295:. This idea of flashbulb memory was proposed by R. Brown and Kulik (1977), in which they stated that this idea revolves around remembering an event or unexpected circumstance due to emotional arousal. They referred to this memory as "photographic vividness". However, whether the vividness of the flashbulb memory is due to a virtual "flash" that occurs because of the emotional experience has been hotly contested. Flashbulb memories may occur because of our propensity to rehearse and retell those highly emotional events, which strengthens the memory. R. Brown and Kulik represented that these memories contain information that falls under the categories: place, ongoing activity, informant, own affect, and aftermath. Flashbulb memory is usually perceived as highly accurate and consistent over time and are presented with great confidence, even if sometimes they are inaccurate. Authors Brown, Kulik, and Conway argued that these special memories involve the
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tractable by studying episodic memory's adaptive counterpart: the capacity to flexibly imagine future events. However, a recent experiment addressed one of
Suddendorf and Busby (2003)'s specific criticisms (the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis, which states that nonhuman animals can only take actions based on immediate needs, as opposed to future needs). Correia and colleagues demonstrated that western scrub-jays can selectively cache different types of foods depending on which type of food they will desire at a future time, offering strong evidence against the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis by demonstrating that scrub-jays can flexibly adjust their behavior based on past experience of desiring a particular food.
470:). They were able to demonstrate that these birds may possess an episodic-like memory system as they found that they remember where they cached different food types and discriminately recovered them depending on the perishability of the item and time that elapsed since caching. Thus, scrub-jays appear to remember the "what-where-and-when" of specific past caching events. The authors argued that such performance meets the behavioral criteria for episodic memory, but referred to the ability as "episodic-like" memory because the study did not address the phenomenological aspects of episodic memory.
244:, on the other hand, is a structured record of facts, concepts, and skills that we have acquired. Semantic information is derived from accumulated episodic memory. Episodic memory can be thought of as a "map" that ties together items in semantic memory. For example, all encounters with how a "dog" looks and sounds will make up the semantic representation of that word. All episodic memories concerning a dog will then reference this single semantic representation of "dog" and, likewise, all new experiences with the dog will modify the single semantic representation of that dog.
627:. This technique traces the differing pathways of nerve fibres that further create communication throughout differing structures. These networks can be thought of as neural maps that can expand or contract according to the information being processed at that time. Neural Network Models can undergo learning patterns to use episodic memories to predict certain moments. Neural network models help the episodic memories by capturing the naturalistic state you are currently in such as scenery, rooms, time, smell, or even your current feeling.
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323:, a selective agonist at the neuronal alpha4beta2 nicotinic receptor, which is developed by the company Targacept. Currently, there are several other products developed by several companies—including new catecholamine-O-methyltransferase inhibitors with fewer side effects—that aim for improving episodic memory. A recent placebo controlled study found that
252:, from damage of the medial temporal lobe, is an impairment of declarative memory that affects both episodic and semantic memory operations. Originally, Tulving proposed that episodic and semantic memory were separate systems that competed with each other in retrieval. However, this theory was rejected when Howard and Kahana completed experiments on
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remember events and what we end up recalling from memory. Similarly, autobiographical memory is constructive and reconstructed as an evolving process of history. A person's autobiographical memory is fairly reliable, although the reliability of autobiographical memories is questionable because of memory distortions.
