash and burn shifting cultivation, therefore, ceased much earlier in the south than the north. Most of the
417:
The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern
European
1562:
The forest also decreased gradually northwards in Europe, but in the Nordic countries it has survived. The clans in pre-Roman Italy seemed to be living in temporary locations rather than established cities. They cultivated small patches of land, guarded their sheep and their cattle, traded with
1639:
who also live in the north. Screrefennae moved a lot and did not bring to the field crops, but made their living by hunting and collecting bird eggs. Suehans was a seminomadic tribe that had good horses like ThĂĽringians and ran fur hunting to sell the skins. It was too far north to grow grain.
1315:
The early Iron Age forms of
Scandinavia show no traces of Roman influence, though such influences become abundant toward the middle of the period. The duration of the Iron Age is variously estimated according to how its commencement is placed nearer to or farther from the opening years of the
346:
periods, which initially meant descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere, the period lasted until the early
1573:
Many of the Italic tribes realized the benefits of allying with the powerful Romans. When Rome built the Via Amerina 241 BC, the Faliscan people established themselves in cities on the plains, and they collaborated with the Romans on road construction. The Roman Senate gradually gained
1563:
foreign merchants, and at times fought with one another: etruscans, umbriere, ligurianere, sabinere, Latinos, campaniere, apulianere, faliscanere, and samniter, just to mention a few. These Italic ethnic groups developed identities as settlers and warriors
1547:
reaping from this fertile and vast land even greater yields—such as by planting apple orchards, or by fencing off fields; or by watering gardens; grain is the only thing they insist that the ground will provide. Tacitus discusses the shifting cultivation.
1485:
and other wooded land. The authors give us the general impression that the Mediterranean countries had more forest than now, but that it had already lost much forest, and that it was left there in the mountains (Darby 1956 186).
1535:
describes it as the strange cultivation methods he had experienced among the Germans, whom he knew well from his stay with them. Rome was entirely dependent on shifting cultivation by the barbarians to survive and maintain
1316:
Christian era, but it is generally agreed that the last division of the Iron Age of Scandinavia, the Viking Period, is considered to be from 700 to 1000 AD, when paganism in those lands was superseded by Christianity.
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in 1846, where the forms of the implements and weapons of the later part of the Bronze Age are imitated in iron. In the Swiss or La Tène group of implements and weapons, the forms are new and the transition complete.
667:
began in the 8th century BC. It is descended from the Phoenician alphabet. The Greeks adapted the system, notably introducing characters for vowel sounds and thereby creating the first truly alphabetic (as opposed to
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1046:
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in the east of Southeastern Europe in the 5th century BC. By the 6th century BC the first written sources dealing with the territory north of the Danube appear in Greek sources. By this time the
1174:
652:, edged iron weapons were widely available, but a variety of explanations fits the available archaeological evidence. From around 1200 BC, the palace centers and outlying settlements of the
363:
begins around 500 BC, when the Greek Iron Age had already ended, and finishes around 400 AD. The use of iron and iron-working technology became widespread concurrently in Europe and Asia.
1999:
Haselgrove, C. and Pope, R. (2007), 'Characterising the Earlier Iron Age', in C. Haselgrove and R. Pope (eds.), The Earlier Iron Age in Britain and the Near Continent. (Oxbow, Oxford)
535:, who developed iron culture since the 7th century BC. The majority of remains of their iron-producing and blacksmithing industries from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC was found near
2069:
2043:
2165:
A W Liljenstrand wrote 1857 in his doctoral dissertation, "About changing of soil" (p. 5 ff.), That Tacitus discusses the shifting cultivation: "arva per annos mutant".
1559:
was partly caused by burning for pasture fields. Missing timber delivery led to higher prices and more stone constructions in the Roman Empire (Stewart 1956 123).
540:
1293:
began to be used between 7th century to the 5th century BC. These scripts were used until the end of the 1st century BC or the beginning of the 1st century AD.
453:
1130:–750 BC), and 'Celtic' Hallstatt culture (which succeeded the Urnfield culture). Cremated remains were housed in double-cone shaped urns and buried. The
680:), the influence of their alphabet extended further. The ceramic Euboean artifact inscribed with a few lines written in the Greek alphabet referring to "
447:
951:
From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads westwards with the Celtic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late
1724:
The Junior Encyclopædia Britannica: A reference library of general knowledge. (1897). Chicago: E.G. Melvin. (seriously? 1897 "Junior" encyclopedia?
