403:
29:
1571:
429:
protect employees from wage discrimination on the basis of sex. The
Supreme Court has expressly recognized the view that the EPA must be broadly construed to achieve Congress’ goal of remedying sexual discrimination. Congress passed the EPA out of "concern for the weaker bargaining position of women" to provide a remedy to discriminatory wage structures that reflect "an ancient but outmoded belief that a man, because of his role in society, should be paid more than a woman." The EPA protects both men and women. It also protects administrative, professional and executive employees who are exempt under the
1578:
968:"I am not so sure that the in the long run is going to benefit the women employees It is highly probable that the employers may find it advantageous to employ men in positions now filled by women. Certainly, they would feel inclined to do so in marginal instances where the labor market is plentiful. In other words, it is highly probable that the passage of would result in less employment for women." 109 Cong. Rec. 9203 (1963) (Rep. Colmer); Id. at 9205 (Rep. Findley) ("I think we need to consider some of the possible side effects of and go into the whole proposal for
669:
2328:
482:, the EPA was subject to the scope and exceptions of covered employees and employers contained within that act. On the floor of the House of Representatives, many Representatives voiced their concern that the EPA should act as the starting point for establishing pay parity for women. Subsequent to the enactment of the EPA, Congress undertook two actions which broadened the scope of federal protection against wage discrimination on the basis of sex.
930:
authorized by the provisions of ."). Senator
Bennett proposed his amendment to ensure that in the event of conflicts between Title VII and the EPA, "the provisions of the shall not be nullified." 110 Cong. Rec. 13647 (1964) (statement of Sen. Bennett). The Supreme Court interpreted the Bennett Amendment as incorporating only the EPA’s four affirmative defenses into Title VII sex discrimination claims.
489:. By including sex as an element protected from discrimination, Title VII expanded the protection of women from employment discrimination, to include almost all employees working for employers with fifteen or more employees. Foreseeing the potential conflict between the administration of two statutes with overlapping restrictions, Congress included the
440:, prohibits "employer ... discriminat … on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees at a rate less than the rate to employees of the opposite sex for equal work on jobs equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions" To establish a prima facie case under the EPA, an employee must show that:
934:, 452 U.S. 161, 171 (1981). It is important to note that the prima facie case of sex discrimination under Title VII is different from the EPA. For example, Title VII requires intent to discriminate on the basis of sex, and does not require that a plaintiff prove job equality or identify a male comparator. See
972:
with our eyes open, realizing it may possibly bar women from some job opportunities."); Id. at 9208 (Rep. Goodell) ("I think many women advocating this legislation recognize that in some instances the women are going to lose their jobs because an employer has to pay women the same price he pays men.
607:
management workforce that is often exempted from overtime laws. In summary, the study stated: "Although additional research in this area is clearly needed, this study leads to the unambiguous conclusion that the differences in the compensation of men and women are the result of a multitude of factors
469:
Once a plaintiff meets her or his heavy burden and establishes a prima facie case of gender discrimination under the EPA, then the defendant may avoid liability only by proving the existence of one of four statutory affirmative defenses. The EPA’s four affirmative defenses allow unequal pay for equal
428:
Congress included within the text of the EPA a clear and concise policy statement and briefly described the problems it was intended to remedy. The clear statement of
Congressional intent and policy guiding the EPA’s enactment indicate the Congressional desire to fashion a broad remedial framework to
991:
The act’s consequence as a price floor is only a potential under the EPA, because an employee must establish that a member of the opposite sex receives a higher salary for equal work. Therefore, if an employer chooses to hire only men, or only women for a particular job, there is no potential for a
529:
have asserted the EPA causes unemployment, and additional discrimination against women by excluding them from the labor market. Second, several
Representatives voiced their concerns that the negative impact of setting price floors on the wages paid to women would reduce the availability of jobs for
500:
Second, Congress expanded the EPA’s coverage to professionals and other white-collar employees. For the first nine years of the EPA, the requirement of equal pay for equal work did not extend to persons employed in an executive, administrative or professional capacity, or as an outside salesperson.