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Neural networks help us understand how the brain sends and receives different messages to the body, and how they are connected. These networks are a group of neurons or structures that are connected together. These structures work harmoniously to produce different cognitions within the brain. One of
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The ability of animals to encode and retrieve past experiences relies on the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe, a structure including the hippocampus. Animal lesion studies have provided significant findings related to the importance of particular brain structures in episodic-like memory. For
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Despite similar neural areas and evidence from experiments, some scholars remain cautious about comparisons to human episodic memory. Purported episodic-like memory often seems fixed to a particular domain or could be explained in terms of procedural or semantic memory. The problem may be better
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originally described episodic memory as a record of a person's experience that held temporally dated information and spatio-temporal relations. A feature of episodic memory that
Tulving later elaborates on is that it allows an agent to imagine traveling back in time. A current situation may cue
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play a role in episodic memory, potentially acting as an accumulator to support the subjective feeling that something is "old", or perhaps supporting mental imagery which allows you a sense of the vividness of memories. Indeed, bilateral damage to the inferior parietal lobe results in episodic
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is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts. Additionally, it also refers to the memory of a person's history. An individual does not remember exactly everything that has happened in one's past. Memory is constructive, where previous experience affects how we
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Tulving (1983) proposed that to meet the criteria of episodic memory, evidence of conscious recollection must be provided. Demonstrating episodic memory in the absence of language, and thus in non-human animals, has been declared impossible as long as there are no agreed-upon non-linguistic
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were the first animal to demonstrate two of the aspects of episodic memory—the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited. Other studies have examined this type of memory in different animal species, such as dogs, rats, honey bees, and primates.
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example, hippocampal lesions have severely impacted all three components (what, where, and when) in animals, suggesting that the hippocampus is responsible for detecting novel events, stimuli, and places when forming new memories and retrieving that information later on.
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Researchers do not agree about how long episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus. Some researchers believe that episodic memories always rely on the hippocampus. Others believe the hippocampus only stores episodic memories for a short time, after which the
256:(LSA) that supported the opposite. Instead of an increase in semantic similarity when there was a decrease in the strength of temporal associations, the two worked together so semantic cues on retrieval were strongest when episodic cues were strong as well.
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Dunbar G, Boeijinga PH, Demazières A, Cisterni C, Kuchibhatla R, Wesnes K, Luthringer R (May 2007). "Effects of TC-1734 (AZD3480), a selective neuronal nicotinic receptor agonist, on cognitive performance and the EEG of young healthy male volunteers".
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is one example of this. Flashbulb memory is event-specific, which consists of depictions of personal experiences. For example, saying "I remember seeing
Grandma smile when I gave her the present", or remembering the detailed events of the tragedy of
184:) is also involved in the formation of new episodic memories (also known as episodic encoding). Patients with damage to the prefrontal cortex can learn new information, but tend to do so in a disordered fashion. For example, they might show normal
619:) if the stored representation includes information on the spatiotemporal context in which an item was studied. Smaller memories such as words or references said by someone are labeled as inactive or active neurons in the entorhinal cortex.
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Together, semantic and episodic memory make up our declarative memory. They each represent different parts of context to form a complete picture. As such, something that affects episodic memory can also affect semantic memory. For example,
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Apud JA, Mattay V, Chen J, Kolachana BS, Callicott JH, Rasetti R, Alce G, Iudicello JE, Akbar N, Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR (May 2007). "Tolcapone improves cognition and cortical information processing in normal human subjects".
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It is known that autobiographical memories initially are stored as episodic memories, but it is currently unknown if autobiographical memories are the same as episodic memories or if the autobiographical memories become converted to
274:) seems to be different between younger (aged 23–39) and older people (aged 67–80) upon episodic memory retrieval. Older people tend to activate both their left and right hippocampus, while younger people activate only the left one.
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There are essentially nine properties of episodic memory that collectively distinguish it from other types of memory. Other types of memory may exhibit a few of these properties, but only episodic memory has all nine:
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retrieval of a previous episode, so that context that colours the previous episode is experienced at the immediate moment. The agent is provided with a means of associating previous feelings with current situations.
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Autobiographical memories can differ for special periods of life. For instance, people recall a few personal events from the first years of their lives. The loss of these first events is called childhood or
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What it feels like stepping into the ocean in general. This is a memory of what a personal event is generally like. It might be based on the memories of having stepped in the ocean, many times during the
72:, which elicits the retrieval of contextual information pertaining to a specific event or experience that has occurred. Tulving seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection as:
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Flashbulb memory recall in healthy adults – a functional magnetic resonance imaging study: B. Metternich , K. Spanhel , A. Schoendube, I. Ofer, M. J. Geiger, A. Schulze-Bonhage, H. Mast and K. Wagner
299:, specifically, the amygdala. There is an abundancy of research that shows the amygdala involvement regarding retrieval of emotional memories, for example, research using brain imaging techniques.
