464:
331:
231:
181:
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512:
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484:
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137:), and the anode is also copper; the arrangement is illustrated in the figure. The electric current causes copper atoms to dissolve from the anode's surface and to enter the electrolyte as copper ions (Cu in the figure). Copper ions are taken up by the mold's conducting surface at the same rate at which copper dissolves from the anode, thus completing the electrical circuit. When the copper layer on the mold grows to the desired thickness, the electric current is stopped. The mold and its attached electrotype are removed from the solution, and the electrotype and the mold are separated. An animation of the electrotyping process was produced in 2011 by the
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flood of light, and shining with rich reflections, produces an extremely rich effect." Other important sculptures followed; David A. Scott has written, "Some extremely important commissions were made in electrotypes, such as the "bronzes" that adorn the Opera, Paris, and the 320 cm high statue of Prince Albert and four accompanying figures, erected behind the Albert Hall in London as a memorial to the Great
Exhibition of 1851." The statue of Prince Albert was unveiled in 1861 (see photograph B below); the electrotyping process "was one in which the Prince Consort had had great faith." The
575:
285:) became commonly available around 1872. These generators supplanted the whole rooms of chemical batteries (Smee cells) that were previously used to provide electricity for electrotyping. Batteries did not have the electrical capacity needed to rapidly deposit the electrotype (or "electro"). The advent of plating dynamos sped up electrotyping twenty times or more, so that an electrotype printing plate could be deposited in less than two hours. In addition, the chemical batteries gave off toxic fumes that had required their isolation in separate rooms.
277:, which involved casting of type metal into a mold prepared from the forme. Stereotyping had been invented around 1725, and was already well-established when electrotyping was invented in 1838. Both methods yielded plates that could be preserved in case of future needs, for example in the printing of novels and other books of unpredictable popularity. The movable type used to compose the original forme could then be re-used. Both methods could be used to prepared curved plates for
20:
1726:
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in 1867, "They are twenty-one feet high, and were made by the galvanoplastic process in four pieces, whose welding together is invisible. They could in this manner be made so light that, in spite of their dimensions, they would not be too heavy for the cupola. This crown of gilt angels, poised amid a
63:. By 1901, stereotypers and electrotypers in several countries had formed labor unions around these crafts. The unions persisted into the 1970s, but by the late 20th century, after more than a century in widespread use for preparing plates, the two technologies had been bypassed by the transitions to
1198:
Twelve great gilt angels, taking the part of the caryatides, support consoles on which stand the bases of the pilasters which form the interior row of the dome and separate the windows. They are twenty-one feet high, and were made by the galvanoplastic process in four pieces, whose welding together
1079:
electroplating. The deposition of an adherent metal coating on a conductive object for protection, decoration, or other purposes, such as securing a surface with properties or dimensions different from those of the base metal. The object to be plated is placed in an electrolyte and connected to one
292:
in hard steel: only soft metal was needed for carving the type master, which was also useful for large sizes of type, since it was hard to drive large punches into a matrix effectively. It cut the cost of decorative types that would not be used as often as body text typefaces. On the other hand, it
43:
in 1838, and was immediately adopted for applications in printing and several other fields. As described in an 1890 treatise, electrotyping produces "an exact facsimile of any object having an irregular surface, whether it be an engraved steel- or copper-plate, a wood-cut, or a form of set-up type,
296:
Electrotyping was used for general-purpose type manufacture in the nineteenth century, but was a somewhat disreputable process, leading to some typefounders disdaining it (or at least claiming to). This was because it could be used just as easily to pirate another company's type as for an original
321:
A slight problem with electrotyping of type is that the new form is slightly smaller than the original, and this deviance could accumulate if a letterform was repeatedly regenerated. Stephenson Blake's solution was to squash type slightly in a press or file it down to broaden it before putting it
684:
Electrotyping was immediately recognized as an important industrial process, and several individuals claimed to have invented it around 1838. Heinrich reviewed this history on the occasion of the centennial of its invention, and concludes that Jacobi was indeed the inventor of "galvanoplasty" or
428:
Company in
Germany produced many statues and other items using electrotyping. The statues in particular were significantly less expensive than bronze castings. Memorials in German cemeteries from this era often incorporated electroptyped statues from models that had been commissioned by WMF from
313:
reported that 2000 electrotypers and stereotypers were employed in the US. However, job prospects were reported as poor. Offset printing has supplanted letterpress printing in most printing plants; the last letterpress facility for a newspaper was installed in the 1980s. For offset printing, the
1572:
Commercial website traces the history of one manufacturer of electrotyped art metal in the US from the 1880s through the 1930s. The firm was created by P. Mori and Sons, who manufactured objects with the brand name
Galvano Bronze. Subsequent names included: Pompeian Bronze, Armor Bronze, Marion
1368:
castings, and which, when not effected by an artist, often destroys the beauty of the modelling.' ('Electro-metallurgy', Art
Journal, 1866, vol.5, pp.286-7). There were however adverse comments about the appearance of electrotypes which could seem rather bright until the surface gained a patina.