377:
having employees subject to any provisions of this section shall discriminate, within any establishment in which such employees are employed, between employees on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees in such establishment at a rate less than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of
611:
However, later, in 2021, a
Department of Labor blogpost observed, "Women earn less than their same race and ethnicity counterpart at every level of educational attainment - Compared with white men with the same education, Black and Latina women with only a bachelor's degree have the largest gap at
273:
454:
The EPA provides that the employer may not pay lower wages to employees of one gender than it pays to employees of the other gender, employees within the same establishment for equal work at jobs that require equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and that are performed under similar working
929:
See 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(h) (2006) ("It shall not be an unlawful employment practice under this subchapter for any employer to differentiate upon the basis of sex in determining the amount of the wages or compensation paid or to be paid to employees of such employer if such differentiation is
910:
Pub. L. No. 88-352, §§701–718, 78 Stat. 241, 253–66 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§2000e to 2000e-17 (2006)). Title VII prohibits employers from "discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such
598:
Initially, a 2007 study commissioned by the
Department of Labor cautioned against overzealous application of the EPA without closer examination of possible reasons for pay discrepancies. This study noted, for example, that men as a group earn higher wages in part because men dominate
612:
65%, and Black women with advanced degrees earn 70% of what white men with advanced degrees earn. Educational attainment is not enough to close gender earnings gaps. In fact, most women with advanced degrees earn less than white men, on average, with only a bachelor's degree."
1064:
Climbing the
Academic Ladder: Doctoral Women Scientists in Academe : a Report to the Office of Science and Technology Policy from the Committee on the Education and Employment of Women in Science and Engineering, Commission on Human Resources, National Research
900:
See 29 U.S.C. § 201 et seq. (2006); 109 Cong. Rec. 9193 (1963) (Rep. St. George) ("All of the exemptions apply; and this is very noteworthy, agriculture, hotels, motels, restaurants, and laundry are excluded. Also all professional, managerial, and administrative
608:
and that the raw wage gap should not be used as the basis to justify corrective action. Indeed, there may be nothing to correct. The differences in raw wages may be almost entirely the result of the individual choices being made by both male and female workers."
530:
women. With the possible side effects of the Act noted on the
Congressional record, the Act passed with little opposition, and no indication that any of the four affirmative defenses were intended to remedy or limit its negative consequences.
421:, N.Y. introduced H.R. 5056, Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, which did not pass at the time. The issue languished until 10 June 1963, when Congress passed the Equal Pay Act ("EPA" or the "Act") as an amendment to the
1321:
992:
pay disparity between genders for the performance of equal jobs. In the case an employer chooses to hire only men to perform a specific job, a woman may have a cause of action for intentional gender discrimination under
216:
235:
470:
work when the wages are set "pursuant to (i) a seniority system; (ii) a merit system; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) ... any other factor other than sex"
878:
566:," which proposed to amend the EPA’s fourth affirmative defense to permit only bona fide factors other than sex that are job-related or serve a legitimate business interest. Representative
590:, which overturned the Court's holding in this case. This bill, providing that each gender-unequal paycheck is a new violation of the law, was the first bill signed by President Obama.
844:, 417 U.S. 188, 208 (1974) ("The Equal Pay Act is broadly remedial, and it should be construed and applied so as to fulfill the underlying purposes which Congress sought to achieve.").
959:, Pub. L. No. 92-318, § 906(b)(1), 86 Stat. 235, 375 (codified as amended at 29 U.S.C. § 213(a)(1) (2006)) (removing operation of FLSA exemption of professional employees from EPA).
1316:
2004:
859:
1506:
1909:
624:
was an Act of the
Parliament of the United Kingdom that prohibited any less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. The
402:
1134:
1979:
1949:
1254:
1151:
2363:
944:
Defenses to Sex-Based Wage
Discrimination Claims at Educational Institutions: Exploring "Equal Work" and “Any Other Factor Other Than Sex” in the Faculty Context
1311:
1012:, BASIC ECONOMICS 163–69 (2004) (explaining the effects of federal minimum wage laws including increased unemployment and the decreased cost of discrimination).
942:, 56 RUTGERS L. REV. 849, 852 (Spring 2004). For a comprehensive list of specific differences between Title VII and the EPA, see Ana M. Perez-Arrieta, Comment,
1882:
513:
The Congress did not ignore the EPA’s economic consequences on the salaries and employment opportunities for both men and women. First, as an amendment of the
2368:
1681:
1676:
1671:
278:
259:
240:
221:
202:
1354:
458:
The EPA does not contain any intent requirement within the statutory language. Liability under the EPA is established by meeting the three elements of the
2086:
1892:
1692:
1687:
1551:
1299:
505:, which amended the FLSA to expand the coverage of the EPA to these employees, by excluding the EPA from the professional workers exemption of the FLSA.