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Alhaj HA, Massey AE, McAllister-Williams RH (November 2006). "Effects of DHEA administration on episodic memory, cortisol and mood in healthy young men: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study".
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Events that are recorded into episodic memory may trigger episodic learning, i.e. a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event, such as a fear of dogs after being bitten by a dog.
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519:. Additionally, people recall many personal events from their previous few years. For adolescents and young adults, the reminiscence bump and the recent events can coincide.
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311:, whereas verbal episodic memory can be improved in persons with the val/val genotype of the val158met polymorphism through administration of the CNS penetrant specific
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when or where it had been viewed. Some researchers believe that the prefrontal cortex helps organize information for more efficient storage, drawing upon its role in
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is complex, but generally, emotion tends to increase the likelihood that an event will be remembered later and that it will be remembered vividly.
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In healthy adults, longterm visual episodic memory can be enhanced specifically through administration of the
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in the adult hippocampus may ease the removal of old memories and increase the efficiency of forming new memories.
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that accompanies the act of remembering, which enables an individual to be aware of the self in a subjective time
327:, which is a functional cortisol antagonist, improves episodic memory in healthy young men (Alhaj et al. 2006).
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30:, and other contextual information) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past
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1985:
714:
Clayton NS, Salwiczek LH, Dickinson A (March 2007).
188:
of an object they had seen in the past, but fail to
157:
The formation of new episodic memories requires the
623:the largest proposals for this ideology is that of
319:. Furthermore, episodic memory is enhanced through
207:Other work has shown that portions of the inferior
133:
They always have a perspective (field or observer).
1266:
770:
231:
148:They are recollectively experienced when accessed.
844:Conway MA (September 2009). "Episodic memories".
432:which may contribute to memory deficits found in
130:Often represented in the form of (visual) images.
3973:
2662:
2217:
2161:Correia SP, Dickinson A, Clayton NS (May 2007).
1986:Fugazza C, Pogány Á, Miklósi Á (December 2016).
413:which can be precipitated by overconsumption of
145:They make autobiographical remembering specific.
2607:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 365–373.
2107:
2049:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences
1600:
1207:
2273:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 25–49,
302:
2997:
2616:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 381–403.
2396:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(99)80025-7
2300:
2045:"Elements of Episodic-like Memory in Animals"
388:areas and this leads to episodic memory loss
2630:Buckner, R. L.; Barch, D. (September 1999).
2629:
1778:
1385:
1315:
1143:
1086:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3128:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
1921:
1878:
1740:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
644:Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2009).
61:is factual recollection (semantic) whereas
3004:
2990:
2859:
2751:Eacott MJ, Easton A, Zinkivskay A (2005).
1647:
1601:Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ (June 2015).
497:
391:A rare type of shellfish poisoning called
277:
136:Represent short time slices of experience.
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2011:
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1284:
1118:
1063:
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955:
828:
739:
152:
53:The term "episodic memory" was coined by
2977:Episodic Memory and Referential Activity
813:
571:
2896:
2620:
2611:
1164:
1149:
678:
3974:
2911:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114
2268:
1927:
1733:
1705:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.01.010
1179:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114
1056:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.02.014
858:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.02.003
843:
473:According to a study conducted by the
2985:
2465:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
1031:
541:When you first set foot in the ocean.
142:They are subject to rapid forgetting.
1154:. New York: Oxford University Press.
575:
42:, one of the two major divisions of
2825:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
2218:Scarf D, Smith C, Stuart M (2014).
611:Episodic memories can be stored in
13:
2636:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2595:
1386:Maguire EA, Frith CD (July 2003).
1267:Tulving E, Markowitsch HJ (1998).
259:
114:
14:
3993:
3409:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
2935:
1970:
1607:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
818:. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
313:catecholamine-O-methyltransferase
16:Memory of autobiographical events
3954:
3942:
3011:
2956:
2942:
2410:European Journal of Neuroscience
579:
350:tests in normal healthy adults.