1367:
Electrotypes generally cost some 25-30% less than traditionally cast work. Apart from this cost saving, it was argued that there were advantages to be had in the finishing process: 'It is not necessary to relieve the surface of that general roughness which is always the result of ordinary metal
742:
Some extremely important commissions were made in electrotypes, such as the "bronzes" that adorn the Opera, Paris, and the 320 cm high statue of Prince Albert and four accompanying figures, erected behind the Albert Hall in London as a memorial to the Great
Exhibition of 1851. The Prince Albert
456:
did several significant sculptures in the 1920s and 1930s using this technique. The advantage was that
Nadelman could have these "galvanoplastique" metal sculptures made quickly and inexpensively. Such sculptures can degrade quickly, and have presented significant preservation and restoration
353:
Electrotyping has been used for the production of metal sculptures, where it is an alternative to the casting of molten metal. These sculptures are sometimes called "galvanoplastic bronzes", although the actual metal is usually copper. It was possible to apply essentially any patina to these
144:
There is a second type of electrotyping that has been used in which the copper film is deposited onto the outside of a form, and is not separated from it. In this use the form is typically waterproofed plaster, which remains as a core after electrotyping. In German this method is known as
535:
251:
One of the first applications of electrotyping was in printing. Initially, electrotyping was used to make copper reproductions of engraved metal plates or wooden carvings, which were used to print artwork. The electrotypes could be incorporated along with movable type to compose the
354:
sculptures; gilding was also readily accomplished in the same facilities as electrotyping by using electroplating. Electrotyping has been used to reproduce valuable objects such as ancient coins, and in some cases electrotype copies have proven more durable than fragile originals.
309:(ISEU) was formed in 1902; previously, electrotypers had belonged to the International Typographer's Union (ITU). In 1925 there were 6800 members, and in 1955 10,500. In 1973 the ISEU was absorbed into the International Printing and Graphic Communications Union. In 1978, an
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is invisible. They could in this manner be made so light that, in spite of their dimensions, they would not be too heavy for the cupola. This crown of gilt angels, poised amid a flood of light, and shining with rich reflections, produces an extremely rich effect.
205:
The electrotyping industry was limited for some decades by the sources of the electric currents needed to activate the deposition of metal films into the mold; the rate of film growth is proportional to the magnitude of this current. In the initial work, the
574:
51:" sculptures created in the 19th century are actually electrotyped copper, and not bronze at all; sculptures were executed using electrotyping at least into the 1930s. In printing, electrotyping had become a standard method for producing plates for
196:
with the invention of "galvanoplasty" or electrotyping in 1838; Jacobi was a
Prussian scientist who was working in St. Petersburg, Russia. Nineteenth-century accounts often credited Thomas Spencer or C. J. Jordan with the invention in England, or
268:
in 1841 of the printed image prepared directly from a wood carving and of the image printed from a copper electrotype copy. Electrotyped copper plates could be formed into cylinders, which was valuable for use in magazine and newspaper printing.
234:
1841 magazine illustration by Joseph
Alexander Adams. The illustration compares direct letterpress printing from a wood carving and from a copper electrotype copy of the carving; it is among the earliest uses of electrotypes in printing.
201:
in the United States; Heinrich in particular gave a thorough account of the controversies surrounding the crediting of the invention, along with a short biography of Jacobi, in an article honoring the centennial of electrotyping in 1938.
767:
Meißner, Birgit; Doktor, Anke (2000). "Galvanoplastik – Geschichte einer
Technik aus dem 19. Jahrhundert" [Galvanoplastik - History of a Technology from the 19th Century]. In MeiĂźner, Birgit; Doktor, Anke; Mach, Martin (eds.).
23:
Schematic apparatus for electrotyping. An electric current flows from the battery, through the copper anode, the electrolyte, and the coated mold. A copper film (the electrotype) grows onto the electrically conducting coating of the
297:
design. (It was also used to revive older typefaces in cases where original punches had not survived but matrices or type had, and so sometimes for licensed copying of typefaces in order to send matrices to other countries.)
809:
Perhaps one of the greatest forward steps in connection with electrotyping was made when the plating dynamo was invented. The first adoption of a dynamo, in place of the Smee type of battery, was by Leslie, of New York, in
272:
Electrotyping was also used to produce entire printing plates directly from the formes composed from movable type and illustrations. In this application, electrotyping was a higher quality but more costly alternative to
1312:
Electrotyping produces copies of objects that are not difficult to distinguish from originals, but this book contains a series of photographs illustrating the steps in making an electrotype of a gilded silver
389:
In the 19th century, museums often displayed electrotypes of ancient coins instead of the originals (see photograph D below), and individuals purchased electrotypes for their private collections. By 1920, the
300:
By the 1900s printing plants often incorporated electrotyping and stereotyping departments, and electrotyping and stereotyping had become trades with associated apprenticeships. In the United
Kingdom, the
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101:
were used. The mold's surface is made electrically conducting by coating it very thinly with fine graphite powder or paint. A wire is attached to the conducting surface, and the mold is suspended in an
477:
in St. Petersburg, Russia. These sculptures are 6 metres (20 ft) tall; the metal needed to be thin enough so that the weight of the sculptures could be supported high above the cathedral's floor.