782:
437:
1404:
1062:
2403:
2106:
2076:
1887:
1246:
2373:
762:"H.R. 5056 Prohibiting Discrimination in Pay on Account of Sex, HR 78A-B1, 06/19/1944, Records of the U.S. House of Representatives (ARC 4397822)"
394:; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) a differential based on any other factor other than sex ."
1937:
543:
Average American women’s salaries have risen relative to men's since the EPA’s enactment, from 62.3% of men’s earnings in 1979 to 81.1% in 2018.
2046:
1741:
1521:
1258:
2241:
2014:
1877:
1611:
1516:
1294:
1697:
1640:
2031:
1702:
1594:
1284:
1275:
1214:
993:
494:
735:
1718:
1304:
406:
1964:
1723:
1235:
714:
2393:
2383:
2116:
1989:
1630:
603:
jobs, which are more likely to require cash payments for overtime work; in contrast, women comprise over half of the salaried
501:
Therefore, the EPA exempted white-collar women from the protection of equal pay for equal work. In 1972, Congress enacted the
2056:
478:
Upon its initial enactment, the EPA was "the first step towards an adjustment of balance in pay for women.” As a part of the
2353:
1994:
1662:
1466:
1399:
1131:
2398:
2066:
1713:
1708:
1367:
1155:
938:, 452 U.S. at 164, 178. For a discussion of the differences between Title VII and EPA claims, see Peter Avery, Comment,
2061:
824:
808:
185:
2378:
1175:
1073:
2388:
2081:
2071:
2051:
1899:
1872:
479:
1803:
521:
laws. The EPA acts as a wage equalizer between men and women for equal jobs, and has the potential of acting as a
2101:
1932:
1751:
1650:
1645:
1372:
1289:
698:
254:
92:
84:
1170:
386:, and which are performed under similar working conditions, except where such payment is made pursuant to (i) a
1238:
840:
580:
197:
2358:
1916:
1815:
1809:
1624:
1526:
1511:
1443:
1270:
1207:
786:
551:
The EPA did not originally cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, and professionals, but the
447:
the employees perform substantially equal work on jobs requiring equal skill, effort, and responsibility; and
2148:
1793:
1761:
956:
587:
552:
502:
2139:
1774:
1605:
1471:
53:
2175:
2111:
1767:
1599:
1033:
68:
378:
the opposite sex in such establishment for equal work on jobs the performance of which requires equal
2096:
1786:
1541:
150:
1570:
1409:
863:, 882 F.2d 1206, 1208 (7th Cir. 1989)(enumerating the elements of a prima facie case under the EPA).
573:
In 2007, the Supreme Court restricted the applicable statute of limitations for equal pay claims in
2331:
2253:
1954:
1942:
1536:
1200:
857:, 417 U.S. 188, 203 fn. 24 (stating that jobs need to be substantially equal fall within the EPA);
783:"Federal Employment And Labor Laws / Equal Pay Act of 1963 – EPA – 29 U.S. Code Chapter 8 § 206(d)"
652:
514:
486:
430:
422:
306:
111:
1114:
Blau, Francine and Lawrence Kahn. 2007. "The Gender Pay Gap: Have Women Gone as Far as They Can?"
2193:
2009:
1531:
657:
302:
2247:
2041:
1851:
2091:
2229:
2217:
1779:
1577:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1438:
1362:
672:
Department of Labor equal pay infographic created for the 50th anniversary of the legislation
575:
563:
282:
263:
244:
225:
206:
28:
2310:
1969:
1756:
1617:
1425:
1415:
383:
274:
Arizona Governing Comm. for Tax Deferred Annuity and Deferred Compensation Plans v. Norris
8:
2205:
2187:
1999:
1841:
1546:
1394:
969:
641:
604:
414:
326:
146:
739:
285:
2283:
2265:
2131:
2121:
1904:
1635:
646:
625:
621:
425:, to "prohibit discrimination on account of sex in the payment of wages by employers."
