Mamluk Sultanate - Knowledge

4842: 4376: 2152: 3128: 1485: 3595:. Under Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids, and Isma'ilism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. The Mamluks were motivated by personal piety or political expediency for Islam was both an assimilating and unifying factor between the Mamluks and the majority of their subjects; the early mamluks had been brought up as Sunni Muslims and the Islamic faith was the only aspect of life shared between the Mamluk ruling elite and its subjects. While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam, the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects. 4237: 1961: 3256: 3189: 2700: 4036:

nonetheless a reality at times, especially during the Bahri period, where Baybars' sons Baraka and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. Hereditary rule was much less frequent under the Burji regime. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. The accession of blood relatives to the sultanate was often the result of the decision or indecision of leading Mamluk emirs or the will of the preceding sultan. The latter situation applied to the sultans Baybars, Qalawun, the latter's son, al-Nasir Muhammad and Barquq, who formally arranged for one or more of their sons to succeed them. More often than not, the sons of sultans were elected by the senior emirs with the intention that they serve as convenient figureheads presiding over an oligarchy of the emirs.

2806: 3547: 3042: 2034: 3081:. Qaitbay's 28-year-long reign, the second longest in Mamluk history after al-Nasir Muhammad, was marked by relative stability and prosperity. Historical sources present a sultan whose character was markedly different from other Mamluk rulers. Notably, he disliked engaging in conspiracy, even though this had been a hallmark of Mamluk politics. He had a reputation for being even-handed and treating his colleagues and subordinates fairly, examplified by his magnanimous treatment of the deposed Timurbugha. These traits seem to have kept internal tensions and conspiracies at bay throughout his reign. While the Mamluk practices of confiscation, extortion, and bribery continued in fiscal matters, under Qaitbay they were practiced in a more systematic way that allowed individuals and institutions to function within a more predictable environment. His engagement with the civil bureaucracy and the 3925: 2852: 2595: 3934: 2463: 4744: 2479:

major political, economic and military reforms ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the Qalawuni–Bahri regime. Concurrent with his reign was the disintegration of the Ilkhanate into several smaller dynastic states and the consequent Mamluk effort to establish diplomatic and commercial relationships with the new states. Amid conditions reducing the flow of mamluks from the Mongol territories to the sultanate, al-Nasir Muhammad compensated by adopting new methods of training, and military and financial advancement that introduced a great level of permissiveness. This led to relaxed conditions for new mamluks and encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the empire.

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there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were determined at the local level. Centralization in Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and their frequent invasions. The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other rural infrastructure. Although the degree of centralization was not as high as in Egypt, the Mamluks imposed sufficient control over the Syrian economy to derive significant revenues. The maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues.

2546: 2398: 2843:) installed as a puppet sultan; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. Six months later, Shakyh ousted al-Musta'in after neutralizing his main rival, Nawruz, and assumed the sultanate. Shaykh's main policy was restoring state authority within the empire, which experienced further plagues in 1415–1417 and 1420. Shaykh replenished the treasury through tax collection expeditions akin to raids across the empire to compensate the tax arrears that accumlated under Faraj. Shaykh also commissioned and led military campaigns against the Mamluks' enemies in Anatolia, reasserting the state's influence there. 5090: 3089: 2825:. That year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo and Damascus. Timur ended his occupation of Syria in 1402 to fight the Ottomans in Anatolia, whom he deemed a more dangerous threat. Faraj held onto power during this turbulent period, which, in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkmen tribes in the Jazira, and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that practically ended Mamluk control of Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. Mamluk authority throughout the sultanate significantly eroded, while the capital Cairo underwent an economic crisis. 155: 3775:

of worship during intercommunal clashes. As a result of popular pressure, Copts had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. Coptic bureaucrats were often restored to their positions after tensions passed. Many Copts were forced to convert to Islam or at least adopted outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment and avoid the jizya and official measures against them. A large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam occurred in the 14th century, as a result of

115: 170: 5034:, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. Late Mamluk minarets, for example, most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. The peak of this stone dome architecture was achieved under Qaitbay in the late 15th century. 4703: 4178: 2614:. The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. Meanwhile, the harshness of Yalbugha's educational methods and his refusal to rescind his disciplinary reforms provoked a mamluk backlash. Yalbugha was killed by his mamluks in an uprising in 1366. The rebels were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha had installed in 1363. Sha'ban ruled as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to 4205:(non-mamluk soldiers). The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. The Royal Mamluks were the private corps of the sultan. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, akin to private armies, which were also mobilized by the sultan when needed. As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they often utilized their forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. The 3771:

to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacres of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than by the Mamluk sultans. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy.

4155:, caliph, who in turn confirmed Baybars as sultan. The caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, the Jazira, Diyar Bakr, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. Al-Mustansir's Abbasid successors continued in their official capacity as caliphs, but held no real power. The less than year-long reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as sultan in 1412 was an anomaly. In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Lajin's presentation of the Caliph 3503:

and scholarly elite. Another contributing factor was the wave of Arab tribal migration to Egypt and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and the indigenous population. The Mamluks contributed to the expansion of Arabic in Egypt through their victory over the Mongols and the Crusaders and the subsequent creation of a Muslim haven in Egypt and Syria for Arabic-speaking immigrants from other conquered Muslim lands. The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt.

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over time had also resulted in large numbers of soldiers feeling alienated and repeatedly threatening to revolt unless given extra payments, which drained the state's finances. To address the shortfalls, al-Ghuri resorted to heavy-handed and far-reaching taxation and extortion to refill the treasury, which elicited protests that were sometimes violent. He used the raised funds to repair fortresses throughout the region, to commission his own construction projects in Cairo, and to purchase a large number of new mamluks to fill his military ranks.

1988:. Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyya, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule but Qutuz had them killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". After hearing that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz and Baybars mobilized a 120,000-strong force to conquer Syria. 3416: 2688:, the latter a mamluk of Yalbugha. The rebels took over Syria and headed for Egypt, prompting Barquq to abdicate in favor of al-Salih Hajji. The alliance between Yalbugha al-Nasiri and Mintash soon fell apart and factional fighting ensued in Cairo, with Mintash ousting Yalbugha. Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he rallied support. In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took the citadel and arrested al-Salih Hajji. This paved the way for Barquq's usurpation of the sultanate once more in February 1390, firmly establishing the 3085:(Islamic jurists and scholars) appeared to reflect a genuine commitment to Sunni Islamic law. He was one of the most prolific Mamluk patrons of architecture, second only to al-Nasir Muhammad, and his patronage of religious and civic buildings extended to the provinces beyond Cairo. Nonetheless, Qaitbay operated in an environment of recurring plague epidemics that underpinned a general population decline. Agriculture suffered, the treasury was often stretched thin, and by the end of his reign the economy was still weak. 3533:, did not typically hold positions in the military elite and instead, were often part of the civilian administration or the Muslim religious establishment. Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots, and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. The Mamluk elites of the Burji period were also apparently proud of their Circassian origins. 3727: 3515:

Turkishness was the distinctive aspect of the Mamluk ruling elite, for only they knew how to speak Turkish and had Turkish names. While the Mamluk elite was ethnically diverse, those who were not Turkic in origin were Turkicized nonetheless. As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population.