1574:
representatives from many Faliscan and Etruscan families. The Italic tribes are now settled farmers. (Zwingle, National Geographic, January 2005).
1062:
1080:
999:
2120:
Semple E.C.1931, Ancient Mediterranean Forests and the Lumber Trade II Henry Holt et al., The Geography of the Mediterranean region, New York.
450:
1467:
forests in the Mediterranean had disappeared by classical times. The classical authors wrote about the great forests (Semple 1931 261–296).
2153:
2095:
2290:
434:
2174:
Stewart O.C. 1956, Fire as the First Great Force Employde by Man II Thomas W.L. Man's role in changing the face of the earth, Chicago.
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704:
Notable and autochthonous groups of peoples and tribes of Southeastern Europe organised themselves in large tribal unions such as the
418:
weapons resemble Roman arms in some respects, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.
1222:
446:
2138:
Darby H.C. 1950, Domesday Woodland II Economic History Review, 2d ser.,III, London. 1956, The clearing of the Woodland in Europe II
1328:
1324:
441:
1976:
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provides information on the big island Scandza, which the Goths come from. He expects that of the tribes who live here, some are
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In Sardinia, iron working seems to have begun around the 13th–10th century BC with the Nuragic civilization, perhaps via Cyprus.
445:
440:
435:
432:
427:
1934:"Testimonianze di siderurgia in un'area del Campidano centro-meridionale tra la seconda metĂ del XII e gli inizi del X sec a.C."
438:
437:
2044:"Celtic warrior from 2,000 years ago buried in chariot with weapons and ponies hailed as most important find of its kind in UK"
442:
1297:
skeletons of ponies. The shield's boss bears a resemblance to the Wandsworth shield boss (circa BC 350 to 150), owned by the
430:
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and until the 5th century in non-Romanized areas. Structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example, the
433:
429:
2805:
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1695:
876:
321:
280:
1918:
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made a voyage to Northern Europe c. 330 BC. Part of his itinerary has survived to this day thanks to the accounts by
1442:
451:
17:
908:(beginning in 450 BC). The transition from bronze to iron in Central Europe is exemplified in the great cemetery of
672:) writing system. As Greece sent colonists eastwards, across the Black Sea, and westwards towards Sicily and Italy (
436:
428:
366:
The start of the Iron Age is marked by new cultural groupings, or at least terms for them, with the Late Bronze Age
2790:
2385:
1424:
439:
1206:
443:
2815:
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alphabet spread throughout Italy from the 8th century. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise of the
2602:
2435:
2373:
937:
681:
407:
242:
2810:
2719:
1762:
448:
1578:
623:
431:
410:(but not Britain) for the period when the unconquered peoples of the area lived under the influence of the
133:
1651:
describes Sweden, according to information he received from the Danish king Sven Estridson or also called
2769:
2764:
2380:
359:, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. For example, the Iron Age of
2154:
https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17976383M/C._Cornelii_Taciti_Germania_Agricola_et_De_oratoribus_dialogus
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2820:
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1607:
Locations of the tribes described by Jordanes in Norway, contemporary with, and some possibly ruled by
1599:
Locations of the tribes described by Jordanes in Norway, contemporary with, and some possibly ruled by
1540:", but when the supply from the colonies "trans alpina" began to wear out, the Roman Empire collapsed.
1891:
Eggers, Hans Jürgen (1955). "Zur absoluten Chronologie der römischen Kaiserzeit im Freien Germanien".
449:
2795:
2549:
2510:
1811:
1415:
1262:
1123:. The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture (
285:
260:
1382:. Such slag is sometimes found together with asbestos-ceramic-associated axe types belonging to the
2851:
1096:
987:
2800:
2458:
1827:
656:
began to be abandoned or destroyed, and by 1050 BC, the recognizable cultural features (such as
527:
Along with the Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures, on the territory of ancient Russia and
2624:
2453:
2096:"Iron Age shield found in Pocklington is "one of most important ancient finds this millennium""
2070:"Iron Age shield found in Pocklington is "one of most important ancient finds this millennium""
314:
183:
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techniques these forests had little capacity for regrowth than the forests north of the Alps.
77:
2704:
2569:
1489:
It is clear that Europe remained wooded, and not only in the north. However, during the late
1290:
1167:
in England is one of the largest. Photograph taken in 1935 by Major George Allen (1891–1940).
1164:
962:
The ethnic ascription of many Iron Age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of
506:
383:
141:
2759:
2754:
2694:
2629:
2534:
2148:
conserant et prata separent et hortos rigent: sola terrae seges imperatur. Tac. Ger. XXVI.