161:, a structure that includes the
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2511:
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1979:
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1463:
1420:
1379:
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1309:
1260:
1201:
1158:
1094:
613:autoassociative neural networks
232:Relationship to semantic memory
38:, it comprises the category of
3619:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
3492:Memory and social interactions
1799:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.09.006
1318:Journal of Memory and Language
1007:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4163-07.2007
923:
880:
837:
822:
807:
764:
707:
672:
646:"Semantic and episodic memory"
637:
1:
2800:10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01272-8
2727:10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00266-1
2459:Henderson, Jaimie M. (2012).
2132:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00187-6
1887:Journal of Psychopharmacology
1662:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70881-5
1120:10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00266-1
681:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
630:
447:
3328:Retrieval-induced forgetting
2788:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
2279:10.1017/cbo9780511558313.006
2110:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
901:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90184-X
773:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
494:are currently much debated.
7:
2899:Annual Review of Psychology
2623:Elements of Episodic Memory
1734:Kovács KA (December 2021).
1353:Developmental Psychobiology
1167:Annual Review of Psychology
1152:Elements of Episodic Memory
393:amnesic shellfish poisoning
303:Pharmacological enhancement
10:
3998:
3666:Levels of Processing model
3591:World Memory Championships
3424:Lost in the mall technique
3271:dissociative (psychogenic)
2625:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2605:Children's Episodic Memory
2545:10.1037/0894-4105.18.4.629
1899:10.1177/026988119801200110
829:Baars BJ, Gage NM (2007).
785:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.001
451:
263:
171:the hippocampus and memory
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2837:10.1016/j.nlm.2005.10.002
2358:10.1080/09658210143000353
2315:10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.85
2188:10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.063
2013:10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.057
1572:10.1007/s00213-005-0136-y
1529:10.1007/s00213-006-0675-x
1441:10.1007/s00213-005-0043-2
741:10.1016/j.cub.2007.01.011
693:10.1017/S0140525X0004440X
430:autobiographical memories
353:
282:The relationship between
218:memories are consolidated
3704:The Seven Sins of Memory
3649:Intermediate-term memory
3454:Indirect tests of memory
3431:Recovered-memory therapy
3381:Misattribution of memory
2603:Ghetti S, Lee J (2010).
2478:10.3389/fnint.2012.00015
2237:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00893
1787:Psychoneuroendocrinology
625:Diffusion Tensor Imaging
530:
409:) deficiency, a form of
254:latent semantic analysis
94:Autonoetic consciousness
3391:Source-monitoring error
2874:10.1126/science.1129217
2271:Autobiographical Memory
2224:Frontiers in Psychology
1473:Neuropsychopharmacology
1230:10.1126/science.2296719
995:Journal of Neuroscience
833:. London: Elsevier Ltd.
504:autobiographical memory
498:Autobiographical memory
475:University of Edinburgh
346:, episodic memory, and
342:improve performance on
278:Relationship to emotion
180:(and in particular the
3798:George Armitage Miller
3758:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
2648:10.1176/ajp.156.9.1311
2614:Organization of memory
2061:10.1098/rstb.2001.0947
1834:Psychological Bulletin
1485:10.1038/sj.npp.1301227
1330:10.1006/jmla.2001.2798
654:. Macmillan. pp.
468:Aphelocoma californica
153:Cognitive neuroscience
3961:Philosophy portal
3949:Psychology portal
3813:Henry L. Roediger III
3414:False memory syndrome
3386:Misinformation effect
3366:Imagination inflation
2757:Learning & Memory
1942:10.1007/s002130050803
957:10.1073/pnas.95.3.906
572:Neural network models
264:Further information:
3318:Motivated forgetting
2303:Psychology and Aging
1753:10.3390/ijms23010462
1619:10.1162/jocn_a_00776
1405:10.1093/brain/awg157
454:Episodic-like memory
399:Korsakoff's syndrome
376:tends to damage the
159:medial temporal lobe
96:, a special kind of
32:personal experiences
3828:Arthur P. Shimamura
3728:Richard C. Atkinson
3545:Effects of exercise
3419:Memory implantation
3303:Interference theory
3219:Selective retention
3199:Meaningful learning
2677:1998Natur.395..272C
2179:2007CBio...17..856C
2055:(1413): 1483–1491.