264:
of April 1840, and other English examples are known from later in that year. The image to the right shows one of the earliest uses of electrotyping in the United States; it is a comparison done by
551:
954:
The electrochemical transfer of copper from a copper electrode through an electrolyte to the cathode is treated in contemporary textbooks as an example of an "active electrode" and also of
172:
processes. As noted above, electrotyping forms the part using a non-conducting mold or form whose surface has been made conducting by applying a thin coating of graphite or metal powder.
93:, a mold is first formed from the model. Since electrotyping involves wet chemical processes and is done near room temperature, the molding material can be soft. Materials such as wax,
256:
for printing. Jacobi published his first account of electrotyping in October 1838. In 1839, electrotyping was used by Russian printers for government documents; the Russian Czar
826:
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in England had acquired nearly 1000 electrotyped copies of important objects from the collections of other European museums. The most celebrated may be their copy of the
1037:
288:
Electrotype was also used to manufacture matrices that could be used as moulds for individual pieces of metal type. This had several advantages over conventional
417:
in 1816. The plaster mask was electrotyped in 1884 by Elkington & Co., and this copper copy is now apparently in better condition than the plaster original.
222:
were being used; the larger currents that could be sustained by generators enabled substantial increases in the rate of metal deposition during electrotyping.
1398:
746:
The Memorial to the Great Exhibition was originally erected in the garden of the Royal Horticultural Society, and moved to its present location around 1890.
314:
printing plates are typically prepared by coating them with light-sensitive materials, and creating the image on the plate by direct optical exposure (the
601:
293:
gave no steel punch that could be used to create multiple matrices quickly, and was reported not always to give such good results as steel punchcutting.
1110:
electroforming. 3. The production or reproduction of articles by electrodeposition on a mandrel or mold that is subsequently separated from the deposit.
306:
302:
260:
had immediately become an enthusiastic supporter and patron of the technology. In England, the first use of electrotyping for printing appeared in the
281:, which were used for the longest print runs. The widespread adoption of electrotyping for this use occurred after mechanical electrical generators (
141:. Other metals besides copper can be electrotyped; similar procedures apply, but each different metal needs its own anode and electrolyte chemicals.
470:
1036:
3-D animation that explains the use of electrotyping to create presentation copies of works of art. The example is the electrotyping of the
386:
in Paris (the Opera) has two 7.5 meter tall sculptures above the main facade; the building was completed in 1869 (see photograph C below).
160:, which permanently adds a thin metallic overlayer to a metallic object instead of creating a freestanding metal part. Electrotyping and
448:
Many sculptors have experimented with the technique of electrotyping a plaster form that remains as the core of the finished sculpture (
164:
both produce metal parts, but differ in technical details. Electroforming involves the production of a metallic part around a metallic
1495:. Langbein published six editions of this handbook in German, as well as cooperating with versions in English such as this one; see
830:
469:
A. Among the earliest and most spectacular large sculptures produced by copper electrotyping were twelve gilt angels (ca. 1858) by
305:(NSES) formed in 1893, and continued to 1967 when it amalgamated with the National Graphic Association. In the US and Canada, the
1522:
430:
334:
885:
Guide to earning a living: a complete survey of careers in business, the professions, trade, agriculture, and government service
1362:
1598:
1305:
1229:
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735:
1511:
425:
346:
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Charles-Alphonse-Achille Gumery, Harmony, 1869. Gilded galvanoplastic bronze, height: 24' 7 1/4, west facade attic group.
585:
1544:
Galvanoplastic manipulations: A practical guide for the gold and silver electroplater and the galvanoplastic operator
1450:
1103:
1080:
terminal of a dc voltage source. The metal to be deposited is similarly immersed and connected to the other terminal.
1072:
1003:
409:
An important example of electrotyping's use for preservation is the electrotype of the plaster life-mask of the poet
652:
545:
in England. Electrotype copies of coins and antiquities were produced for museum display and for private collectors.
429:
well-known sculptors (see photograph F below). WMF also undertook larger commissions. One example is the full-sized
434:
338:
1499:(in German). This "American edition" has numerous figures illustrating technical procedures for electrodeposition.
743:
statue was electrotyped by Elkington & Company of Birmingham, England, in 1861 and has recently been restored.
529:(the Opera) in Paris, France. The statue is a gilded copper electrotype, sometimes called a galvanoplastic bronze.