1643: 3718:, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the Sufis. While Ibn Taymiyya was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and arrested several times by the Mamluks for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern Muslim world. Ibn Taymiyya's doctrines were regarded as heretical by the Sunni establishment patronized by the Mamluks. 3330: 3869:(chief commander of the Bedouin) in Syria, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of al-Nasir Muhammad's death. The Mamluk leadership in Syria, weakened by the losses of the Black Plague, was unable to quell the Bedouin through military expeditions, so they resolved to assassinate the chiefs of the tribes. The Al Fadl eventually lost favor, to the advantage of the Bedouin tribes around al-Karak under later Bahri sultans. 4964: 2786: 1637: 12925: 3443: 2954: 2325: 108: 12935: 3027:, was then chosen and eventually neturalized his opposition. His reign was marked by further political difficulties abroad and domestically. Cyprus remained a vassal, but Khushqadam's representative was killed in battle after insulting James II (who had been installed by Inal). At home, Bedouin tribes caused unrest and the sultan's attempts to suppress the Labid tribe in the Nile Delta and against the Hawwara in Upper Egypt had little effect. 698: 2340:, drew legitimacy by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun. Like his predecessors, Khalil's main priorities were organizing the state apparati, defeating the Crusaders and Mongols, integrating Syria, and preserving the flow of new mamluks and weaponry into the empire. Baybars had purchased 4,000 mamluks, Qalawun 6,000–7,000 and by the end of Khalil's reign, there was an estimated total of 10,000 mamluks in the sultanate. In 1291, Khalil 1099: 3159:. The latter fled into exile and Qaitbay granted him sanctuary in Cairo in September 1481. Qaitbay eventually allowed him to return to Anatolia to lead a new attempt against Bayezid. This venture failed and Jem was fled into exile again, this time into Christian hands to the west. Bayezid interpreted Qaitbay's welcome to Jem as direct support for the latter's cause and was furious. Qaitbay also supported the Dulkadirid leader, 3364:, the governor of Aleppo, had secretly conspired with Selim and betrayed al-Ghuri, leaving with his troops part-way during the battle. In the subsequent chaos, al-Ghuri was killed. The surviving Mamluk forces returned to Aleppo but were denied entry to the city and marched back to Egypt, harassed along the way. Syria passed into Ottoman possession, and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks. 3462:, who could be an Ottoman officer or a local civilian. Their patronage extended to include retainers recruited from other Ottoman provinces as well as allies among the local urban population and tribes. Up to the early 17th century, the vast majority of Egyptian mamluks were still of Caucasian or Circassian origin. In the later 17th and 18th centuries, mamluks from other parts of the Ottoman Empire or its frontiers, such as 1514:) from his predecessors' emirs. He created a loyal paramilitary apparatus in Egypt so dominant that contemporaries viewed Egypt as "Salihi-ridden", according to historian Winslow William Clifford. While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts the Salihiyya's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten al-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes the Salihiyya's autonomy fell short of such loyalty. 12945: 12955: 4117:. Another prerogative, at least of the early Bahri sultans, was to import as many mamluks as possible, preferably those from the territories of the Mongols. The Mamluks' enemies, namely the Mongol states and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians, and the Crusaders, disrupted the flow of mamluks to the sultanate. Unable to meet the military's need for new mamluks, the sultans often resorted to recruiting 2062:(postal network) extending across Egypt and Syria, which led to large scale building of roads and bridges along the postal route. His military and administrative reforms cemented the power of the Mamluk state. He opened diplomatic channels with the Mongols to stifle their potential alliance with the Christian powers of Europe, while also sowing divisions between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mongol 3108:. Initially, the Mamluks failed in a series of campaigns against Shah Suwar. The tide turned in 1470–1471 when an agreement was reached between Qaitbay and Mehmed II, by which Qaitbay stopped supporting the Karamanids and the Ottomans stopped supporting the Dulkadirids. Now without Ottoman support, Shah Suwar was defeated in 1471 by a Mamluk expedition led by Qaitbay's senior field commander, 2610:. By then, mamluk solidarity and loyalty to the emirs had dissipated. To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha revived the rigorous training of mamluks used under Baybars and Qalawun. In 1365, a Mamluk attempt to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, was stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by 5113:

the blazon usually symbolized the office or position they held at this time. The blazon appeared on their banners and it was retained even after they became sultans. Such blazons were an important feature of Mamluk visual culture and they are found on all kinds of objects manufactured for Mamluk patrons. They were also featured in Mamluk architecture, though less consistently. This

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slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership. Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden

4233:. Baybars started biweekly inspections of the troops to verify sultanic orders were implemented, in addition to the periodic inspections where he distributed new arms to the troops. Beginning under Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration recorded all emirs in the empire and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army during wartime. 4933:. An example of the later period is a series of candlesticks commissioned by Qaitbay for Muhammad's tomb in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. They are made of engraved brass, with black bitumen filling parts of the surfaces in order to create contrast with the motifs in polished brass. Their decoration consists almost entirely of Arabic calligraphy, with the 3116:, before agreeing to surrender himself if his life was spared and he was allowed to remain as a vassal. In the end, Qaitbay was unwilling to let him live and Shah Suwar was betrayed, brought to Cairo, and executed. Shah Budaq was installed as his replacement and as a Mamluk vassal, though the Ottoman-Mamluk rivalry over the Dulkadirid throne continued. 5124:: only about forty-five symbols were used. Early Mamluk blazons were simple, usually featuring a single symbol such as a cup, sword, or even animals. Some banners were merely distinguished by patterned fabrics and plain geometric divisions. The blazon of Baybars was a panther, lion, or leopard, while that of Qalawun, according to one author, was a 4735:

devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. To ensure rural life was undisturbed by Bedouin raiding, which disrupted agricultural work or damaged crops and agrarian infrastructure and thus decreased revenues, the Mamluks attempted to prevent Bedouin armament and confiscate existing weapons from them.

3124:. His son and successor, Ya'qub, resorted to inviting Yashbak min Mahdi to participate in a campaign against Edessa. As this avoided any challenge against Qaitbay's authority, Yashbak accepted. Although initially successful, he was killed during the siege of the city, thus depriving Qaitbay of his most important field commander. 3960:. Large lobed medallions in the center bear the name of the sultan (right) and blessing on him (left). Above and below on the right is the certificate of commissioning stating the manuscript to have been produced for his library, while opposite, on the facing page, the upper and lower panels contain the title of the work. 3886:, the Tha'laba tribes were entrusted to supervise the postal routes, but were often unreliable and joined the Al A'id tribe during their raids. Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and destroyed cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. In the mid-14th century, the rival Arak and 1925:. The purge caused a shortage of officers, which led Aktay to recruit new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from an-Nasir Yusuf and moved to Egypt in 1250. Aybak felt threatened by the growing amitions of the Syrian mamluks' empowered patron 2926:, was taken captive, because of his alleged assistance to the pirates; the large ransoms paid to the Mamluks by the Cypriots allowed them to mint new gold coinage for the first time since the 14th century. Janus became Barsbay's vassal, an arrangement enforced on his successors for several decades after. 4916:

Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. The quality and quantity

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on non-Muslims), permission to construct houses of worship, and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulties under the Mamluks than their Muslim predecessors. The association of Christians with the Mongols, due

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While the Mamluk Sultanate ceased to exist with the Ottoman conquest and the recruitment of Royal Mamluks ended, the mamluks as a military-social class continued to exist. They constituted a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" that continued to influence politics under Ottoman

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had circumnavigated Africa and reached India, thus opening a new route for European trade with the east which bypassed the Middle East. This posed a serious threat to Muslim commerce, which was dominant in the area, as well as to the prosperity of Venice, which relied on trade passing from the Indian

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to derive the greatest financial gain from the Red Sea transit route to Europe. Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. In the long

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of Persia, and thereby consolidated his authority over Islamic Syria. During his early reign, Baybars expanded the Mamluk from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. To

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invasion of Syria led the Ayyubid emirs to reconcile, and Baybars to defect to an-Nasir Yusuf. Qutuz deposed Ali in 1259 and purged or arrested the Mu'izziya and any remaining Bahri mamluks in Egypt to eliminate potential opposition. The surviving Mu'izzi and Bahri mamluks went to Gaza, where Baybars

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were usually divided into three parts, with the main symbol placed within each division, sometimes in pairs. After this, late Mamluk blazons became even more elaborate but were more homogenous in style. They were filled with details, including up to five or six different symbols. By this point, they

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Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. While Cairo was the

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before this period and Damascus was the most important production center during the Mamluk period. Coloured glass had been common in the preceding Ayyubid period, but during the Mamluk period enamel and gilding became the most important techniques of decorating glass. Mosque lamps had a bulbous body

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and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. Some manuscripts could be

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system. In 1429, he ordered the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the Portuguese expansion into Africa and Asia significantly decreased

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Under Barsbay, a state monopoly was established on luxury goods, namely spices, with the state setting prices and collecting a percentage of the profits. In 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, transferring its tax revenues to his personal

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The Mamluk economy essentially consisted of two spheres: the state economy, which was organized like an elite household and controlled by the caste government headed by the sultan, and the free market economy, which was the domain of society and associated with the local subjects, in contrast to the

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could enter and rise high within the hierarchy, but typically did not enter military service. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. The army Baybars inherited consisted of Kurdish and Turkic tribesmen, refugees from the Ayyubid armies of Syria, and other troops

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sermon). The process was not formalized and the electoral body never defined, but typically consisted of the emirs and mamluks of whichever Mamluk faction held sway; usurpations of the throne by rival factions were relatively common. Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was

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The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems they inherited from the Ayyubid state. The Mamluk ruled over essentially the same territory of the Ayyubid state, i.e. Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz. Unlike the collective sovereignty of the Ayyubids, where territory

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The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime. There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Copts and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses

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Christians and Jews in the empire were governed by the dual authority of their respective religious institutions and the sultan. The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two communities.