334:
266:
228:
209:
247:
2317:
2295:
2259:
1831:
1556:
1379:
1069:
718:
629:
490:
418:
164:
761:
570:
first introduced an identical bill in the House of Representatives on the same day.
2235:
2211:
2199:
2181:
1984:
1798:
1746:
1384:
463:
828:
649:, the United Kingdom legislation which was influenced by the Equal Pay Act of 1963
77:
1223:
1138:
1101:
Paycheck Fairness Act, H.R. 1687 109th Cong. (2005) (Sponsored by Representative
1089:
812:
559:
342:
318:
174:
2167:
2021:
1501:
1344:
314:
2347:
2277:
2126:
1974:
1496:
1448:
1420:
1336:
1009:
526:
409:
members with President John F. Kennedy as he signs the Equal Pay Act into law
359:
tends to cause labor disputes, thereby burdening, affecting, and obstructing
330:
517:, the EPA is part of the same legislative structure that houses the federal
462:
case, regardless of the intention of the employer. As such, the EPA imposes
2223:
1458:
1102:
583:
567:
518:
391:
322:
2271:
2157:
1389:
1331:
1152:"Pay Equity & Discrimination - Institute for Women's Policy Research"
600:
525:
on the salaries of men or women for particular jobs. Economists, such as
522:
497:, which incorporates the EPA’s four affirmative defenses into Title VII.
459:
353:
668:
1119:
1088:
Paycheck Fairness Act, S. 841 109th Cong. (2005) (Sponsored by Senator
466:
on employers who engage in wage discrimination on the basis of gender.
702:
96:
1959:
387:
2289:
1326:
508:
374:
360:
346:
154:
1192:
36:
1430:
1132:
Women in America: Indicators of Economic and Social Well-being
738:. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from
717:. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from
379:
628:
has now been mostly superseded by Part 5, chapter 3, of the
366:
burdens commerce and the free flow of goods in commerce; and
310:
444:
different wages are paid to employees of the opposite sex;
688:, 887 F.3d 453, 464 (9th Cir. 2018).
450:
the jobs are performed under similar working conditions.
485:
First, the same 88th Congress enacted Title VII of the
982:
See 29 U.S.C. § 201, et seq.; 29 C.F.R. 1620.1 (2006).
807:
Pub. L. No. 88-38, 77 Stat. 56 (codified as amended at
973:
In many other cases, women will just not be hired.").
891:
109 Cong. Rec. 9193 (1963) (Rep. Frances P. Bolton).
1552:
Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961
16:
United States labor law of the New Frontier program
352:prevents the maximum utilization of the available
69:
2107:John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
2345:
1980:U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
754:
509:Congress' consideration of economic consequences
1938:John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
1171:"5 Facts About the State of the Gender Pay Gap"
317:). It was signed into law on June 10, 1963, by
217:Los Angeles Dept. of Water and Power v. Manhart
2364:United States federal civil rights legislation
2242:Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington
1612:Report to the American People on Civil Rights
1208:
236:Northwest Airlines, Inc. v. Transport Workers
2369:Anti-discrimination law in the United States
615:
369:constitutes an unfair method of competition.
1024:,109 Cong. Rec. 9193 (1963) (Rep. Colmers).
946:, 31 J.C. & U.L. 393, 397 n. 36 (2005).
1215:
1201:
349:necessary for their health and efficiency;
2052:John F. Kennedy Federal Building (Boston)
1670:U.S. House of Representatives elections:
1522:Status of Women (Presidential Commission)
994:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
911:individuals…sex…." 42 U.S.C. §2000e-2(a).
495:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
2404:Industrial and organizational psychology
1686:U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts:
667:
407:American Association of University Women
401:
2374:United States federal labor legislation
1965:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
1068:. National Academies. January 1, 1979.
879:Miranda v. B & B Cash Grocery Store
473:
2346:
2047:Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts
1631:Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts
882:, 975 F.2d 1518, 1526 (11th Cir. 1992)
730:
728:
546:
2057:John F. Kennedy International Airport
1196:
1168:
2112:John F. Kennedy University (defunct)
1400:Migration and Refugee Assistance Act
1038:Women in the Labor Force: A Databook
1368:Arms Control and Disarmament Agency
1222:
725:
13:
1116:Academy of Management Perspectives
413:In 1944, Republican congresswoman
74:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
14:
2415:
1707:Democratic National Conventions:
1527:University of Alabama integration
1176:United States Department of Labor
1169:Jones, Janelle (March 19, 2021).