1946:
1823:
1798:
Chisholm, H. (1910). The Encyclopædia Britannica. New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Co.
1777:
1310:
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165:
117:
8:
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2654:
2597:
2514:
2340:
1652:
1608:
1600:
1270:
1134:
737:
360:
85:
2830:
2734:
2518:
2470:
2465:
2368:
2358:
2315:
2307:
2257:
1685:
1665:
1531:
In Italy, shifting cultivation was already a thing of the past at the birth of Christ.
1092:
956:
579:
379:
352:
339:
125:
35:
1680:
1213:
905:
837:
387:
2709:
2684:
2664:
2644:
2634:
2524:
2506:
2475:
2408:
2325:
2299:
2261:
2249:
2013:
1873:
1776:
Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B.: "Iron", Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.):
1675:
1670:
1410:
1286:
991:
983:
901:
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517:
375:
307:
173:
97:
93:
46:
31:
2699:
2614:
2559:
2529:
2480:
2440:
2423:
2413:
2348:
2320:
2239:
1972:
1952:
1900:
1757:
1747:
1700:
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1420:
rambling, excessive, full of poor English, and relying too much on primary sources.
1383:
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1258:
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963:
952:
797:
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627:
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371:
367:
348:
157:
2739:
2714:
2502:
2485:
1517:
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1348:
1052:
Bronze Harness Trapping in the Shape of a Horse; Villanovan, 9th–8th century BC.
767:
757:
657:
649:
643:
583:
297:
101:
2030:
1904:
2689:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2649:
2639:
2554:
2497:
2390:
2353:
1690:
1648:
1490:
1460:
1298:
1237:
The 'Celtic' culture had expanded to the group of islands of northwest Europe (
1138:
929:
664:
611:
571:
559:
473:
403:
27:
Last stage of the prehistoric period and the first of the protohistoric periods
2183:
Zwingle E. 2005, Italy before the Romans/!National Geographic, jan.Washington.
1752:
1736:"Urbanization in Iron Age Europe: Trajectories, Patterns, and Social Dynamics"
1735:
1389:
2845:
2785:
2584:
2253:
1865:
1582:
1556:
1525:
1336:
1254:
1238:
948:). In Central Europe, the prehistoric Iron Age ends with the Roman conquest.
554:
The Old Iron Age was an era of immense changes in the lands inhabited by the
502:
494:
252:
219:
1877:
1807:
2744:
2574:
2445:
2363:
1242:
1068:
1005:
925:
900:
In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age
673:
493:
The early first millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the
411:
343:
227:
2244:
2227:
1595:
2729:
2607:
2592:
2564:
2400:
1641:
1343:. The earliest part of the Iron Age in northwestern Germany and southern
567:
1354:
Early Scandinavian iron production typically involved the harvesting of
1180:
Hallstatt 'C' swords; generally iron swords are longer than bronze ones.
355:
was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the
2492:
1537:
1494:
1474:
1340:
1009:
698:
599:
563:
544:
204:
62:
1459:
climates, forests consisted of open evergreen and pine forests. After
1323:, beyond the Celts and then the Romans, is divided into two eras: the
2539:
1631:
living far north with 40 days of the midnight sun. After adogit come
1624:
1505:
1478:
1197:
1131:
909:
639:
631:
532:
2268:
1933:
1366:
show sophisticated iron production from c. 500 BC. Metalworking and
402:, there are a number of local terms for the early Iron Age culture.
2749:
2544:
2238:. Vilnius: Lietuvos Respublikos krašto apsaugos ministerija: 8–64.
1839:
1837:
1835:
1615:
was of Gothic descent and ended up as a monk in Italy. In his work
1612:
1509:
1375:
1371:
1355:
1278:
1274:
1250:
1160:
1112:
1025:
941:
705:
591:
498:
356:
347:
centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest in the
335:
54:
2619:
2430:
2150:
C. Cornelii Taciti Germania, Agricola, et de Oratoribus Dialogus.
1822:
Christian, D. A History of Russia, no Central Asia and Mongolia,
1636:
1543:
1532:
1501:
1363:
1359:
1344:
1246:
1108:
1100:
1086:
Nuragic statue of a warrior from Monte Prama, 10th–8th century bc
945:
913:
716:
635:
575:
548:
528:
399:
1832:
1628:
1589:
1513:
1482:
1282:
1193:
1142:
1120:
1104:
395:
426:
2197:
2193:
1632:
1521:
1470:
1320:
1266:
1116:
1053:
971:
967:
933:
921:
712:
693:
684:", discovered in a grave at Pithekoussae (Ischia) dates from
677:
669:
607:
603:
595:
555:
462:
Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details
391:
2228:"Baltų karybos senajame geležies amžiuje (I–IV a.) bruožai"
1390:
Transition to stationary agriculture due to the iron plough
1379:
1370:
pottery co-occur to some extent. Another iron ore used was
1331:. In Scandinavia, further periods followed up to 1100: the
719:) had branched out from the Thracian-speaking populations.