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overwhelmed the defenders on 22 January 1517 and reached Cairo. Over the following days, furious fighting continued between Mamluks, locals, and Ottomans, resulting in much damage to the city and three days of pillaging. Selim proclaimed an amnesty on 31 January, at which point many of the remaining

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in 1514. Soon after, he attacked and defeated the Dulkadirids, a Mamluk vassal, for refusing to aid him against the Safavids. Secure now against Ismail I, in 1516 he drew together a great army aiming at conquering Egypt, but to obscure the fact he presented the mobilisation of his army as being part

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under Mamluk suzerainty. The conquest of Nubia was not permanent and the process of invading the region and installing vassal kings was repeated by Baybars's successors. Nonetheless, Baybars' initial conquest led to the annual expectation of tribute from the Nubians by the Mamluks until the Makurian

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where the Egyptians destroyed the Crusaders on 6 April. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. Turanshah proceeded to place his own entourage and mamluks, known as the 'Mu'azzamiya', in positions of authority at the expense of

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was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. Imported luxury goods from the East sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture.The Mamluks themselves, as former

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Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating abandoned areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks), and

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system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. As such it was a fundamental feature of Mamluk society, on the one hand giving way

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Qalawun's early reign was marked by policies intended to garner support from the merchant class, the Muslim bureaucracy and the religious establishment. He eliminated the illegal taxes that burdened the merchants and commissioned extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites,

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Mamluks sultans and emirs also had personal blazons, which were important symbols of their status and a distinctive cultural feature of the Mamluk ruling class. With the possible exception of the earliest years of the regime, Mamluks chose their own blazons. This was done while they were emirs and

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Patronage varied over time, but the two high points of the arts were the reigns of al-Nasir Muhammad and of Qaitbay. Some art forms also varied in importance over time. For example, enameled glassware was a prominent industry during the first half of the Mamluk period but declined significantly in

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these goods. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. These goods originated in Persia,

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revenue from plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes had led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. To compensate these losses, the Mamluks applied a three-pronged approach: taxing the urban middle classes, boosting production and sale of cotton and sugar to Europe,

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In Egypt, Mamluk centralization of agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine. All agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine,

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Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. Agricultural products were the main exports of Mamluk Egypt, Syria and Palestine. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production depended on crops (sugar cane and cotton). Every agricultural commodity was taxed by

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The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars's early reforms was creating such a hierarchy. To that end, he a ranking system for emirs of ten, forty and one hundred, each indicating the number of mamluks were assigned to an emir's command. An emir of one

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was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the close relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. The Greek Orthodox Church declined after the Mamluk destruction of its spiritual center,

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had already been established as the language of religion, culture and the bureaucracy in Egypt, and was widespread among non-Muslim communities there as well. Arabic's wide usage among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling

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Baybars II ruled for roughly one year before al-Nasir Muhammad became sultan again in 1310, this time ruling for over three decades in a period often considered by historians to be the zenith of the Mamluk empire. To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and

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in September 1260. The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution. Afterward, the Mamluks recaptured Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. Upon Qutuz's triumphant return to Cairo, he was assassinated in a Bahri plot. Baybars then assumed power in October

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The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. Ethnicity served as a major factor separating the mostly Turkic or Turkicized Mamluk elite from their Arabic-speaking subjects. Ethnic origin was a key component of an individual mamluk's

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Al-Ghuri also attempted reforms of the Mamluk military. He recognized the impact of gunpowder technology used by the Ottomans and Europeans, but which the Mamluks had eschewed. In 1507, he established a foundry to produce cannons and created a new regiment trained to use them, known as the 'Fifth

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Al-Ghuri is often viewed negatively by historical commentators, particularly Ibn Iyas, for his draconic fiscal policies. He inherited a state beset by financial problems. In addition to the demographic and economic changes under his predecessors, changes in the organisation of the Mamluk military

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The challenges to Mamluk dominance abroad were also mounting, particularly to the north. Shah Suwar, the leader of the Dulkadirid principality in Anatolia, benefited from Ottoman support and was an excellent military tactician. Meanwhile, Qaitbay supported the ruler of the Karamanid principality,

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Barsbay pursued an economic policy of establishing state monopolies over the lucrative trade with Europe, particularly spices, at the expense of local merchants. European merchants were forced to buy spices from state agents who set prices that maximized revenue rather than promoting competition.

2478:

Under al-Nasir Muhammad, the Mamluks repulsed an Ilkhanid invasion of Syria in 1313 and concluded a peace treaty with the Ilkhanate in 1322, bringing a long-lasting end to the Mamluk–Mongol wars. Afterward, al-Nasir Muhammad ushered in a period of stability and prosperity through the enactment of

4788:

Mamluk Egypt was a major producer of textiles and a supplier of raw materials for Western Europe. The frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the production of textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of

3799:

and Damascus in 1400. The Syriac Christians also significant declined in Syria due to intra-communal disputes over patriarchal succession and the destruction of churches by the Timurids or local Kurdish tribes. The Mamluks inaugurated a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their

2882:, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422. Under Barsbay, the Mamluk Sultanate reached its greatest territorial extent and was militarily dominant throughout the region, but his legacy was mixed in the eyes of contemporary commentators who criticized his fiscal methods and economic policies. 2711:

Barquq solidified power in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. Barquq oversaw the mass recruitment of Circassians (estimated at 5,000 recruits) into the mamluk ranks and the restoration of the state's authority throughout its realm in the tradition of

3147:

annexed Cyprus. The Venetians promised Qaitbay their occupation would benefit him as well, as their large fleet than could better keep the peace in the eastern Mediterranean than the Cypriots. Venice also agreed to continue the Cypriots' yearly tribute of 8,000 ducats to Cairo. A treaty signed

3009:

in 1453 and ordered public celebrations to commemorate the event, much like the celebrations of a Mamluk victory. It is unclear whether Inal and the Mamluks understood the implications of this event. It marked the rise of the Ottomans as a superpower, a status that brought them into increasing

3514:

was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language." According to historian Michael Winter,

3367:

The Mamluk Sultanate survived a little longer until 1517. Tuman Bay, whom al-Ghuri had left as deputy in Cairo, was hastily and unanimously proclaimed sultan on 10 October 1516. The emirs rejected his plan to confront the next Ottoman advance at Gaza, so instead he prepared a final defense at

2388:

in 1299. Ghazan largely withdrew from Syria shortly after due to a lack of fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. Another Ilkhanid invasion in 1303 was repelled after a Mamluk victory at the Battle of Marj

4096:

Among the sultan's responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the empire and, in some cases, overseeing the

2529:

of al-Karak, was declared sultan. Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to govern in Cairo. This unorthodox arrangement, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother

1918:, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter viewed Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. Aybak moved against the Bahriyya by shutting their Roda headquarters in 1251 and assassinating Aktay in 1254. 1309:, overthrew the sultan in 1382 and again in 1390, inaugurating Burji rule. Mamluk authority across the empire eroded under his successors due to foreign invasions, tribal rebellions, and natural disasters, and the state entered into a long period of financial distress. Under Sultan 2973:, appointed regent. The usual disputes over succession ensued and after three months Jaqmaq won and became sultan, exiling Yusuf to Alexandria. Jaqmaq maintained friendly relations with the Ottomans. His most important foreign military effort was an abortive campaign to conquer 4221:

hundred could further be assigned one thousand mounted troops during battle. Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and ended the improvised nature of the Ayyubid forces in Egypt and Syria. Baybars and Qalawun standardized the undefined Ayyubid policies of distributing

5068:

s or khans), actually grew in number during the Ottoman period. In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a 'neo-Mamluk' style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local 'Egyptian' styles.