555:amended the EPA so that it does.
373:The law provides in part that "o
145:in the Senate as S. 1409 by
2327:
2326:
1576:
1569:
920:See 42 U.S.C. §§2000e(b) (2006).
480:Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
27:
2102:John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
1719:U.S. presidential election 1960
1492:Federal housing segregation ban
1373:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1247:U.S. Senator from Massachusetts
1162:
1144:
1125:
1108:
1095:
1082:
1055:
1043:
1027:
1015:
999:
985:
976:
962:
949:
932:County of Washington v. Gunther
923:
914:
904:
894:
885:
866:
847:
538:
255:County of Washington v. Gunther
1239:President of the United States
874:Corning Glass Works v. Brennan
855:Corning Glass Works v. Brennan
841:Corning Glass Works v. Brennan
833:
818:
801:
775:
707:
691:
677:
593:
198:Corning Glass Works v. Brennan
1:
2384:Presidency of John F. Kennedy
1816:John F. Kennedy document hoax
1810:Happy Birthday, Mr. President
1804:Coretta Scott King phone call
1742:Birthplace and childhood home
1625:A rising tide lifts all boats
1512:Presidential Medal of Freedom
397:
2015:Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences
1467:Communications Satellite Act
1050:U.S. News & World Report
957:Education Amendments of 1972
876:, 417 U.S. 188, 196 (1974);
715:"The Equal Pay Act Turns 40"
588:Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act
553:Education Amendments of 1972
503:Education Amendments of 1972
313:disparity based on sex (see
7:
2354:88th United States Congress
1917:Gravesite and Eternal Flame
1775:Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana
1698:1960 presidential primaries
1606:We choose to go to the Moon
1472:Community Mental Health Act
860:Fallon v. State of Illinois
635:
186:United States Supreme Court
54:88th United States Congress
10:
2420:
2394:Women's rights legislation
1703:1960 presidential campaign
1636:State of the Union Address
1600:American University speech
1487:Federal affirmative action
1317:Presidential Proclamations
1034:Bureau of Labor Statistics
2305:
2166:
2097:John F. Kennedy Arboretum
2030:
1925:
1865:
1824:
1734:
1661:
1585:
1567:
1542:Oil Pollution Act of 1961
1457:
1444:Moscow–Washington hotline
1353:
1269:
1230:
940:The Diluted Equal Pay Act
829:et seq § 201, et seq
616:Outside the United States
533:
192:
184:
138:
133:
125:
117:
107:
102:
83:
64:
59:
48:
35:
26:
22:The Equal Pay Act of 1963
2379:Equal pay for equal work
2254:Patricia Kennedy Lawford
1955:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1943:Profile in Courage Award
1537:All-Channel Receiver Act
1507:Pilot Food Stamp Program
1141:at whitehouse.gov, p. 33
663:
653:Equal pay for equal work
487:Civil Rights Act of 1964
431:Fair Labor Standards Act
423:Fair Labor Standards Act
325:Program. In passing the
307:Fair Labor Standards Act
112:Fair Labor Standards Act
2399:1963 in women's history
2389:1963 in labor relations
2194:Patrick Bouvier Kennedy
2117:John F. Kennedy Stadium
1950:Twenty-fourth Amendment
1532:Voter Education Project
736:"Equal Pay Act of 1963"
658:United States labor law
579:. On January 29, 2009,
303:United States labor law
126:U.S.C. sections amended
2311:← Dwight D. Eisenhower
2248:Eunice Kennedy Shriver
2042:Harvard Kennedy School
1960:Apollo 11 Moon landing
1853:A Nation of Immigrants
1327:Presidential limousine
673:
410:
309:, aimed at abolishing
163:on May 23, 1963 (
2230:Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.
2218:Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.
1910:attending dignitaries
1482:Executive Order 11110
1363:Alliance for Progress
1300:Judicial appointments
671:
576:Ledbetter v. Goodyear
564:Paycheck Fairness Act
405:
299:Equal Pay Act of 1963
2359:1963 in American law
2010:U.S. five cent stamp
1970:Kennedy Space Center
1618:Ich bin ein Berliner
1426:Cuban Missile Crisis
1416:Bay of Pigs Invasion
1322:Presidential pardons
789:on November 23, 2011
586:signed into law the
474:Congressional intent
341:depresses wages and
2318:Lyndon B. Johnson →
2206:Tatiana Schlossberg
2188:John F. Kennedy Jr.