2004:2016CBio...26.3209F
1222:1990Sci...247..301T
948:1998PNAS...95..906G
732:2007CBio...17.R189C
374:Alzheimer's disease
250:anterograde amnesia
167:procedural memories
3925:Andriy Slyusarchuk
3748:Hermann Ebbinghaus
3654:Involuntary memory
3555:Memory improvement
3540:Effects of alcohol
3502:Transactive memory
3480:Politics of memory
3449:Exceptional memory
2621:Tulving E (1983).
1930:Psychopharmacology
1846:10.1037/bul0000344
1560:Psychopharmacology
1517:Psychopharmacology
1429:Psychopharmacology
1150:Tulving E (1983).
591:. You can help by
563:Flashbulb memories
558:Flashbulb memories
417:compared to foods.
378:entorhinal cortex
348:inhibitory control
284:emotion and memory
194:executive function
87:Connection to the
82:mental time travel
3969:
3968:
3933:
3932:
3920:Cosmos Rossellius
3768:Marcia K. Johnson
3639:Exosomatic memory
3624:Context-dependent
3614:Absent-mindedness
3497:Memory conformity
3475:Collective memory
3376:Memory conformity
3313:Memory inhibition
3232:
3231:
3224:Tip of the tongue
2950:Psychology portal
2422:10.1111/ejn.13712
2288:978-0-511-55831-3
1998:(23): 3209–3213.
1840:(11): 1184–1214.
1398:(Pt 7): 1511–23.
1365:10.1002/dev.21004
814:Terry WS (2006).
716:"Episodic memory"
609:
608:
525:semantic memories
517:reminiscence bump
513:infantile amnesia
464:western scrub jay
178:prefrontal cortex
46:(the other being
3989:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3900:Jonathan Hancock
3853:Robert Stickgold
3823:Richard Shiffrin
3778:Elizabeth Loftus
3718:
3717:
3634:Childhood memory
3441:Research methods
3323:Repressed memory
3298:Forgetting curve
3286:transient global
3157:Autobiographical
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1693:Neuropsychologia
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617:Hopfield network
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288:Flashbulb memory
266:Memory and aging
182:right hemisphere
78:subjective sense
44:long-term memory
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3838:Susumu Tonegawa
3818:Daniel Schacter
3793:Eleanor Maguire
3783:Geoffrey Loftus
3738:Stephen J. Ceci
3733:Robert A. Bjork
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3628:state-dependent
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3487:Cultural memory
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3459:Memory disorder
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2964:Medicine portal
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2533:Neuropsychology
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1992:Current Biology
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361:autistic people
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340:methylphenidate
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260:Age differences
242:Semantic memory
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115:Nine properties
48:implicit memory
40:explicit memory
36:semantic memory
20:Episodic memory
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3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3848:Endel Tulving
3846:
3844:
3843:Anne Treisman
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3803:Brenda Milner
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3788:James McGaugh
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3753:Sigmund Freud
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3701:
3698:
3697:retrospective
3694:
3691:
3687:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3676:Muscle memory
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3523:Art of memory
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3371:Memory biases
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3351:Confabulation
3349:
3348:
3346:
3344:
3343:Memory errors
3340:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3261:post-hypnotic
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3214:Rote learning
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3189:Hyperthymesia
3187:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3152:Active recall
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3049:Consolidation
3047:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3002:
3000:
2995:
2993:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2954:
2951:
2940:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2831:(2): 173–82.
2830:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2720:(4): 535–52.
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2685:10.1038/26216
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2600:
2591:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2455:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2397:
2391:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2265:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1982:
1974:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1793:(8): 1093–6.
1792:
1788:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1566:(4): 541–51.
1565:
1561:
1554:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1523:(4): 919–29.
1522:
1518:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1359:(2): 125–32.
1358:
1354:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1153:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1113:(4): 535–52.