3119:

The next challenge to Qaitbay was the rise of the Aq Qoyunlu leader Uzun Hasan. The latter led an expedition into Mamluk territory around Aleppo in 1472, but was routed by Yashbak. The next year, Uzun Hassan was more resoundingly defeated in battle against Mehmed II near

5037:

After the Ottoman conquest of 1517, new Ottoman-style buildings were introduced, however the Mamluk style continued to be repeated or combined with Ottoman elements in many subsequent monuments. Some building types which first appeared in the late Mamluk period, such as

4039:

Lesser-ranked emirs viewed the sultan as a peer whom they entrusted with ultimate authority and as a benefactor whom they expected to guarantee their salaries and monopoly on the military. When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots,

5082:. After Selim II conquered Damascus in 1516, a contemporary writer, Ibn Tulun, noted that the rich yellow silk banner of the Mamluks was replaced by the plain red banner of the Ottomans. Red banners are also known to have been used by the Mamluks. The historian 4050:, defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him." The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of 3279:, in direct opposition to the Sunnism of the Mamluks and Ottomans. Tensions along this frontier encouraged al-Ghuri to rely more on the Ottomans for aid, a policy that the Venetians ultimately also urged him to follow in order to counter their common foe, the 4599:

to a military hierarchy that crystallized into an even more developed economic hierarchy and that had substantial economic interests in society at large; on the other hand, it deeply characterized the realm's economic and social development, its agriculture,

4978:

main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them charitable structures such as

1610:. She ensured the Salihiyya's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and inaugurated patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyya. In particular, she cultivated close ties with the Jamdari (pl. Jamdariyya) and Bahri (pl. Bahriyya) corps, distributing to them 4785:, and increasing tariffs on commodities. At this time, the long-established trade between Europe and the Islamic world began to make up a significant part of state revenues as the Mamluks taxed the merchants operating or passing through the empire's ports. 4056:, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. The sultan also derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in peacetime. According to Holt, the factious nature of emirs who were not the sultan's 2428:

Khalil held sway and periodically assumed power, al-Nasir Muhammad established a centralized autocracy. In 1310, he imprisoned, exiled or killed any Mamluk emirs that supported those who toppled him in the past, including the Burji mamluks. He assigned

5229: 2312:

in Cairo. After the détente with the Ilkhanids, Qalawun suppressed internal dissent by imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. He diversified the hitherto mostly Turkic mamluk ranks by purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly

4403:

ethnic outsiders of the ruling elite. The Mamluks introduced greater centralization of the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the military hierarchy and its associated

5013:

mosque, though the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including

6299:

of gold roundels (bawlikir). The two musicians at the lower right both wear turkic coats and plumed caps, one of which has an upwardly turned brim. The plumes are set in a front metal plaque ('amud) (Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, ms A. F. 9, fol.

4905:

monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for al-Ashraf Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. One of the stylistic features that distinguished Mamluk manuscript decoration was the presence of gilded foliate

4899:

In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo were among the main centers of manuscript production. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly

2981:, involving three expeditions between 1440 and 1444. Domestically, Jaqmaq largely continued Barsbay's monopolies, though he promised to enact reforms and formally rescinded some tariffs. Jaqmaq died in February 1453. His eighteen-year-old son, 1394:, or household slave. After thorough training in martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed but expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. Mamluks formed part of the military apparatus in 2805: 6294:

Fig. 22. Frontispiece of a court scene from a Maqamat manuscript, probably from Egypt, dated 1334. The enthroned prince wears a brocaded qabli' maftulJ with inscribed Tiraz armbands over a qabli' turki which is clinched at the waist with a

3598:

The Mamluks cultivated and utilized Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of their Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans favored the

3252:, and craftsmen. The traditional mamluk army, however, regarded firearms with contempt and vigorously resisted their incorporation into Mamluk warfare, which prevented al-Ghuri from making effective use of them until the end of his reign. 3384:

Selim initially offered the Mamluk sultan peace as an Ottoman vassal, but his messengers were intercepted and killed by mamluks. Tuman Bay, with 4,000 cavalry and some 8,000 infantry, confronted the Ottomans in a final bloody battle near

5077:

The Mamluk sultans followed the Ayyubids in using yellow as the official colour associated with the sultan and used on sultanic banners. Baybars is said to have noted the yellow colour of his banners in opposition to the red banners of

2587:(descendants of mamluks who did not undergo the enslavement/manumission process) in the military and administration, a process lasted for the remainder of the Bahri period. This caused resentment among Hasan's own mamluks, led by Emir 3669:

was the most popular order. The Shadhiliyya lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. It incorporated Sunni Islamic piety with its basis in the

2411:. "In the paintings the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored". The brimmed hats in the bottom right corner are Mongol. Al-Nasir Muhammad was himself of 4421:. The monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by the sultans. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. 6263:

The sultan who possibly commissioned the manuscript and who may be the one depicted on the dedicatory title page is An-Nasir Muhammad b. Qala'un, who was in power for the third time from 709 AH / 1309–10 AD to 741 AH / 1340–41

3878:. The tribe remained strong after al-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans. They were restored after each rebellion, before the tribe's sheikh was finally executed in 1353. In 2886:

This monopoly set a precedent for his successors, some of whom established monopolies over other goods such as sugar and textiles. Barsbay compelled Red Sea traders to offload their goods at the Mamluk-held Hejazi port of

4515:

represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (an emir) as income and a financial source to provision his soldiers. Before the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of

4331:) was the sultan's chief of staff, responsible for organizing the royal court's daily activities, managing the sultan's personal budget, and supervising all of the buildings of the Citadel of Cairo and its staff. The 3555: 4080:

of Syria who had power bases in their provinces. Typically, the faction most loyal to the sultan were the Royal Mamluks, particularly those whom the sultan had personally recruited and manumitted, as opposed to the

3352:

of the war against Ismail I. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the

2568:

and other plagues followed, causing mass death in the country, which led to major social and economic changes in the region. In 1351, the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, ousted and replaced Hasan with his brother,

11306: 2899:

term, the monopoly over the spice trade had a negative effect on Egyptian commerce and became a motivation for European merchants to seek alternative routes to the east around Africa and across the Atlantic.

2092:

in 1266. Baybars's destroy captured fortresses along the Syrian coast to prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. In August 1266, the Mamluks launched a punitive expedition against the

4587:

was a more stable revenue source than other methods the Mamluks employed, such as tax hikes, the sale of administrative offices, and extortion of the population. According to historian Jo van Steenbergen,

1626:, was rebuffed from monopolizing power by the army and the Bahriyya and Jamdariyya, who all asserted that sultanic authority was exclusive to the Ayyubids. The Bahriyya compelled Aybak to share power with 2229:

as co-sultan in 1264. This represented a break from the Mamluk tradition of choosing the sultan by merit rather than lineage. In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Baraka.

2151: 2109:, both cities in interior Palestine. Unlike the coastal fortresses, the Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers. In 1268, the Mamluks captured 4375: 4841: 3232:, a former rival who opposed him in 1504–1505, as governor of Damascus in 1506. The latter remained a major figure during his reign but he acknowledged Cairo's suzerainty and helped to keep the peace. 5128:. Starting with al-Nasir Muhammad, epigraphic blazons (with Arabic script) became part of the heraldic repertoire. From the late 14th to the mid-15th centuries, blazons became more complex and their 1252:

in 1260, halting their southward expansion. They then conquered or gained suzerainty over the Ayyubids' Syrian principalities. By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars,

4361:

became a powerful office in the late 14th century, particularly under Barquq and al-Nasir Faraj, who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the

2268:, a top deputy of Baybars, as sultan in November 1279. The Ilkhanids launched a massive offensive against Syria in 1281. The Mamluks were outnumbered by the 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian- 1936:

Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257, possibly on orders from Shajar al-Durr, who was assassinated a week later. Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son,

3816:. Qalawun purchased horses from the Bedouin of Barqa, which were inexpensive but of high quality, while al-Nasir Muhammad spent extravagantly for horses from Bedouins in Barqa, Syria, Iraq and 4721:

the state, with the sultan's treasury taking the largest share of the revenues; emirs and major private brokers followed. An emir's main source of income were the agricultural products of his

3872:

In Egypt, during al-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Mamluks had a similar relationship with the Bedouin. The Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful there after being assigned massive

2906:

to a minimum, sent troops to occupy the Hejaz and rein in the Bedouin, and took direct control of much of the region's administration. He aimed to secure the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from

3800:

conquest of the Cilicia in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia.