373:. Among the most spectacular early examples are Josef Hermann's twelve angels (1858) at the base of the cupola of
1406:
542:
769:
557:
931:
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A3 format poster explaining these aspects of printing. This poster is part of a series of 34 by Easson; see
438:
342:
44:
to be used for printing; or a medal, medallion, statue, bust, or even a natural object, for art purposes."
215:
35:) is a chemical method for forming metal parts that exactly reproduce a model. The method was invented by
2080:
2060:
2055:
813:
Primer for apprentices in the printing industry. Good short introduction to the history of electrotyping.
345:
in Syracuse, New York USA. This sculpture is about 3.5 metres (11 ft) tall, and was produced by the
608:(Galvanoplastic Division) of the WMF company produced many electrotype sculptures for German cemeteries.
398:, which is a spectacular silverwork made in England in 1735 that has long been in the collection of the
1557:. Chapter LIX has a very complete description of the steps in electrotyping for printing, with figures.
474:
391:
374:
169:
138:
1650:
1591:
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357:
One of the earliest documented large-scale (1.67 metres (5.5 ft)) electrotype sculptures was
1779:
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in 1840. Both of these cells are forerunners of contemporary electrical batteries. By the 1870s,
1961:
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86:
60:
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90:
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wires that are also immersed in the solution and the wire connected to the coated mold (the
1951:
1774:
1696:
1623:
1607:
1584:
1513:
Electrotyping: A Practical Treatise on the Art of Electrotyping by the Latest Known Methods
667:
490:
370:
257:
52:
378:
214:(amalgamated zinc and platinized silver in sulfuric acid) after the latter's invention by
8:
2065:
1956:
1769:
1618:
1504:
Publishing Plates: Stereotyping and Electrotyping in Nineteenth-Century US Print Culture.
1542:
1323:
1274:
671:
1910:
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366:
1526:
330:
2070:
1665:
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1099:
1068:
999:
967:
937:
927:
922:
Kipphan, Helmut, ed. (2001). "Printing Technologies with Permanent Printing Master".
731:
502:
193:
36:
1047:(1875) by Tiffany & Co.. The video was produced in conjunction with the exhibit
188:
portrait of Moritz von Jacobi (1801–1874), who invented electrotyping in 1838.
1842:
1832:
1822:
1799:
1794:
1789:
675:
399:
358:
48:
1291:
584:' 1816 life-mask. The electrotype was made in 1884 by Elkington & Co. for the
1993:
1934:
1827:
1754:
1484:
1272:
1205:
955:
414:
210:
was used to provide these currents. The Daniell cell was largely replaced by the
64:
860:"Walter P. Reuther Library International Stereotypers and Electrotypers Journal"
1968:
1929:
1856:
1701:
1486:
A complete treatise on the electro-deposition of metals. Third American Edition
1345:
624:
526:
522:
383:
161:
157:
118:
80:
76:
1474:
1020:
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2003:
1946:
1428:
941:
619:
494:
453:
126:
1174:"British bronze sculpture founders and plaster figure makers, 1800-1980 - E"
1998:
1939:
1711:
1642:
565:
315:
278:
207:
185:
149:; the more usual technique described in the previous paragraph is known as
94:
1457:
1249:
Sheppard, F. H. W., ed. (1975). "The Memorial to the Exhibition of 1851".
2034:
2029:
2024:
1734:
1660:
859:
445:, which is about 3.5 metres (11 ft) tall (see photograph at right).
289:
103:
771:
Bronze- und Galvanoplastik: Geschichte – Materialanalyse – Restaurierung
2019:
1900:
1655:
1576:
1146:
581:
410:
239:
230:
1429:"The Paris Opéra: Charles Garnier's Opulent Architectural Masterpiece"
679:
253:
1749:
1670:
211:
98:
1347:
John Keats: his life and poetry, his friends, critics and after-fame
1276:
A guide to the select Greek and Roman coins exhibited in electrotype
705:
McMillan wrote particularly clearly, and was the author of the 1911
377:
in St. Petersburg, Russia (see photograph A below). As described by
168:, although the term is sometimes used more broadly to encompass all
117:). For copper electrotyping, a typical aqueous electrolyte contains
1905:
1725:
1506:
University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2023.
777:(in German). Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Sachsen. pp. 127–137.
1381:
109:
Electrotyping is activated by electric currents that flow between
1876:
1804:
1784:
1399:"Elie Nadelman: The Cleaning and Conservation of Elie Nadelman's
986:
Oxtoby, David W.; Nachtrieb, Norman H.; Freeman, Wade A. (1990).
165:
114:
501:; all five statues are electrotypes. The memorial stands before
19:
1881:
1871:
561:
442:
282:
219:
40:
67:
and to new techniques for the preparation of printing plates.
1691:
901:
413:(see photograph E below). The original life mask was made by
110:
924:
Handbook of Print Media: Technologies and Production Methods
727:
Copper and bronze in art: corrosion, colorants, conservation
525:
is a 7.5-metre (25 ft) tall sculpture that crowns the
55:
by the late 1800s. It complemented the older technology of
1273:
Dept. of Coins and Metals. Barclay Vincent, Head. (1898).