2005:U.S. postage stamps
2000:Kennedy half dollar
1990:Cultural depictions
1843:Profiles in Courage
1547:Revenue Act of 1962
1395:Trade Expansion Act
1255:U.S. Representative
970:equal pay for women
642:Economic inequality
547:Further legislation
415:Winifred C. Stanley
134:Legislative history
23:
2284:John F. Fitzgerald
2266:Jean Kennedy Smith
2176:Jacqueline Bouvier
2122:Kennedy Expressway
2092:Runnymede memorial
1893:in popular culture
1794:Castle Hot Springs
1332:Presidential yacht
1137:2017-01-21 at the
742:on October 5, 2017
674:
647:Equal Pay Act 1970
626:Equal Pay Act 1970
622:Equal Pay Act 1970
411:
335:sex discrimination
21:
2341:
2340:
2296:Billie and Debbie
2260:Robert F. Kennedy
2087:Portland memorial
2067:Brooklyn memorial
1857:
1847:
1837:
1833:Why England Slept
1595:Inaugural address
1565:
1564:
1557:Wetlands Loan Act
1380:Flexible response
1158:on March 7, 2017.
721:on June 26, 2012.
630:Equality Act 2010
558:In 2005, Senator
491:Bennett Amendment
438:Section 206(d)(1)
295:
294:
86:Statutes at Large
2411:
2330:
2329:
2236:Rosemary Kennedy
2212:Jack Schlossberg
2200:Rose Schlossberg
2182:Caroline Kennedy
2077:Hyannis memorial
1855:
1845:
1835:
1799:Hammersmith Farm
1747:Kennedy Compound
1580:
1573:
1497:Fifty-mile hikes
1385:Kennedy Doctrine
1351:
1350:
1312:Executive Orders
1262:
1250:
1242:
1217:
1210:
1203:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1154:. Archived from
1148:
1142:
1129:
1123:
1112:
1106:
1099:
1093:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1059:
1053:
1052:, Vol. 73, p. 69
1047:
1041:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1003:
997:
989:
983:
980:
974:
966:
960:
953:
947:
927:
921:
918:
912:
908:
902:
898:
892:
889:
883:
870:
864:
851:
845:
837:
831:
822:
816:
805:
799:
798:
796:
794:
785:. Archived from
779:
773:
772:
770:
768:
758:
752:
751:
749:
747:
732:
723:
722:
711:
705:
695:
689:
687:
681:
562:introduced the "
464:strict liability
388:seniority system
343:living standards
177:on June 10, 1963
161:Passed the House
147:Patrick McNamara
87:
75:
71:
41:
31:
24:
20:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2301:
2224:Rose Fitzgerald
2208:(granddaughter)
2202:(granddaughter)
2162:
2151:John F. Kennedy
2142:John F. Kennedy
2134:John F. Kennedy
2082:London memorial
2072:Dallas memorial
2033:
2026:
1921:
1905:Riderless horse
1861:
1820:
1730:
1657:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1561:
1453:
1349:
1273:
1265:
1253:
1245:
1234:
1226:
1224:John F. Kennedy
1221:
1191:
1181:
1179:
1167:
1163:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1139:Wayback Machine
1130:
1126:
1113:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1090:Hillary Clinton
1087:
1083:
1076:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1004:
1000:
990:
986:
981:
977:
967:
963:
954:
950:
928:
924:
919:
915:
909:
905:
899:
895:
890:
886:
871:
867:
852:
848:
838:
834:
823:
819:
806:
802:
792:
790:
781:
780:
776:
766:
764:
760:
759:
755:
745:
743:
734:
733:
726:
713:
712:
708:
696:
692:
683:
682:
678:
666:
638:
618:
596:
560:Hillary Clinton
549:
541:
536:
511:
476:
400:
354:labor resources
321:as part of his
319:John F. Kennedy
291:
180:
175:John F. Kennedy
171:Signed into law
85:
73:
49:Enacted by
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2417:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2322:
2321:
2314:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2172:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2153: (CVN-79)
2146:
2137:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2022:Operation Sail
2019:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1935:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1883:media coverage
1880:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1849:
1839:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1813:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1784:
1783:
1782:
1777:
1766:Navy service:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1716:
1711:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1667:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1633:
1628:
1621:
1614:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1591:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1502:Food for Peace
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1463:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1437:Soviet Union:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1423:
1418:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1355:Foreign policy
1348:
1347:
1345:Situation Room
1342:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1281:
1279:
1267:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1251:
1243:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1220:
1219:
1212:
1205:
1197:
1190:
1189:
1161:
1143:
1124:
1118:21(1): 7-23. (
1107:
1094:
1081:
1074:
1054:
1042:
1026:
1014:
998:
984:
975:
961:
948:
922:
913:
903:
893:
884:
865:
846:
832:
825:29 U.S.C.