587:
1870:
Mainzer Aufsätze zur Chronologie der Bronze- und Eisenzeit
1024:
Villanovan Tomb from the 9th century BC. Museo Guarnacci,
531:
the Iron Age is, to a significant extent, associated with
370:
collapsing in some confusion, while in Central Europe the
955:
in about the 6th century, followed in some areas by the
2026:
2009:
1091:
In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the
691:; it seems to be the oldest written reference to the
2225:
1843:
1378:). Its high phosphorus content can be identified in
1623:), the Gothic origins and achievements, the author
2226:Michelbertas, Mykolas; Vitkūnas, Manvydas (2003).
1971:
1763:20.500.11820/74e98a7e-45fb-40d5-91c4-727229ba8cc7
2843:
1893:Jahrbuch des römisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums
1783:
1733:
904:(HaC and D, 800–450 BC) and the late Iron Age
2284:
2215:De Getarum (Gothorum) Origine et Rebus Gestis
315:
2025:Scottish Archaeological Research Framework (
2008:Scottish Archaeological Research Framework (
1141:, which conquered the last Etruscan city of
1789:John Collis, "The European Iron Age" (1989)
1074:from the Golasecca III period (480/450 BC).
2291:
2277:
543:, which is believed to be the specialized
322:
308:
2243:
1761:
1751:
1443:Learn how and when to remove this message
606:, which resulted in tougher weapons than
1864:
1594:
1155:
394:. Further to the east and north, and in
1792:
1621:The Origin and Deeds of the Getae/Goths
14:
2844:
1890:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1524:, which lay a six-day voyage north of
1163:spread across Europe in the Iron Age;
2298:
2272:
2129:Homer Iliad, XIII, XIV ---- 0.1 to 2.
1981:Research records (formerly PastScape)
1393:
2806:History of the Mediterranean region
2192:Late antique writers commonly used
2152:Boston: Perkins and Marvin (1840).
1855:Cook, B. F. Greek Inscriptions 1987
1713:
1261:lasted from about 800 BC until the
617:
149:
24:
2200:mixing the peoples in the process.
1740:Journal of Archaeological Research
1696:Roman imperial period (chronology)
1304:
974:peoples were sought in this area.
940:in 279 BC, as far east as central
25:
2863:
1931:
1151:
1095:, which succeeded the Bronze Age
722:
516:. By 800 BC, it was spreading to
488:
2791:Bibliography of European history
2386:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
1844:Michelbertas & Vitkūnas 2003
1500:The Greek explorer and merchant
1398:
1319:The Iron Age north of about the
1221:
1205:
1185:
1173:
1079:
1061:
1045:
1033:
1017:
998:
928:groups, had expanded to much of
558:, i.e. the territories from the
2816:History of Western civilization
2419:Christianity in the Middle Ages
2203:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2159:
2141:
2132:
2123:
2114:
2088:
2062:
2036:
2019:
2002:
1993:
1965:
1939:
1925:
1911:
1884:
1858:
1734:Fernández-Götz, Manuel (2018).
795:
785:
775:
765:
755:
745:
507:Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk
501:, the Iron Age begins with the
2660:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
2603:Christianity in the modern era
2374:Christianity in late antiquity
1849:
1816:
1801:
1770:
1727:
1358:. The Scandinavian peninsula,
938:Gallic invasion of the Balkans
408:archaeology of Northern Europe
13:
1:
2811:History of the European Union
1706:
1617:De origine actibusque Getarum
1564:
1124:
685:
570:in the east, and between the
510:
374:had already given way to the
231:
208:
191:Southeast Asia (1000–200 BC)
1579:Commentarii de Bello Gallico
624:Iron Age Southeastern Europe
602:learned to harden iron into
382:is regarded as the start of
7:
2770:Russian invasion of Ukraine
2381:Crisis of the Third Century
1905:10.11588/jrgzm.1955.0.31095
1872:(in German). Bonn: Habelt.