1252:
Survey of London. Volume 38: South Kensington Museums Area
1125:
A physical treatise on electricity and magnetism, Volume 1
1023:. Metropolitan Museum of Art & Dynamic Diagrams, Inc.
406:, which had an extensive business in electrotyped silver.
604:'s sculpture of an angel. In the early 20th century, the
1573:
Bronze, Kathodion Bronze Works and LaFrance Bronze Arts.
175:
1516:(Second ed.). Chicago: The Inland Printer Company.
1153:
Howes, Justin (2000). "Caslon's punches and matrices".
318:
process); stereotyping and electrotyping are not used.
1190:
Gautier, Théophile; Tyson, Florence MacIntyre (1905).
985:
1380:
Nadelman, Cynthia (2001). "Plastiques Fantastiques".
1049:
Victorian Electrotypes: Old Treasures, New Technology
1493:
Handbuch der Galvanischen Metall-Metallniederschläge
855:
International Stereotypers and Electrotypers Journal
807:. Chicago: United Typothetae of America. p. 4.
1483:Langbein, George; Brannt, William Theodore (1898).
987:
653:"The Discovery of Galvanoplasty and Electrotyping"
307:International Stereotypers and Electrotypers Union
303:National Society of Electrotypers and Stereotypers
1021:"An Art of Attraction: The Electrotyping Process"
2047:
799:Hatch, Harris B.; Stewart, Alexander A. (1918).
1216:The angels were sculpted by Josef Hermann; see
958:. One reference with some online availability:
580:E. Reproduction of the electrotype of the poet
1541:Wahl, William Henry; Roseleur, Alfred (1883).
1523:"Matrix Making at the Oxford University Press"
1482:
881:
541:D. Electrotypes of 5th-century coins from the
402:in Russia. Many of these objects were made by
1592:
1266:
766:
1540:
1456:. British Publishing Society. Archived from
1363:"Bronze sculpture founders: a short history"
1189:
877:
875:
798:
225:
1244:
1242:
1599:
1585:
1221:DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: St. Petersburg
1185:
1183:
917:
915:
857:was published from 1906 through 1973. See
762:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
646:
644:
642:
640:
1509:
1218:Rice, Christopher; Rice, Melanie (2010).
872:
849:
847:
1606:
1426:
1420:
1379:
1248:
1239:
1217:
1202:This book incorporates a translation of
994:. Saunders College Publishing. pp.
694:
650:
329:
238:
229:
179:
70:
18:
1203:
1180:
1128:. D. Appleton and Company. p. 207.
921:
912:
821:
819:
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
749:
719:
717:
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637:
325:
16:Chemical method for forming metal parts
2048:
1448:
1343:
1337:
1165:
1121:
1115:
1018:
1012:
902:US Bureau of Labor Statistics (1980).
882:Cunningham, Ed; Reed, Leonard (1955).
844:
1580:
1547:. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird. p.
1360:
1354:
1289:
1283:
1171:
1152:
1054:
1051:(November 22, 2011 – April 22, 2012).
959:
897:
895:
723:
420:From 1890 through at least 1930, the
176:Invention and subsequent developments
1520:
1489:. Philadelphia: H.C. Baird & Co.
1296:. University of California. p.
1196:. The J.C. Winston Co. p. 316.
1091:
1085:
1060:
816:
781:
712:
600:F. Copper electrotype (ca. 1903) of
365:(1849). The electrotype was done by
363:Death of Tewdric Mawr, King of Gwent
243:The electrotyping department of the
1427:Gjertson, Stephen (June 28, 2010).
1122:Gordon, James Edward Henry (1880).
829:. Unite - the Union. Archived from
651:Heinrich, Herbert (December 1938).
13:
1442:
1326:. Victoria and Albert Museum. 1888
1255:. Institute of Historical Research
892:
888:. Simon and Schuster. p. 102.
14:
2092:
1383:Elie Nadelman: Galvano-Plastiques
1350:. C. Scribner's Sons. p. xi.
703:. London: C. Griffin and company.
586:British National Portrait Gallery
1724:
1451:"Stereotyping and Electrotyping"
1095:Modern Dictionary of Electronics
1064:Modern Dictionary of Electronics
701:A treatise on electro-metallurgy
695:McMillan, Walter George (1890).
593:
573:
550:
534:
510:
482:
462:
452:). As one example, the sculptor
192:At present, most sources credit
97:(natural latex), and ultimately
1391:
1373:
1316:
1214:] (in French). Charpentier.
1132:
1027:from the original on 2021-12-21
948:
801:"History of Electrotype Making"
1431:. Stephen Gjertson Galleries.
1386:. Salander/O’Reilly Galleries.
1361:Simon, Jacob (March 3, 2011).