3299:

took place between Portuguese forces in the Indian Ocean and Muslim expeditions sent against them. A Mamluk fleet of fifty ships left from Jeddah in 1506, with assistance of forces from the

3127: 2941:

to largely submit to their suzerainty, Mamluk authority in Upper Egypt was mostly relegated to the emirs of the Hawwara tribe. The latter had grown wealthy from their burgeoning trade with

4892:

the 15th century. Most of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end of the Mamluk period. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because

4777:

and profiting from their transit position in the trade between Europe and the Far East. The last was the Mamluks' most lucrative policy and was accomplished by cultivating trade ties with

4967: 2680:

His accession was enabled by Yalbugha's mamluks, whose corresponding rise to power left Barquq vulnerable. His rule was challenged by a revolt in Syria in 1389 by the Mamluk governors of

1586:. On 27 February, Turanshah arrived in al-Mansura to lead the Egyptian army. On 5 April 1250, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansura. The Egyptians followed them into the 3397:, one of Cairo's gates, on 13 April 1517. In reward for his betrayal at Marj Dabiq, Selim installed Khayr Bak as Ottoman governor of Egypt. Janbirdi was appointed governor of Damascus. 1484: 1456:. Mamluks were highly committed to their master, to whom they often referred to as 'father', and were in turn treated more as kinsmen than as slaves. The Ayyubid emir and future sultan 1349:). These names emphasized the ethnic origin of the rulers and Mamluk writers did not explicitly highlight their status as slaves, except on rare occasions during the Circassian period. 4199:

from armies dispersed by the Mongols. After the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the

2434:

to over thirty of his own mamluks. Initially, he left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed

2581:

deposed Salih and restored Hasan in 1355, after which Hasan gradually purged Taz, Shaykhu and Sirghitmish and their mamluks from his administration. Hasan recruited and promoted the

3439:

s. The difference between these Ottoman regiments and the Egyptian mamluk regiments became blurred over time as intermarriage became common, resulting in a more mixed social class.

2561:

After Hajji's death, the senior emirs hastily appointed another son of al-Nasir Muhammad, the twelve-year-old al-Nasir Hasan. Coinciding with Hasan's first reign, in 1347–1348, the

4875:

metalwork, woodwork, and textiles—were prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. Mamluk glassware influenced the

4349:

s (lesser majordomos) who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property, and the kitchens of the citadel. Emirs had their own

3473:

Throughout the Ottoman period, powerful mamluk households and factions struggled for control of important political offices and of Egypt's revenues. Between 1688 and 1755, mamluk

4409:

system. In Egypt, the centrality of the Nile River facilitated Mamluk centralization of the region. The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, consisting of gold

3477:, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman garrison, deposed at least thirty-four governors. The mamluks remained a dominating force in Egyptian politics until their 12774: 3393:, another former Mamluk commander, persuaded the Ottoman sultan that Tuman Bay was too dangerous to keep alive. Accordingly, the last Mamluk sultan was executed by hanging at 10270:

Haarmann, Ulrich (1998). "Joseph's Law – The Careers and Activities of Mamluk Descendants before the Ottoman Conquest of Egypt". In Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich (eds.).

1929:

growing ambitions. Upon learning of Aydughdi's plot to install an-Nasir Yusuf as sultan, which would leave Aydughdi as practical ruler of Egypt, Aybak imprisoned Aydughdi in

11807: 4236: 4131:

To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought confirmation of their executive authority from a

2487:

Al-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of descendants in a period marked by political instability. Most of his successors, except for

11802: 11797: 656: 631: 617: 603: 589: 575: 561: 547: 533: 11186:

Yosef, Koby (2012). "Dawlat al-atrāk or dawlat al-mamālīk? Ethnic Origin or Slave Origin as the Defining Characteristic of the Ruling Élite in the Mamlūk Sultanate".

7505:

Ritratti et elogii di capitanii illustri. The portraits engraved by Pompilio Totti; the letterpress by J. Roscius, A. Mascardi, F. Leonida, O. Tronsarelli, and others

3894:

rulers of the region, forcing the Mamluks to rely on them for tax collection. The Bedouin were purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Shaykhu in 1353.

5022:) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. Monumental decorated entrance portals became common compared to earlier periods, often carved with 8785:"A Blood-Measuring Device, folio from a manuscript of The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (Kitab al-hiyal al-nafisa), AKM11, The Aga Khan Museum" 4655:

was completed in 1315 under al-Nasir Muhammad and influenced political and economic developments of the Mamluk Sultanate until its fall in the early 16th century.

4676:

lands to meet the fiscal needs of the military, namely payment of emirs and their subordinates. The state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an emir's

3188: 1926: 1500:

Al-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his mamluks, provisioning them through confiscated

5519:"Frontispiece, folio from a manuscript of The Prescription for Pleasure (Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'Udwan al-Atba') of Ibn Zafar al-Siqili, AKM12, The Aga Khan Museum" 3808:

Bedouins were a reserve force in the Mamluk military. During the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, the Bedouin tribes, particularly those of Syria, such as the

1960: 13009: 3644:

s. This policy was partly motivated to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other

5192: 3255: 1594:

An electoral college dominated by the Salihiyya then convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between

1298:(r. 1293–1294, 1299–1309, 1310–1341), before giving way to the internal strife characterizing the succession of his sons, when real power was held by senior 4248:

Gradually, as mamluks filled administrative and courtier posts within the state, Mamluk innovations to the Ayyubid hierarchy were developed. The offices of

2685: 2673:

in 1378, giving him command of the Mamluk army, which he used to oust Baraka in 1380. Ali died in May 1381 and was succeeded by his nine-year-old brother,

7211: 4797:

and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver

4097:

investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. The sultan or his appointees led the Hajj caravans from Cairo and Damascus to Mecca in the capacity of

3779:, destruction of churches, and to retain employment. By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. 3148:

between the two powers in 1490 formalized this arrangement. It was a sign that the Mamluks were now depending partly on the Venetians for naval security.

2373:

to his supporters. He was unable to keep power and al-Nasir Muhammad was restored as sultan in 1298, ruling over a fractious realm until being toppled by

1914:

led to Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many intra-Salihi clashes about his ascendancy. The Bahriyya and Jamdariyya were represented by their patron,

169: 13004: 3109: 2699: 2080:

With his power in Egypt and Islamic Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing

4000:

of al-Karak, Safed, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. In Hama, the Mamluks permitted the Ayyubids to continue governing until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320,

2509:), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. The first of al-Nasir Muhammad's sons to accede was 2097:

for its alliance with the Mongols, laying waste to numerous Armenian villages and significantly weakening the kingdom. At around the same time, Baybars

3911:

remained the capital of the empire and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Citadel of Cairo serving as the sultan's headquarters.

3216:(or al-Ghawri) was placed on the throne in 1501. Al-Ghuri secured his position over several months and appointed new figures to key posts. His nephew, 2215: 4944:

Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. Egypt and Syria already possessed a rich tradition of

4013:

A consistent accession process occurred with every new sultan. It mostly involved an election by a council of emirs and mamluks (who would proffer an

3174:

over the next six years. By 1491, both sides were exhausted and an Ottoman embassy arrived in Cairo in the spring. An agreement was concluded and the

13019: 12329: 1948:

made two attempts to conquer Egypt in November 1257 and 1258 but were defeated. They then turned on an-Nasir Yusuf in Damascus, who defeated them at

1945: 1599: 1921:

Afterward, Aybak purged his retinue and the Salihiyya of perceived dissidents, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in

3855:

to the Al Fadl to prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate, which the Al Fadl had frequently done during the early 14th century. Competition over

2132:

in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then considered the Assassins' independence as problematic, wrested control of their fortresses in the

11576: 3041: 2915: 2177:. In 1265, the Mamluks invaded northern Makuria, forcing the Nubian king to become their vassal. Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the 1013: 3546: 13014: 7717: 3519:

identity, and ethnic identity manifested itself through given names, dress, access to administrative positions and was indicated by a sultan's

3229: 1313:

major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside.