1659:
1418:. The specific problem is:
421:
390:, Hallstatt is regarded as
10:
2868:
2826:Military history of Europe
2821:Maritime history of Europe
2217:: W. Smith, vol 2 page 607
1826:, 1998, p. 141, available
1308:
981:
621:
582:, the Baltic people began
29:
2796:Genetic history of Europe
2778:
2583:
2399:
2339:
2306:
1977:"Maiden Castle (451864)"
1812:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
1753:10.1007/s10814-017-9107-1
875:
836:
813:
806:
731:Bronze Age Central Europe
729:
338:is the last stage of the
286:Archaeometallurgical slag
1216:settlement reconstructed
1097:Proto-Villanovan culture
988:Ancient peoples of Italy
977:
2801:History of Christianity
2029:), Highland Framework,
2012:), National Framework,
1107:and spread in parts of
808:Iron Age Central Europe
2625:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
1604:
1520:. Pytheas had visited
1168:
1040:Villanovan double urn.
936:), and, following the
594:, widely available in
547:region of the ancient
541:Kamenskoye Gorodishche
406:is a term used in the
235: 400 BC – 100 AD
2705:Industrial Revolution
2245:10.47459/ka.2003.18.1
1598:
1347:was dominated by the
1291:Paleohispanic scripts
1159:
982:Further information:
578:to the north. In the
386:. Like its successor
384:Etruscan civilization
378:. In north Italy the
342:and the first of the
2760:European debt crisis
2755:European integration
2695:Age of Enlightenment
2535:Republic of Florence
2213:: O. Seyffert, 329;
2209:G. Costa, 32. Also:
2033:(accessed May 2022).
2016:(accessed May 2022).
1824:Blackwell Publishing
1425:improve this section
1414:to meet Knowledge's
1311:Iron Age Scandinavia
1099:in the territory of
212: 2000 – 100 BC
2725:Revolutions of 1848
2655:Early modern France
2436:Anglo-Saxon England
2341:Classical antiquity
1653:Sweyn II of Denmark
660:) had disappeared.
590:from the available
566:in the west to the
361:Prehistoric Ireland
281:Iron Age metallurgy
86:Bronze Age collapse
2831:Crusading movement
2735:Russian Revolution
2570:Hundred Years' War
2466:Maritime republics
2369:Early Christianity
2359:Hellenistic period
2316:Paleolithic Europe
2074:The Yorkshire Post
1899:. Mainz: 192–244.
1686:Pre-Roman Iron Age
1666:Prehistoric Europe
1605:
1325:Pre-Roman Iron Age
1169:
1093:Villanovan culture
957:Pomeranian culture
912:, discovered near
697:. The fragmentary
580:first century A.D.
380:Villanovan culture
340:prehistoric period
263:(2600 BC – 500 AD)
199:(1000 BC – 200 AD)
136:(1100 BC – 150 AD)
36:Prehistoric Europe
2839:
2838:
2765:COVID-19 pandemic
2710:French Revolution
2685:Habsburg monarchy
2665:Cossack Hetmanate
2645:Portuguese Empire
2635:Absolute monarchy
2630:Thirty Years' War
2525:Holy Roman Empire
2450:Bulgarian Empire
2409:Early Middle Ages
2326:Bronze Age Europe
2300:History of Europe
2234:(in Lithuanian).
2102:. 5 December 2019
2076:. 5 December 2019
2050:. 6 December 2019
1778:Brill's New Pauly
1676:Hallstatt culture
1671:Bronze Age Europe
1581:from the AD 800.
1473:writes of wooded
1453:
1452:
1445:
1416:quality standards
1407:This section may
1287:Iberian Peninsula
1012:in Iron Age Italy
992:Villanova culture
984:Prehistoric Italy
902:Hallstatt culture
898:
897:
654:Mycenaean culture
574:in the south and
520:via the alleged "
518:Hallstatt culture
480:Historic Iron Age
376:Hallstatt culture
332:
331:
255:(500 BC – 300 AD)
222:(500 BC – 200 AD)
168:(500 BC – 800 AD)
160:(800 BC – 100 AD)
78:Ancient Near East
32:Bronze Age Europe
18:European Iron Age
16:(Redirected from
2859:
2700:Great Divergence
2615:Age of Discovery
2560:Late Middle Ages
2530:High Middle Ages
2441:Byzantine Empire
2424:Christianization
2414:Migration Period
2349:Classical Greece
2321:Neolithic Europe
2293:
2286:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2247:
2218:
2211:De Rebus Geticis
2207:
2201:
2190:
2184:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2166:
2163:
2157:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2040:
2034:
2023:
2017:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1973:Historic England
1969:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1953:English Heritage
1943:
1937:
1936:
1932:Mossa, Alberto.