817:
809:29 U.S.C.
800:
774:
753:
724:
706:
690:
685:Rizo v. Yovino
675:
665:
662:
661:
660:
655:
650:
644:
637:
634:
617:
614:
595:
592:
548:
545:
540:
537:
535:
532:
510:
507:
475:
472:
452:
451:
448:
445:
399:
396:
384:responsibility
382:, effort, and
371:
370:
367:
364:
357:
350:
315:gender pay gap
293:
292:
290:
289:
270:
251:
232:
213:
193:
190:
189:
182:
181:
179:
178:
168:
158:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
127:
123:
122:
119:
118:Titles amended
115:
114:
109:
105:
104:
100:
99:
89:
81:
80:
66:
62:
61:
57:
56:
50:
46:
45:
42:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2416:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2334:
2333:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2304:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2286:(grandfather)
2285:
2282:
2280:(grandfather)
2279:
2278:P. J. Kennedy
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2144: (CV-67)
2143:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2127:Mount Kennedy
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2062:Boston statue
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1975:Kennedy Round
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1900:State funeral
1898:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1873:Assassination
1871:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1735:Personal life
1733:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1584:
1579:
1572:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1477:Equal Pay Act
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1449:Vienna summit
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1439:Berlin Crisis
1436:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1421:Cuban Project
1419:
1417:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1306:
1305:Supreme Court
1303:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1268:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1178:
1177:
1172:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1128:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1104:
1098:
1091:
1085:
1077:
1075:9780309028806
1071:
1067:
1066:
1058:
1051:
1046:
1039:
1036:Report 1084,
1035:
1030:
1023:
1018:
1011:
1010:Thomas Sowell
1007:
1002:
995:
988:
979:
971:
965:
958:
952:
945:
941:
937:
933:
926:
917:
907:
897:
888:
881:
880:
875:
869:
862:
861:
856:
850:
843:
842:
836:
830:
826:
821:
814:
810:
804:
788:
784:
778:
763:
757:
741:
737:
731:
729:
720:
716:
710:
704:
700:
694:
686:
680:
676:
670:
659:
656:
654:
651:
648:
645:
643:
640:
639:
633:
631:
627:
623:
613:
609:
606:
602:
591:
589:
585:
582:
578:
577:
571:
569:
565:
561:
556:
554:
544:
531:
528:
527:Thomas Sowell
524:
520:
516:
506:
504:
498:
496:
492:
488:
483:
481:
471:
467:
465:
461:
456:
449:
446:
443:
442:
441:
439:
434:
432:
426:
424:
420:
416:
408:
404:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
376:
368:
365:
362:
358:
355:
351:
348:
344:
340:
339:
338:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
305:amending the
304:
300:
287:
284:
280:
276:
275:
271:
268:
265:
261:
257:
256:
252:
249:
246:
242:
238:
237:
233:
230:
227:
223:
219:
218:
214:
211:
208:
204:
200:
199:
195:
194:
191:
187:
183:
176:
173:by President
172:
169:
166:
162:
159:
156:
152:
148:
144:
141:
140:
137:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
113:
110:
106:
101:
98:
94:
90:
88:
82:
79:
72:
67:
63:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
38:
34:
30:
25:
19:
2325:
2316:
2309:
2150:
2141:
2133:
1933:Bibliography
1852:
1842:
1832:
1787:
1780:Arthur Evans
1768:
1752:Hickory Hill
1586:Presidential
1517:Space policy
1476:
1459:New Frontier
1337:
1290:Inauguration
1180:. Retrieved
1174:
1164:
1156:the original
1146:
1127:
1115:
1110:
1103:Rosa DeLauro
1097:
1084:
1063:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1005:
1001:
987:
978:
964:
951:
943:
939:
935:
931:
925:
916:
906:
896:
887:
877:
873:
868:
858:
854:
849:
839:
835:
820:
803:
791:. Retrieved
787:the original
777:
765:. Retrieved
756:
744:. Retrieved
740:the original
719:the original
709:
693:
684:
679:
619:
610:
605:white collar
597:
584:Barack Obama
574:
572:
568:Rosa DeLauro
557:
550:
542:
539:Earnings gap
519:minimum wage
512:
499:
484:
477:
468:
457:
455:conditions.