2738:. Barquq instituted this to better control the Egyptian countryside from the rising strength of the Bedouin tribes. He further dispatched the 2276:, confirming Mamluk dominance in Syria. The Ilkhanids' rout enabled Qalawun to proceed against Crusader holdouts in Syria and in May 1285, he 12198: 11237: 10148:"Why Domenico Had to Die and Black Slaves Wore Red Uniforms: Military Technology and Its Decisive Role in the 1517 Ottoman Conquest of Egypt" 4822:

the revenues of the Mamluk–Venetian monopoly on trans-Mediterranean trade. This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate.

2033: 13044: 10682:

From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.)

10147: 3212:

Qaitbay's death on 8 August 1496 inaugurated several years of instability. Eventually, following several brief reigns by other candidates,

1616:

and other privileges. Her efforts and Egyptian military's preference to preserve the Ayyubid state were evident when the Salihi mamluk and

6706: 4625:

units), assessment of land quality, and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as

4300:(commander of the audience). These additional offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to the military hierarchy. 3566: 154: 4211:

had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. It had its own administrative structure and was under the direct command of the sultan. The

10230:

Hathaway, Jane (2019). "Mamlūks, Ottoman period". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

4044:

plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own

2440:

to his own mamluks. By 1316, the number of mamluks decreased to 2,000. Al-Nasir Muhammad further consolidated power by replacing Caliph

11824: 11792: 3010:

conflict with the evermore stagnant Mamluk Sultanate. By then, the state was under severe financial stress, with the state selling off

1127: 2862:

Before Shaykh died in 1421, he attempted to offset the power of the Circassians by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as

2851: 1567:. Although the Salihiyya welcomed his succession, Turanshah challenged their dominance in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his 1545:. Al-Salih opposed the evacuation of Damietta and threatened to punish the city's garrison. This provoked a mutiny by his garrison in 12653: 12181: 11663: 7772:

The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500–1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas

17: 7402:"Shirt of Mail and Plate of Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qaitbay (ca. 1416/18–1496), 18th Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt | probably Egyptian" 12665: 12056: 10189: 10846:

Egypt and Syria Under the Circassian Sultans, 1382–1468 A.D.: Systematic Notes to Ibn Taghrî Birdî's Chronicles of Egypt, Volume 1

2594: 12100: 11834: 2663:, though the oligarchy of the senior emirs held the reins of power. Among the senior emirs who rose to prominence under Ali were 10430:

Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

4762:. Early into their rule, the Mamluks expanded the empire's role in foreign trade, with Baybars signing a commercial treaty with 12999: 12989: 11377: 10080: 9860:

Contact and Conflict in Frankish Greece and the Aegean, 1204–1453: Crusade, Religion and Trade between Latins, Greeks and Turks

6699: 3924: 3702:. While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulema through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding 3559: 3324: 3171: 2197:(Cyrenaica). In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of 1200: 496: 3016:

properties, depriving the treasury of their tax revenues. Coins based on precious metals nearly disappeared from circulation.

2756:

to become a Mamluk vassal. Towards the end of the 14th century, challengers to the Mamluks emerged in Anatolia, including the

12902: 11346: 11261: 11176: 11153: 11134: 11115: 11092: 11069: 11048: 11027: 11004: 10985: 10913: 10892: 10865: 10833: 10812: 10793: 10770: 10751: 10730: 10709: 10690: 10669: 10648: 10625: 10604: 10583: 10562: 10541: 10500: 10479: 10437: 10410: 10389: 10347: 10323: 10300: 10279: 10260: 10239: 10199: 10178: 10159: 10123: 10101: 10057: 10036: 10015: 9996: 9975: 9954: 9933: 9909: 9888: 9867: 9844: 9823: 9759: 9676: 9653: 9632: 8304: 8266: 8247: 8201: 8182: 8002: 7780: 6683: 6601: 6402: 6375: 6350: 6323: 5381: 5347: 10311: 10209:

Al-Harithy, Howyda N. (1996). "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines". In Necıpoğlu, Gülru (ed.).

5002:

agreements that also served the secondary purpose of ensuring some form of income or property for the patrons' descendants.

4093:

s occasionally constituted a hostile faction, such as with as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of al-Nasir Muhammad.

3738:

numerals, dated 1282/1283. This astrolabe and other items of its kind are proof that Mamluks still used Coptic numerals and

3572:

A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major

13034: 12726: 12380: 12324: 12280: 12093: 11767: 11757: 11717: 5248: 4607:

The system consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. Land was assessed by the periodic

3662:

and gain more influence over them. Nevertheless, the Shafi'i scholars kept a number of privileges over their counterparts.

2945:

and achieved a degree of local popularity due to their piety, education and generally benign treatment of the inhabitants.

1627: 12574: 9664: 3710:

s (Sufi lodges). On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar

3077:. Timurbugha was deposed in turn on 31 January 1468, but voluntarily consented to the accession of his second in command, 2832:, against whom Faraj had sent seven military expeditions. The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, and had Caliph 13029: 12994: 12385: 12125: 12011: 5133:

were possibly no longer used as individualized personal blazons but perhaps more as general marks of their social class.

3933: 3155:, to the Ottoman throne, Ottoman-Mamluk tensions escalated. Bayezid's claim to the throne was challenged by his brother, 2902:

Barsbay undertook efforts protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids. He reduced the independence of the

2855: 2607: 783: 10615: 10375: 9719: 9690: 7770: 3023:, ruled for a short stint under challenges from the governors of Damascus and Jeddah. A compromise candidate, the Greek 2462: 2148:, but withdrew to avoid overstretching his forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a larger incoming Ilkhanid army. 13039: 13024: 12984: 12838: 12769: 12648: 12270: 12147: 11814: 11695: 11622: 11610: 11571: 4996:

s (public fountains), or mosques. The revenues and expenses of these charitable complexes were governed by inalienable

3812:, were strengthened and integrated into the economy. Bedouin tribes were also a major supplier of the Mamluk cavalry's 3478: 3450:

During this period, a number of mamluk 'households' formed, with a complex composition including both true mamluks and

3431:

rule. They existed as military units in parallel with the more strictly Ottoman regiments like the janissaries and the

3020: 1050: 1003: 803: 763: 12373: 11902: 10934: 10458: 10220: 9043: 6287: 5295: 4917:

of metalwork was also generally higher in the early period. One of the best examples of this period is the so-called

3246:). The latter's ranks were filled recruits from outside the traditional mamluk system, including Turkmens, Persians, 2660: 2407: 10137:

Ibn Khaldūn in Egypt: His Public Functions and His Historical Research, 1382–1406, a Study in Islamic Historiography

5988: 5848: 5230:"The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration?" 3163:(who had replaced Shah Budaq), against the Ottomans, but Ala al-Dawla was compelled to shift his loyalty to Bayezid 12506: 12169: 11892: 5168: 4949:

with a wide flaring neck at the top. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains.

4172: 3903:

was divided among members of the royal family, the Mamluk state was unitary. Under many Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had

3787: 2531: 2308:. His building activities later shifted to more secular and personal purposes, including his large, multi-division 2225:

Baybars attempted to establish his Zahirid house as the state's ruling dynasty by appointing his four-year-old son

6254: 4743: 4217:

regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force.