1929:
1923:
1922:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1830:
1820:
1814:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1790:
1787:
1781:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1755:
1731:
1725:
1722:
1701:British Iron Age
1569:
1566:
1552:Migration Period
1448:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1428:
1402:
1401:
1394:
1384:Ananyino culture
1368:Ananyino culture
1333:Migration Period
1281:that dotted the
1259:British Iron Age
1230:Battersea Shield
1225:
1209:
1189:
1177:
1129:
1126:
1083:
1065:
1049:
1037:
1021:
1002:
953:Lusatian culture
727:
726:
709:Odrysian kingdom
690:
687:
628:Thraco-Cimmerian
618:Southeast Europe
522:Thraco-Cimmerian
515:
512:
479:
472:Prehistoric (or
471:
468:
372:Urnfield culture
368:Mycenaean Greece
349:Migration Period
324:
317:
310:
246:
238:
236:
233:
223:
215:
213:
210:
200:
177:
169:
161:
153:
145:
137:
129:
121:
104:
89:
42:
41:
21:
2867:
2866:
2862:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2852:Iron Age Europe
2842:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2774:
2740:Interwar period
2715:Napoleonic Wars
2579:
2550:Mongol invasion
2503:Crown of Aragon
2395:
2335:
2331:Iron Age Europe
2302:
2297:
2222:
2221:
2208:
2204:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2103:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2077:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2053:
2051:
2048:The Independent
2042:
2041:
2037:
2024:
2020:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1985:
1983:
1970:
1966:
1957:
1955:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1926:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1889:
1885:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1842:
1833:
1821:
1817:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1775:
1771:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1714:
1709:
1681:La Tène culture
1662:
1567:
1457:Southern Europe
1449:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1422:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1349:Jastorf culture
1313:
1307:
1305:Northern Europe
1233:
1226:
1217:
1210:
1201:
1198:southern France
1190:
1181:
1178:
1154:
1127:
1087:
1084:
1075:
1066:
1057:
1050:
1041:
1038:
1029:
1022:
1013:
1003:
994:
980:
906:La Tène culture
725:
715:(and later the
688:
658:Linear B script
650:Greek Dark Ages
646:
644:Greek Dark Ages
622:Main articles:
620:
584:mass production
576:northern Latvia
513:
499:Caucasus region
491:
477:
469:
466:
454:
452:
424:
388:La Tène culture
334:In Europe, the
328:
298:Ancient history
291:
290:
276:
268:
267:
245:(5 BC – 500 AD)
241:
234:
226:
218:
211:
203:
195:
176:(800 BC – 1 AD)
172:
166:Northern Europe
164:
156:
148:
140:
132:
124:
116:
92:
84:
72:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2865:
2855:
2854:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2690:Russian Empire
2687:
2682:
2680:British Empire
2677:
2675:Dutch Republic
2672:
2670:Swedish Empire
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2650:Spanish Empire
2647:
2642:
2640:Ottoman Empire
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2600:
2595:
2589:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2555:Serbian Empire
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2391:Late antiquity
2388:
2383:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2354:Roman Republic
2351:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2296:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2220:
2219:
2202:
2185:
2176:
2167:
2158:
2140:
2131:
2122:
2113:
2087:
2061:
2035:
2018:
2001:
1992:
1964:
1938:
1924:
1910:
1883:
1866:Reinecke, Paul
1857:
1848:
1831:
1815:
1800:
1791:
1782:
1769:
1746:(2): 117–162.
1726:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1691:Roman Iron Age
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1661:
1658:
1649:Adam of Bremen
1577:An edition of
1491:Roman Iron Age
1461:slash and burn
1451:
1450:
1406:
1404:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1329:Roman Iron Age
1309:Main article:
1306:
1303:
1299:British Museum
1263:Roman Conquest
1241:) and Iberia (
1235:
1234:
1228:Detail of the
1227:
1220:
1218:
1211:
1204:
1202:
1200:around 500 BC
1191:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1172:
1153:
1152:Western Europe
1150:
1139:Roman Republic
1089:
1088:
1085:
1078:
1076:
1067:
1060:
1058:
1051:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1032:
1030:
1023:
1016:
1014:
1004:
997:
979:
976:
930:Central Europe
922:Celtic culture
896:
895:
892:
888:
887:
884:
880:
879:
873:
872:
869:
865:
864:
861:
857:
856:
853:
849:
848:
845:
841:
840:
834:
833:
830:
826:
825:
822:
818:
817:
811:
810:
804:
803:
800:
794:
793:
790:
784:
783:
780:
774:
773:
770:
764:
763:
760:
754:
753:
750:
744:
743:
740:
734:
733:
724:
723:Central Europe
721:
665:Greek alphabet
619:
616:
572:Middle Dnieper
560:Vistula Lagoon
524:" migrations.