1112:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1089:
1083:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
985:
977:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
949:
945:
942:(3): 906–13.
941:
937:
933:
926:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
883:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
840:
832:
825:
817:
810:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
759:
755:
751:
747:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
710:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
675:
667:
665:9780716752158
661:
657:
653:
652:
647:
640:
636:
628:
626:
620:
618:
614:
603:
594:
590:
587:This section
585:
582:
578:
577:
564:
561:
560:
559:
556:
550:
549:
548:
545:
540:
539:
538:
535:
534:
528:
526:
520:
518:
514:
508:
505:
495:
493:
487:
483:
480:
476:
471:
469:
465:
460:
455:
442:
438:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
416:
412:
404:
401:is caused by
400:
397:
394:
390:
387:
384:before other
383:
379:
375:
372:
369:
365:
362:
358:
357:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
332:meta-analysis
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
300:
298:
297:limbic system
294:
289:
285:
275:
273:
267:
257:
255:
251:
245:
243:
238:
237:Endel Tulving
229:
227:
223:
219:
213:
210:
209:parietal lobe
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
147:
144:
141:
138:
135:
132:
129:
126:
123:
122:
121:
112:
109:
107:
99:
98:consciousness
95:
92:
90:
86:
83:
79:
75:
74:
73:
71:
66:
64:
60:
56:
55:Endel Tulving
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3915:Ben Pridmore
3833:Larry Squire
3743:Susan Clancy
3702:
3586:Memory sport
3511:Other topics
3401:False memory
3356:Cryptomnesia
3333:Weapon focus
3293:Decay theory
3171:
3054:Neuroanatomy
3013:Human memory
2902:
2898:
2865:
2861:
2828:
2824:
2794:(2): 74–80.
2791:
2787:
2763:(3): 221–3.
2760:
2756:
2717:
2713:
2668:
2664:
2639:
2635:
2622:
2613:
2604:
2536:
2532:
2522:
2513:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2390:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2309:(1): 85–91.
2306:
2302:
2296:
2270:
2264:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2170:
2166:
2156:
2113:
2109:
2103:
2052:
2048:
2038:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1966:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1893:(1): 79–83.
1890:
1886:
1880:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1610:
1606:
1596:
1563:
1559:
1553:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1435:(1): 170–9.
1432:
1428:
1422:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1356:
1352:
1346:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1276:
1272:
1262:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1151:
1145:
1110:
1106:
1096:
1082:cite journal
1047:
1043:
1033:
998:
994:
984:
939:
935:
925:
892:
888:
882:
849:
845:
839:
830:
824:
815:
809:
776:
772:
766:
723:
719:
709:
684:
680:
674:
650:
639:
621:
610:
597:
593:adding to it
588:
557:
546:
536:
521:
509:
501:
488:
484:
479:hummingbirds
472:
467:
461:
457:
411:malnutrition
329:
306:
281:
269:
246:
235:
226:neurogenesis
214:
206:
175:
156:
118:
110:
103:
80:of time (or
70:recollection
67:
62:
58:
52:
19:
18:
3773:Eric Kandel
3721:Researchers
3693:Prospective
3644:Free recall
3598:Shas Pollak
3251:anterograde
3167:Declarative
2642:(9): 1311.
1936:(1): 30–6.
1273:Hippocampus
527:with time.
439:The use of
382:hippocampus
366:The label "
336:amphetamine
272:hippocampus
186:recognition
163:hippocampus
63:remembering
3808:Lynn Nadel
3686:intertrial
3671:Metamemory
3659:flashbacks
3579:In society
3276:retrograde
3238:Forgetting
3209:Procedural
3119:Short-term
3089:Eyewitness
1746:(1): 462.
1050:: 409–17.
651:Psychology
631:References
600:April 2012
448:In animals
434:depression
405:(vitamin B
315:inhibitor
3560:Nutrition
3468:In groups
3281:selective
3256:childhood
3184:Flashbulb
3144:Long-term
3044:Attention
2553:1931-1559
2487:1662-5145
2430:0953-816X
2366:0965-8211
2323:0882-7974
2118:CiteSeerX
2069:0962-8436
1971:Panko B.