1172:Simon, Jacob (February 2011).
1140:American Labor Year Book, 1926
805:Electrotyping and stereotyping
1:
1403:, 1930, January – April 2010"
1365:. National Portrait Gallery.
1279:. London: The British Museum.
905:Occupational Outlook Handbook
660:Journal of Chemical Education
630:
497:. The uppermost statue is of
311:Occupational Outlook Handbook
1562:"About Electroformed Bronze"
1555:Manipulations Hydroplastique
1176:. National Portrait Gallery.
990:Chemistry: Science of Change
606:Abteilung fĂĽr Galvanoplastik
543:Canterbury-St Martin's hoard
491:The Great Exhibition of 1851
473:that stand in the cupola of
422:Abteilung fĂĽr Galvanoplastic
156:Electrotyping is related to
7:
1344:Colvin, Sir Sidney (1917).
1293:Fake?: The Art of Deception
1204:Gautier, Théophile (1866).
966:. Ratna Sagar. p. 85.
613:
367:Elkington, Mason, & Co.
322:into the electrotype bath.
47:In art, several important "
10:
2097:
1142:. pp. 85–87, 103–172.
392:Victoria and Albert Museum
341:'s 1857 sculpture for the
139:Metropolitan Museum of Art
74:
2012:
1986:
1919:
1893:
1864:
1855:
1813:
1742:
1733:
1722:
1679:
1641:
1632:
1614:
1510:Partridge, C. S. (1908).
984:. A second reference is:
431:copper electrotype (1911)
335:Copper electrotype (1911)
226:Electrotyping in printing
1019:Alcorn, Ellenor (2011).
724:Scott, David A. (2002).
439:Goethe–Schiller Monument
371:Great Exhibition of 1851
343:Goethe–Schiller Monument
1098:. Newnes. p. 240.
1067:. Newnes. p. 245.
1038:James Horton Whitehouse
709:entry on electrotyping.
707:Encyclopædia Britannica
475:Saint Isaac's Cathedral
437:'s 1857 bronze for the
375:Saint Isaac's Cathedral
1092:Graf, Rudolph (1999).
1061:Graf, Rudolph (1999).
730:. Getty Publications.
489:B. Memorial (1863) to
396:Jerningham wine cooler
350:
266:Joseph Alexander Adams
248:
236:
199:Joseph Alexander Adams
189:
25:
1952:Golding & Company
1815:Hot metal typesetting
1475:"History of Printing"
1449:Easson, John (2004).
697:"VIII. Electrotyping"
568:of 1771. Electrotype.
499:Prince Consort Albert
333:
242:
233:
220:mechanical generators
194:Moritz Hermann Jacobi
183:
71:Technical description
22:
2076:Sculpture techniques
1957:Chandler & Price
1697:Logographic printing
1608:Letterpress printing
1491:Based on Langbein's
1290:Jones, Mark (1990).
960:Fernandes, Raymond.
349:Company in Germany.
326:Electrotyping in art
53:letterpress printing
1619:History of printing
672:1938JChEd..15..565H
505:in London, England.
404:Elkington & Co.
2081:1838 introductions
2061:Chemical processes
2056:Russian inventions
1911:Composition roller
1743:Manual typesetting
1521:Rice, Roy (1982).
827:"The Print unions"
450:Kerngalvanoplastik
351:
249:
237:
190:
151:Hohlgalvanoplastik
147:Kerngalvanoplastik
26:
2043:
2042:
1982:
1981:
1851:
1850:
1838:Intertype Machine
1720:
1719:
1680:Blocks and plates
1502:Makala, Jeffrey.
1307:978-0-520-07087-5
1231:978-0-7566-6493-0
973:978-81-8332-379-6
737:978-0-89236-638-5
680:10.1021/ed015p565
602:Raimund Liebhaber
558:Stanislaus August
503:Royal Albert Hall
379:Théophile Gautier
170:electrodeposition
59:, which involved
37:Moritz von Jacobi
2088:
1920:Types of presses
1865:Parts of a press
1862:
1861:
1843:Paige Compositor
1833:Ludlow Typograph
1823:Linotype machine
1740:
1739:
1728:
1639:
1638:
1601:
1594:
1587:
1578:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1568:
1552:
1537:
1535:
1534:
1525:. Archived from
1517:
1490:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1462:
1455:
1436:
1435:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1405:. Archived from
1401:Two Circus Women
1395:
1389:
1388:Exhibit catalog.