509:cultures from
490:
489:Eastern Europe
487:
486:
485:
484:
483:
482:
481:
474:Proto-historic
464:
425:
423:
420:
404:Roman Iron Age
330:
329:
327:
326:
319:
312:
304:
301:
300:
293:
292:
289:
288:
283:
277:
275:Related topics
274:
273:
270:
269:
266:
265:
257:
249:
248:
247:
239:
224:
216:
201:
188:
180:
179:
178:
174:Western Europe
170:
162:
154:
150:Central Europe
146:
144:(900 – 650 BC)
142:Eastern Europe
138:
130:
122:
107:
106:
105:
90:
88:(1200–1150 BC)
73:
70:
69:
66:
65:
58:
57:
51:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2864:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2786:Art of Europe
2784:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2585:Modern period
2582:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2289:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2232:Karo Archyvas
2229:
2224:
2223:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2180:
2171:
2162:
2155:
2151:
2144:
2135:
2126:
2117:
2101:
2100:The Telegraph
2097:
2091:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1996:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1948:Maiden Castle
1942:
1935:
1928:
1920:
1914:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1895:(in German).
1894:
1887:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1861:
1852:
1845:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1829:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1795:
1786:
1779:
1773:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1712:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1583:Julius Caesar
1580:
1575:
1571:
1568: 900 BC
1560:
1558:
1557:Deforestation
1553:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1447:
1444:
1436:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1405:
1396:
1395:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1337:Vendel Period
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1302:
1300:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1255:British Isles
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:Insular Celts
1231:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1165:Maiden Castle
1162:
1158:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1103:and northern
1102:
1098:
1094:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1071:
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828:
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823:
820:
819:
816:
812:
809:
805:
801:
799:
796:
792:1200–1050 BC
791:
789:
786:
782:1300–1200 BC
781:
779:
776:
772:1500–1300 BC
771:
769:
766:
762:1600–1500 BC
761:
759:
756:
752:2200–1600 BC
751:
749:
746:
742:2600–2200 BC
741:
739:
736:
735:
732:
728:
720:
718:
714:
710:
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695:
689: 730 BC
683:
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629:
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615:
614:instruments.
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514: 900 BC
508:
504:
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496:
495:Pontic steppe
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419:
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344:protohistoric
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189:
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186:(1200–200 BC)
185:
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167:
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159:
158:Great Britain
155:
152:(800 – 50 BC)
151:
147:
143:
139:
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131:
128:(1100–700 BC)
127:
123:
120:(1200–700 BC)
119:
115:
114:
113:
112:
108:
103:
99:
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91:
87:
83:
82:
81:
80:(1200–550 BC)
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68:
67:
64:
60:
59:
56:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
33:
19:
2745:World War II
2598:Early modern
2575:Kalmar Union
2446:Papal States
2364:Roman Empire
2330:
2235:
2231:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2161:
2149:
2143:
2134:
2125:
2116:
2104:. Retrieved
2099:
2090:
2078:. Retrieved
2073:
2064:
2052:. Retrieved
2047:
2038:
2021:
2004:
1995:
1984:, retrieved
1980:
1967:
1956:, retrieved
1947:
1941:
1927:
1913:
1896:
1892:
1886:
1869:
1860:
1851:
1846:, p. 9.
1818:
1808:Железный век
1803:
1794:
1785:
1780:, Brill 2009
1772:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1647:
1633:screrefennae
1620:
1616:
1606:
1588:
1576:
1572:
1561:
1549:
1542:
1530:
1499:
1488:
1469:
1465:
1454:
1439:
1430:
1423:Please help
1419:
1408:
1353:
1318:
1314:
1295:
1273:of northern
1243:Celtiberians
1236:
1232:from London
1196:imported to
1147:
1090:
1069:
1006:Incineration
961:
950:
926:Proto-Celtic
924:, or rather
919:
899:
877:Roman period
807:
802:1050–800 BC
703:
692:
682:Nestor's Cup
674:Pithekoussae
662:
647:
598:. The local
553:
526:
492:
461:
416:
412:Roman Empire
365:
353:Iron working
333:
259:
251:
190:
182:
110:
109:
76:
39:
2730:World War I
2720:Nationalism
2608:Reformation
2593:Renaissance
2565:Black Death
2498:Kievan Rus'
2401:Middle Ages
2106:10 December
2054:10 December
1427:if you can.