453:
435:
427:
412:
392:merit system
372:
333:stated that
323:New Frontier
298:
296:
272:
253:
234:
215:
196:
170:
160:
142:
108:Acts amended
103:Codification
40:(colloquial)
18:
2272:Ted Kennedy
2158:Yad Kennedy
1410:Vietnam War
1390:Peace Corps
1261:(1947–1953)
1249:(1953–1960)
1241:(1961–1963)
1182:February 5,
901:personnel")
793:November 6,
601:blue collar
594:Enforcement
523:price floor
460:prima facie
288: (1983)
269: (1981)
250: (1981)
231: (1978)
212: (1974)
2348:Categories
2298:(hamsters)
2214:(grandson)
2184:(daughter)
2032:Memorials,
1757:La Querida
1285:Transition
1271:Presidency
813:§ 206
398:Background
143:Introduced
65:Public law
2274:(brother)
2262:(brother)
2232:(brother)
2149:USS
2140:USS
2034:namesakes
1888:reactions
1663:Elections
1022:See, e.g.
1006:See, e.g.
767:April 24,
581:President
436:The EPA,
390:; (ii) a
347:employees
60:Citations
2332:Category
2290:Pushinka
2268:(sister)
2256:(sister)
2250:(sister)
2244:(sister)
2238:(sister)
2226:(mother)
2220:(father)
1878:timeline
1588:speeches
1338:Resolute
1276:timeline
1135:Archived
1120:at jstor
746:June 11,
697:77
636:See also
375:employer
361:commerce
331:Congress
91:77
37:Acronyms
1762:Wexford
1724:debates
1295:Cabinet
1065:Council
936:Gunther
419:Buffalo
70:Pub. L.
2178:(wife)
2168:Family
1926:Legacy
1856:(1958)
1846:(1956)
1836:(1940)
1769:PT-109
1431:ExComm
1414:Cuba:
1072:
1040:(2019)
827:
811:
701:
534:Impact
95:
76:
2292:(dog)
2196:(son)
2190:(son)
1995:films
1985:VISTA
1866:Death
1825:Books
1788:PT-59
1405:USAID
1259:MA–11
815:(d)).
699:Stat.
664:Notes
417:from
380:skill
301:is a
281:
262:
243:
224:
205:
188:cases
165:362–9
93:Stat.
78:88–38
1714:1960
1709:1956
1693:1958
1688:1952
1682:1950
1677:1948
1672:1946
1651:1963
1646:1962
1641:1961
1340:desk
1257:for
1236:35th
1184:2022
1070:ISBN
955:See
872:See
853:See
795:2006
769:2015
748:2013
620:The
515:FLSA
345:for
327:bill
311:wage
297:The
286:1073
283:U.S.
264:U.S.
245:U.S.
226:U.S.
207:U.S.
52:the
2132:MV
493:in
279:463
267:161
260:452
241:451
229:702
222:435
210:188
203:417
129:206
44:EPA
2350::
1173:.
1105:).
1092:).
1008:,
727:^
703:56
632:.
433:.
337::
329:,
277:,
258:,
248:77
239:,
220:,
201:,
155:MI
121:29
97:56
1812:"
1808:"
1627:"
1623:"
1620:"
1616:"
1608:"
1604:"
1278:)
1274:(
1216:e
1209:t
1202:v
1186:.
1122:)
1078:.
996:.
797:.
771:.
750:.
363:;
356:;
167:)
157:)
153:–
151:D
149:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.svg)