3970:

The Mamluk sultan was the supreme government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as

2377:, a Circassian mamluk of Qalawun, who was wealthier, and more pious and cultured than his immediate predecessors. 1952:. An-Nasir Yusuf followed up with a siege of al-Mughith and the Bahriyya at al-Karak, but the growing threat of a 12865: 12833: 12586: 12312: 11722: 11442: 10358: 8784: 4528:

as personal, heritable property. The Mamluks effectively ended this, with the exception of some areas, mainly in

3743: 3296: 2704: 2677:, with real power held by Barquq as regent. The next year, Barquq toppled al-Salih Hajji and assumed the throne. 2526: 1369: 1358: 1223:(1382–1517), called after the predominant ethnicity or corps of the ruling Mamluks during these respective eras. 716: 9702: 3665:

The Mamluks embraced the Sufi orders in the empire. Sufism was widespread in Egypt by the 13th century, and the

2636: 2066:. His diplomacy was additionally intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. 1636: 12434: 12228: 12191: 5163: 4460:

inspected weights and measures and the quality of goods, maintained legal trade, and detected price gouging. A

3368:

al-Raydaniyya to the north of Cairo. In the early days of 1517, Tuman Bay received news that a Mamluk army was

2985:, was installed on the throne but soon lost all support when he tried to buy the loyalty of other mamluks with 2550: 1120: 7602: 2937:

in 1433. The Aq Qoyonlu consequently recognized Mamluk suzerainty. While the Mamluks succeeded in forcing the

2397: 12721: 12516: 11922: 11447: 11430: 9621:"The Logistics of the Mamluk-Mongol War, with Special Reference to the Battle of Wadi'l-Khaznadar, 1299 C.E." 4192:

The sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was essentially restricted to mamluks.

4139:, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph 3796: 3259:

Anonymous 1511 painting depicting a reception of Venetian ambassadors in Damascus during the time of al-Ghuri

2982: 2344:, the last major Crusader stronghold in Palestine and Mamluk rule consequently extended across all of Syria. 2133: 743: 12633: 10316:

History and Society During the Mamluk Period (1250–1517): Studies of the Annemarie Schimmel Research College

4497:

system was inherited from the Ayyubids and further organized under the Mamluks to fit their military needs.

4023:, a state-organized procession through Cairo led by the sultan, and the reading of the sultan's name in the 12697: 12501: 12469: 12285: 11917: 11787: 11710: 11283:, by Yusef. William Popper, translator Abu L-Mahasin ibn Taghri Birdi, University of California Press 1954. 10152:

The Mamluk-Ottoman Transition: Continuity and Change in Egypt and Bilād al-Shām in the Sixteenth Century, 2

3201: 3058: 2929:

In response to Aq Qoyonlu raids against the Jazira, the Mamluks launched expeditions against them, sacking

813: 10876: 4918: 4845: 2038: 12948: 12860: 12702: 12444: 12334: 12157: 11952: 11819: 11762: 11658: 11533: 4714: 2385: 2094: 1980:, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing 1080: 622: 13049: 12855: 12660: 12557: 12540: 12523: 12464: 12290: 12245: 12176: 12115: 12088: 11732: 11591: 11370: 5518: 5105: 4880: 4575:

to non-mamluks to extract more profits. By 1343, the practice was commonplace and by 1347, the sale of

4276:(treasurer), which existed during the Ayyubid period, were preserved, but Baybars added the offices of 3088: 2966: 2692:. The ruling Mamluks of this period were mostly Circassians drawn from the Christian population of the 2545: 2074: 1556: 9836:

Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World

5316: 5120:

Unlike European heraldry, Mamluk blazons used a much more limited set of images and symbols for their

12979: 12821: 12764: 12731: 12496: 12406: 12368: 12363: 12351: 12250: 11942: 11912: 11897: 11649: 10978:

Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-century Egypt

10763:

Twilight of Majesty: The Reigns of the Mamlūk Sultans Al-Ashrāf Qāytbāy and Qanṣūh Al-Ghawrī in Egypt

10366: 6340: 6313: 4782: 4105:(commander of the Hajj caravan). Starting with Qalawun, the sultans monopolized the provision of the 3823:

Baybars and Qalawun, and the Syrian viceroys of al-Nasir Muhammad during his first two reigns, emirs

3193: 1587: 1583: 1294:. The sultanate then experienced a long period of stability and prosperity during the third reign of 1113: 677: 5089: 4466:

or Muslim scholar occupied the post, but in the 15th century, mamluk emirs began to be appointed as

3389:

on 2 April 1517, where he was defeated and captured. Selim intended to spare him, but Khayr Bak and

2525:, appointed instead. By January 1342, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, 12897: 12877: 12685: 12511: 12307: 12295: 12132: 12110: 11777: 11727: 11668: 11627: 11503: 11498: 11464: 11425: 9919: 9698: 6751:

The legend reads "This sultan of Babylon is great and powerful amongst those of this region.". in

5989:"Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)" 5849:"Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)" 5158: 4888:. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. 3839:

were of low quality. During al-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality

2467: 2214:

kingdom's demise in the mid-14th century. Furthermore, the Mamluks received the submission of King

2206: 1649: 1564: 886: 734: 190: 11256:

Al-Maqrizi, al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar, Matabat aladab, Cairo 1996,

5086:(d. 1470) recorded that Sultan al-Mu'ayyad gifted a red banner to one of his vassals in Anatolia. 5009:

was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional

1896:

by that time, with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia, the other main one being the

13054: 12806: 12429: 12164: 12016: 11989: 11974: 11969: 11705: 11605: 9899: 6753: 3511: 3139:

armor belonging to Sultan Qaitbay, one of the few surviving sets of armor from the Mamluk period.

1977: 1881: 1796: 1041: 773: 580: 311: 218: 107: 3714:, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the 2347:

Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother,

1321:

The 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. Arabic sources for the period of the

12958: 12887: 12816: 12638: 12606: 12300: 12238: 12233: 11947: 11412: 10554:

A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of Al-Nāṣir Muḥammad Ibn Qalāwūn (1310–1341)

10333: 10312:"Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth" 9988:

State Formation and the Structure of Politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E.

5142: 5079: 5030:. Influences from Syria, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. 4901: 3961: 3907:

over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute.

3879: 3592: 3176: 3024: 3006: 2833: 2521:, held real power and imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had al-Nasir Muhammad's infant son, 2249: 1769: 1711: 1154: 379: 355: 146: 31: 11015: 10781: 10636: 9855: 7503: 6591: 6392: 3180:

was reaffirmed. During the rest of Qaitbay's reign, no further external conflicts took place.

12892: 12784: 12754: 12643: 12623: 12569: 12481: 12120: 12078: 12073: 12051: 11859: 11849: 11634: 11513: 11481: 11363: 11164: 11080: 10594: 10169:

Garcin, Jean-Claude (1998). "The Regime of the Circassian Mamluks". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).

10068: 9620: 5129: 3482: 3369: 3205: 3062: 2965:

Barsbay died on 7 June 1438 and, per his wishes, was succeeded by his fourteen-year-old son,

2923: 2829: 2534:

in June 1342. Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother

2441: 2273: 2098: 1373: 298: 11106:

Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World: The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600

4702: 4244:(horsemanship manual) by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. 3762:(protected peoples) status, determined the taxes paid by Christians and Jews, including the 2712:

Baybars and Qalawun. A major innovation to this system was the division of Egypt into three

2553:(1356–1363) is the largest and costliest Mamluk building in Cairo, despite being built in a 1968:(horsemanship manual) by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. 114: 12759: 12709: 12579: 11683: 11673: 5006: 4177: 3845:

in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the

3776: 3357: 3160: 3105: 3092: 2599: 2565: 2499: 2341: 1787: 1591:

the Salihiyya. On 2 May 1250, disgruntled Salihi emirs assassinated Turanshah at Fariskur.