1145:in 264 BC.
1128: 1300
894:AD 150–375
863:250–150 BC
855:380–250 BC
847:450–380 BC
832:620–450 BC
824:800–620 BC
738:Bell Beaker
699:Epic Cycles
545:metallurgic
476:) Iron Age
243:Philippines
2493:Viking Age
2308:Prehistory
2080:8 December
1707:References
1538:Pax Romana
1495:Viking Age
1493:and early
1475:Samothrace
1341:Viking Age
1253:). In the
1135:Old Italic
1070:Negau type
1010:inhumation
564:Baltic Sea
184:South Asia
63:Bronze Age
30:See also:
2540:Feudalism
2511:Catalonia
2262:240268648
2254:1392-6489
1625:Procopius
1479:Zakynthos
1433:July 2015
1374:(such as
1285:. On the
1279:hillforts
1161:Hillforts
1132:Etruscans
946:Galatians
910:Hallstatt
886:AD 1–150
871:150–1 BC
815:Hallstatt
640:Illyrians
632:Thracians
533:Scythians
253:East Asia
228:Indonesia
71:By region
2846:Category
2779:See also
2750:Cold War
2545:Crusades
2515:Valencia
2031:Iron Age
2014:Iron Age
1878:12201992
1868:(1965).
1660:See also
1613:Jordanes
1510:Polybius
1506:Massalia
1409:require
1376:red soil
1372:ironsand
1356:bog iron
1339:and the
1327:and the
1277:and the
1275:Scotland
1251:Gallaeci
1113:Campania
1026:Volterra
964:Germanic
942:Anatolia
706:Thracian
592:limonite
562:and the
505:and the
497:and the
422:Timeline
398:and the
357:Caucasus
336:Iron Age
220:Malaysia
205:Thailand
98:Caucasus
94:Anatolia
55:Iron Age
47:a series
45:Part of
2620:Baroque
2519:Majorca
2431:Francia
1919:"Entra"
1637:suehans
1544:Tacitus
1533:Tacitus
1526:Britain
1502:Pytheas
1411:cleanup
1364:Estonia
1360:Finland
1345:Jutland
1283:islands
1247:Celtici
1214:La Tène
1212:German
1119:in the
1109:Romagna
1101:Tuscany
914:Gmunden
838:La Tène
648:In the
636:Dacians
549:Scythia
537:Nikopol
529:Ukraine
400:Balkans
197:Vietnam
134:Balkans
2507:Aragon
2486:Amalfi
2471:Venice
2459:Second
2260:
2252:
1986:27 May
1958:31 May
1876:
1828:online
1629:adogit
1609:Rodulf
1601:Rodulf
1590:Strabo
1514:Strabo
1483:Sicily
1335:, the
1289:, the
1267:brochs
1257:, the
1194:krater
1192:Greek
1143:Velzna
1121:Marche
1105:Latium
1072:helmet
990:, and
972:Slavic
968:Baltic
642:, and
600:smiths
596:swamps
478:
470:
467:
396:Iberia
392:Celtic
261:Africa
118:Aegean
111:Europe
102:Levant
49:on the
2476:Genoa
2454:First
2258:S2CID
2236:XVIII
2198:Goths
2194:Getae
2027:ScARF
2010:ScARF
1522:Thule
1518:Pliny
1471:Homer
1321:Rhine
1117:Fermo
1054:LACMA
978:Italy
934:Gauls
713:Getae
694:Iliad
678:Cumae
670:abjad
608:stone
604:steel
556:Balts
503:Koban
126:Italy
2481:Pisa
2250:ISSN
2196:for
2108:2019
2082:2019
2056:2019
1988:2009
1960:2009
1874:OCLC
1642:Sami
1635:and
1550:The
1516:and
1380:slag
1362:and
1271:duns
1269:and
1249:and
1115:and
1008:and
970:and
920:The
868:LT D
860:LT C
852:LT B
844:LT A
829:Ha D
821:Ha C
798:Ha B
788:Ha A
778:Bz D
768:Bz C
758:Bz B
748:Bz A
717:Daci
663:The
612:horn
588:iron
34:and
2240:doi
1901:doi
1758:hdl
1748:doi
1504:of
1455:In
610:or
586:of
568:Oka
539:in
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1951:,
1834:^
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