1387:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1320:
1314:
1311:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1246:
1237:
1235:
1215:
1212:Voyage in Russia
1207:Voyage en Russie
1201:
1193:Russia, Volume 1
1187:
1178:
1177:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1058:
1052:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1016:
1010:
1009:
993:
983:
981:
980:
952:
946:
945:
919:
910:
909:
899:
890:
889:
879:
870:
869:
867:
866:
851:
842:
841:
839:
838:
823:
814:
812:
796:
779:
778:
776:
764:
747:
745:
721:
710:
704:
692:
686:
683:
657:
648:
597:
577:
554:
538:
514:
486:
466:
400:Hermitage Museum
359:John Evan Thomas
2096:
2095:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2008:
1994:Folding machine
1987:Other equipment
1978:
1915:
1889:
1847:
1828:Monotype system
1809:
1755:Composing stick
1729:
1716:
1675:
1634:
1628:
1610:
1605:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1532:
1530:
1473:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1445:
1443:Further reading
1440:
1439:
1425:
1421:
1412:
1410:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1378:
1374:
1359:
1355:
1342:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1308:
1288:
1284:
1271:
1267:
1258:
1256:
1247:
1240:
1232:
1188:
1181:
1170:
1166:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1120:
1116:
1106:
1090:
1086:
1075:
1059:
1055:
1030:
1028:
1017:
1013:
1006:
978:
976:
974:
956:electrorefining
953:
949:
934:
920:
913:
900:
893:
880:
873:
864:
862:
858:
852:
845:
836:
834:
825:
824:
817:
797:
782:
774:
765:
750:
738:
722:
713:
693:
689:
666:(12): 566–575.
655:
649:
638:
633:
616:
609:
598:
589:
578:
569:
555:
546:
539:
530:
515:
506:
487:
478:
467:
443:Weimar, Germany
435:Ernst Rietschel
339:Ernst Rietschel
328:
245:New York Herald
228:
178:
136:
132:
124:
83:
73:
65:offset printing
17:
12:
11:
5:
2094:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1969:Cylinder press
1966:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1868:
1866:
1859:
1857:Printing press
1853:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1819:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1702:Wood engraving
1699:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1647:
1645:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1603:
1596:
1589:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1558:
1538:
1518:
1507:
1500:
1497:Georg Langbein
1480:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1419:
1390:
1372:
1353:
1336:
1315:
1306:
1282:
1265:
1238:
1230:
1179:
1164:
1145:
1131:
1114:
1104:
1084:
1073:
1053:
1011:
1004:
972:
947:
932:
911:
891:
871:
843:
815:
780:
748:
736:
711:
687:
685:electrotyping.
635:
634:
632:
629:
628:
627:
625:Electroforming
622:
615:
612:
611:
610:
599:
592:
590:
579:
572:
570:
564:, a very rare
556:
549:
547:
540:
533:
531:
527:Palais Garnier
523:Charles Guméry
516:
509:
507:
488:
481:
479:
468:
461:
384:Palais Garnier
327:
324:
279:rotary presses
262:London Journal
227:
224:
177:
174:
162:electroforming
158:electroplating
134:
130:
122:
119:copper sulfate
81:Electroforming
77:Electroplating
72:
69:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2093:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2005:
2004:Addressograph
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1962:Colt's Armory
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1947:Jobbing press
1945:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1907:
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1902:
1899:
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1896:
1892:
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1803:
1801:
1798:
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1778:
1776:
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1766:
1763:
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1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1590:
1588:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1550:
1546:
1545:
1539:
1529:on 2012-06-14
1528:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1476:
1463:on 2014-04-30
1459:
1452:
1447:
1446:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1409:on 2011-10-11
1408:
1404:
1402:
1394:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1369:
1364:
1357:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1325:
1324:"Covered urn"
1319:
1309:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1286:
1278:
1277:
1269:
1254:
1253:
1245:
1243:
1233:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1195:
1194:
1186:
1184:
1175:
1168:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1141:
1135:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1111:
1107:
1105:9780750698665
1101:
1097:
1096:
1088:
1081:
1076:
1074:9780750698665
1070:
1066:
1065:
1057:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1039:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1007:
1005:0-03-004814-1
1001:
997:
992:
991:
975:
969:
965:
964:
957:
951:
943:
939:
935:
929:
925:
918:
916:
908:. p. 46.