1854:1939-1455
1324:: 85–98.
701:144939774
615:(e.g., a
420:An acute
317:Tolcapone
309:Donepezil
222:neocortex
190:recollect
3976:Category
3862:Patients
3533:mnemonic
3528:chunking
3194:Implicit
3177:Semantic
3172:Episodic
3162:Explicit
3027:Encoding
2919:11752477
2905:: 1–25.
2890:29830044
2882:16709773
2853:26124449
2845:16290193
2816:15829881
2808:10234230
2779:15897259
2736:15157417
2656:10484938
2571:15506830
2505:22536176
2446:41810408
2438:28921686
2382:33870697
2374:12097209
2256:25161644
2197:17462894
2140:12963469
2095:11571038
2022:27889264
1915:39651353
1872:35238585
1815:31032066
1807:15219661
1772:35008886
1721:10924334
1713:15989932
1678:53180896
1670:14584570
1635:15788121
1627:25591060
1588:25964357
1580:16231168
1545:10920515
1537:17225162
1501:24026336
1493:17063156
1457:21341306
1449:16021483
1414:12805116
1373:22213009
1303:18634842
1254:40894114
1187:11752477
1173:: 1–25.
1129:15157417
1074:24565734
1025:18160649
917:29293288
874:45874336
866:19524094
801:13939288
793:17548229
758:14032010
750:17371752
477:(2006),
422:cortisol
403:thiamine
380:and the
198:semantic
28:emotions
3681:Priming
3607:Related
3550:Emotion
3246:Amnesia
3084:Eidetic
3071:Sensory
3032:Storage
2862:Science
2744:9210805
2701:4394086
2693:9751053
2673:Bibcode
2562:2790923
2496:3334531
2331:8726374
2247:4130454
2230:: 893.
2205:2905358
2175:Bibcode
2148:2573813
2086:1088530
2077:3067106
2030:6491384
2000:Bibcode
1958:2571986
1950:9952062
1907:9584971
1863:9464351
1763:8745479
1295:9662134
1246:2296719
1238:2873625
1218:Bibcode
1210:Science
1137:9210805
1065:4075961
1016:6673454
976:9448258
944:Bibcode
909:2797412
728:Bibcode
415:alcohol
368:amnesia
330:A 2015
321:AZD3480
220:to the
59:knowing
22:is the
3982:Memory
3714:People
3699:memory
3630:memory
3570:Trauma
3109:Visual
3099:Iconic
3094:Haptic
3079:Echoic
3037:Recall
2927:399748
2925:
2917:
2888:
2880:
2851:
2843:
2814:
2806:
2777:
2742:
2734:
2714:Neuron
2699:
2691:
2665:Nature
2654:
2569:
2559:
2551:
2503:
2493:
2485:
2471:: 15.
2444:
2436:
2428:
2380:
2372:
2364:
2346:Memory
2329:
2321:
2285:
2254:
2244:
2203:
2195:
2146:
2138:
2120:
2093:
2083:
2075:
2067:
2028:
2020:
1956:
1948:
1913:
1905:
1870:
1860:
1852:
1813:
1805:
1770:
1760:
1719:
1711:
1676:
1668:
1633:
1625:
1586:
1578:
1543:
1535:
1499:
1491:
1455:
1447:
1412:
1371:
1336:
1301:
1293:
1252:
1244:
1236:
1195:399748
1193:
1185:
1135:
1127:
1107:Neuron
1072:
1062:
1023:
1013:
974:
964:
915:
907:
872:
864:
799:
791:
756:
748:
699:
662:
552:years.
426:recall
354:Damage
24:memory
3893:Other
3565:Sleep
3518:Aging
3063:Types
2923:S2CID
2886:S2CID
2849:S2CID
2812:S2CID
2740:S2CID
2697:S2CID
2442:S2CID
2378:S2CID
2201:S2CID
2144:S2CID
2073:JSTOR
2026:S2CID
1954:S2CID
1911:S2CID
1811:S2CID
1717:S2CID
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