907:
906:
898:
896:
887:
886:
878:
876:
861:
856:
850:
848:
833:on 2011-11-23
832:
828:
822:
820:
811:
806:
802:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
773:
772:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
753:
744:
739:
733:
729:
728:
720:
718:
716:
708:
702:
698:
691:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
654:
647:
645:
643:
641:
636:
626:
623:
621:
620:Luigi Galvani
618:
617:
607:
603:
596:
591:
587:
583:
576:
571:
567:
563:
559:
553:
548:
544:
537:
532:
528:
524:
520:
513:
508:
504:
500:
496:
495:Joseph Durham
492:
485:
480:
476:
472:
471:Josef Hermann
465:
460:
459:
458:
455:
454:Elie Nadelman
451:
446:
444:
440:
436:
432:
427:
423:
418:
416:
412:
407:
405:
401:
397:
393:
387:
385:
380:
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372:
368:
364:
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355:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
323:
319:
317:
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308:
304:
298:
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286:
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280:
276:
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263:
259:
255:
246:
241:
232:
223:
221:
217:
213:
209:
203:
200:
195:
187:
182:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
154:
152:
148:
142:
140:
128:
127:sulfuric acid
120:
116:
112:
107:
105:
100:
96:
92:
88:
87:metal casting
82:
78:
68:
66:
62:
61:metal casting
58:
54:
50:
45:
42:
38:
34:
33:galvanoplasty
30:
29:Electrotyping
21:
2016:Related arts
1999:Paper cutter
1974:Rotary press
1712:Zinc etching
1706:
1651:Type casting
1643:Movable type
1633:Ways to make
1565:. Retrieved
1554:
1543:
1531:. Retrieved
1527:the original
1512:
1503:
1492:
1485:
1465:. Retrieved
1458:the original
1432:
1422:
1411:. Retrieved
1407:the original
1400:
1393:
1382:
1375:
1366:
1356:
1346:
1339:
1328:. Retrieved
1318:
1292:
1285:
1275:
1268:
1257:. Retrieved
1251:
1220:
1211:
1206:
1197:
1192:
1167:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1139:
1134:
1124:
1117:
1109:
1094:
1087:
1078:
1063:
1056:
1048:
1041:
1029:. Retrieved
1014:
989:
977:. Retrieved
963:Chemistry 10
962:
950:
926:. Springer.
923:
904:
884:
863:. Retrieved
854:
835:. Retrieved
831:the original
808:
804:
770:
741:
726:
706:
700:
690:
663:
659:
605:
566:pattern coin
560:on a Polish
518:
449:
447:
421:
419:
408:
388:
362:
356:
352:
320:
316:photo-offset
310:
299:
295:
290:punchcutting
287:
275:stereotyping
271:
261:
250:
244:
208:Daniell cell
204:
191:
186:lithographic
155:
150:
146:
143:
108:
95:gutta-percha
91:stereotyping
84:
57:stereotyping
46:
32:
28:
27:
2035:Papermaking
2030:Printmaking
2025:Bookbinding
1926:Hand press
1735:Typesetting
1707:Electrotype
1661:Punchcutter
1635:impressions
1224:. Penguin.
216:Alfred Smee
104:electrolyte
2066:Typography
2050:Categories
2020:Typography
1901:Offset ink
1687:Stereotype
1656:Type metal
1567:2011-12-11
1533:2011-11-17
1467:2014-10-20
1413:2011-12-12
1330:2011-11-05
1259:2011-11-07
1031:2011-12-16
979:2011-12-06
933:3540673261
865:2011-11-04
837:2011-11-09
631:References
582:John Keats
562:Half Taler
521:(1869) by
519:L'Harmonie
457:problems.
411:John Keats
258:Nicholas I
106:solution.
75:See also:
1935:Columbian
1780:Furniture
1750:Type case
1671:Wood type
1553:Based on
942:454325945
247:in 1902.
212:Smee cell
99:ozokerite
2071:Printing
1930:Stanhope
1906:Ink ball
1025:Archived
614:See also
369:for the
85:As with
1877:Frisket
1805:Hellbox
1785:Leading
1624:Printer
996:521–523
668:Bibcode
424:of the
283:dynamos
166:mandrel
115:cathode
1940:Albion
1894:Inking
1882:Tympan
1872:Platen
1775:Reglet
1666:Matrix
1304:
1228:
1161:: 1–7.
1155:Matrix
1102:
1071:
1043:Bryant
1002:
970:
940:
930:
734:
415:Haydon
254:formes
125:) and
49:bronze
41:Russia
31:(also
1800:Forme
1795:Chase
1790:Quoin
1770:Strut
1692:Flong
1461:(PDF)
1454:(PDF)
1313:dish.
1210:[
810:1872.
775:(PDF)
656:(PDF)
184:1837
121:(CuSO
111:anode
24:mold.
1765:Slug
1760:Sort
1302:ISBN
1226:ISBN
1100:ISBN
1069:ISBN
1045:Vase
1000:ISBN
968:ISBN
938:OCLC
928:ISBN
853:The
732:ISBN
89:and
79:and
1886:Bed
1549:476
1298:252
1040:'s
676:doi
517:C.
493:by
441:in
433:of
426:WMF
361:'s
347:WMF
337:of
39:in
2052::
1300:.
1241:^
1182:^
1159:20
1157:.
1108:.
1077:.
998:.
936:.
914:^
894:^
874:^
846:^
818:^
803:.
783:^
751:^
740:.
714:^
699:.
674:.
664:15
662:.
658:.
639:^
153:.
133:SO
129:(H
1600:e
1593:t
1586:v
1570:.
1551:.
1536:.
1479:.
1477:.
1470:.
1416:.
1333:.
1310:.
1262:.
1236:.
1234:.
1034:.
1008:.
982:.
944:.
868:.
840:.
682:.
678::
670::
588:.
135:4
131:2
123:4
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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