1493: 793: 753: 566: 461: 10069:"The Prince who Favored the Desert: Fragmentary Biography of al-Nasir Ahmad (d. 745/1344)" 4688:

holders neglecting the administrative oversight, maintenance, and infrastructure of their

3001:, won enough support to be declared sultan two months after Jaqmaq's death. He ruled when 2049:

In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith based on allegations of collaboration with the Mongol

8: 12870: 12850: 12670: 12618: 12613: 12552: 12454: 12137: 12068: 12063: 11782: 11486: 7401: 4971: 4958: 4113:(mantle) that was annually draped over the Kaaba, in addition to patronizing Jerusalem's 3626:. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as 3390: 3348: 2978: 2535: 2219: 2159:

by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. He is wearing the

2118: 2004: 1778: 1245: 1226:

The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan

983: 223: 160: 10857:

Tell This in My Memory: Stories of Enslavement from Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Empire

12680: 12591: 12491: 12358: 12186: 12152: 12105: 12083: 11979: 11881: 11752: 11639: 11586: 11104: 10964: 10135: 9800: 9049: 7711: 4778: 3522: 3506:

Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of

3373: 3276: 3144: 3070: 2970: 2958: 2510: 2226: 2186: 2174: 2129: 2069: 1992: 1915: 1847: 1534: 1060: 1023: 895: 11040:

Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt

9967:

Trading Conflicts: Venetian Merchants and Mamluk Officials in Late Medieval Alexandria

4227:

to emirs. This reform created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his

12934: 12828: 12628: 12535: 12486: 12439: 12424: 12339: 12255: 12142: 12040: 12021: 11854: 11528: 11523: 11454: 11437: 11420: 11342: 11323: 11315: 11257: 11172: 11149: 11130: 11111: 11088: 11065: 11044: 11023: 11000: 10981: 10930: 10909: 10888: 10861: 10829: 10808: 10789: 10766: 10747: 10726: 10705: 10686: 10665: 10644: 10621: 10600: 10579: 10558: 10537: 10496: 10475: 10454: 10433: 10406: 10385: 10343: 10319: 10296: 10275: 10256: 10235: 10216: 10195: 10174: 10155: 10119: 10097: 10076: 10053: 10032: 10011: 9992: 9971: 9950: 9929: 9905: 9884: 9863: 9840: 9819: 9792: 9755: 9729: 9672: 9649: 9628: 9053: 9039: 7776: 6679: 6597: 6398: 6371: 6346: 6319: 6283: 5377: 5343: 5291: 5268: 5121: 4910: 4853: 4849: 4391: 4136: 3943: 3824: 3790:

Christians from the coastal areas to prevent their contact with European powers. The

3507: 3467: 3415: 3300: 3280: 2938: 2911: 2869: 2693: 2611: 2606:

Yalbugha became regent to Hasan's successor, the young son of the late sultan Hajji,

2588: 2539: 2402: 2348: 2122: 1908:

Aybak was the main bulwark against the Bahri and Jamdari emirs, and his promotion as

1805: 1751: 1731: 1560: 1528: 1481:). These mamluks were called the 'Salihiyya' (singular 'Salihi') after their master. 1440:

had a private mamluk corps. Most of the mamluks in the Ayyubids' service were ethnic

1433: 1411: 1295: 945: 935: 915: 905: 848: 707: 636: 594: 538: 367: 304: 175: 12690: 11127:

The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia: Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile

4472:

to recompense them during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the

4041: 4004:, was granted the honorary title of sultan by al-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the 3290:

was one of the major concerns of al-Ghuri's time. In 1498, the Portuguese navigator

12789: 12746: 12716: 12564: 12346: 12275: 12217: 11932: 11927: 11907: 11829: 11644: 11476: 11459: 11400: 11212: 10956: 10700:

Northrup, Linda S. (1998b). "The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).

9782: 9031: 6003: 5863: 5260: 4991: 4945: 4893: 4614: 4114: 3213: 2992: 2471: 2356: 2337: 2289: 2244: 2202: 1760: 1720: 1658: 1460:

acquired about one thousand mamluks (some of them free-born) from Syria, Egypt and

1264: 1070: 686: 12601: 11311: 11081:"Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350–1516" 4770:. By the 15th century, internal upheaval from Mamluk power struggles, diminishing 3864: 3113: 2384:

was a Muslim convert, had invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the

2169:

To Egypt's south, Baybars had initiated an aggressive policy toward the Christian

12779: 12596: 12547: 12449: 12265: 12001: 11984: 11615: 11540: 11336: 11273: 11059: 11038: 10924: 10903: 10880: 10855: 10844: 10823: 10741: 10720: 10680: 10659: 10617:

The Ottomans and the Mamluks: Imperial Diplomacy and Warfare in the Islamic World

10573: 10552: 10531: 10511: 10490: 10469: 10448: 10421: 10400: 10337: 10290: 10250: 10210: 10111: 10091: 10047: 10026: 9986: 9965: 9944: 9923: 9878: 9834: 9813: 9643: 6673: 6277: 5083: 4864: 4456:

in Cairo was the most important and his position akin to a finance minister. The

4160: 4152: 4148: 4140: 3849:. Beyond his personal admiration of the Bedouin, al-Nasir Muhammad's distributed 3791: 3739: 3735: 3463: 3304: 2903: 2868:

to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. After his death, a Circassian emir,

2757: 2724:; provinces), similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. The new Egyptian 2329: 2309: 2301: 2277: 2253: 2140:. In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in 2102: 1897: 1700: 1546: 1542: 1415: 1407: 1343:). During Burji rule, it was also referred to as the 'State of the Circassians' ( 1275: 1196: 1145: 955: 552: 330: 213: 142: 81: 55: 10596:

A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War

9453: 9179: 4694:, and concentrating solely on collecting taxes, resulting in less productivity. 3694:(invocation of God). Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the 12928: 12882: 12736: 12675: 12459: 12260: 11772: 11700: 11559: 11493: 11217: 11200: 10370: 10362: 9714: 9706: 9665:""Jeux de miroir": Architecture of Istanbul and Cairo from Empire to Modernism" 4876: 4836: 4794: 4790: 4186: 3817: 3813: 3410: 3311:

in 1509. In 1515, a joint Ottoman-Mamluk fleet set out under the leadership of

3268: 2942: 2878:

and assumed power. Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by

2822: 2796: 2752:

During Barquq's reign, in 1387, the Mamluks had forced the Anatolian entity in

2674: 2570: 2562: 2488: 2416: 2085: 2073:

Enameled and gilded bottle with the scene of battle. Egypt, late 13th century.

1972:

While mamluk factions fought for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under

1607: 1595: 1457: 1414:

dynasties. Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under

1399: 1227: 1208: 1204: 1187:

from the mid-13th to early 16th centuries. It was ruled by a military caste of

1176: 868: 838: 649: 478: 398: 248: 11276:, al-Nujum al-Zahirah Fi Milook Misr wa al-Qahirah, al-Hay'ah al-Misreyah 1968 9787: 9770: 5264: 4159:'s decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by 3295:

Ocean to the Mediterranean through Mamluk lands. For over more than a decade,

1642: 12973: 12811: 12799: 12794: 12474: 11564: 11327: 10425: 10292:

A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen

9796: 9733: 9710: 9694: 5272: 4649:

system and the first was carried out in 1298 under Lajin. A second and final

4529: 4182: 4032: 4001: 3846: 3726: 3406: 3308: 3291: 2828:

Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and

2689: 2641: 2631: 2318: 2269: 2126: 2017: 1953: 1937: 1893: 1869: 1575: 1436:'s black African infantry with mamluks. Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking 1418:

in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning under the first Ayyubid

1395: 1322: 1249: 1220: 1212: 993: 482: 123: 10960: 10116:

The Art of the Qu'ran: Treasures from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts

5104:, a red cup on a yellow field, is prominently visible on the upper section. 4852:(r.1285-1341), which from the 17th century was used as a baptismal font for 4758:

Egypt and Syria played a central transit role in international trade in the

3329: 2538:. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother 1559:. As the Crusaders advanced, al-Salih died and was succeeded by his Jazira ( 12938: 12528: 11937: 11596: 11085:

Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350–1500)

10944: 9686: 6255:"Al-Hariri, Maqamat ('Assemblies') – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum" 5125: 5059: 4963: 4906: 4100: 3751: 3711: 3287: 3217: 3136: 3069:

Khushqadam died on 9 October 1467 and the mamluk emirs initially installed

2769: 2297: 2063: 1858: 1742: 1678: 1669: 1445: 1103: 435: 266: 228: 9035: 6275: 5311: 4747: 2933:

and massacring its Muslim inhabitants in 1429 and attacking their capital

11957: 11688: 11678: 11471: 11290: 11232: 10450:

The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382

10212:

Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, Volume 13

6279:

Arab Dress: A Short History : from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times

5093: 4815:) instead of the imperial treasury, which was linked with the military's 4759: 4600: 3904: 3883: 3588: 3585: 3394: 3312: 2578: 2554: 2514: 2452: 2380:

Early into al-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader

2336:

Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and after his death in 1290, his son,

2314: 1973: 1814: 1449: 1383: 1216: 858: 301: 244: 11251:

The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades

10905:

The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mameluk Architecture

10402:

The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517

10028:

History's Greatest Wars: The Epic Conflicts that Shaped the Modern World

9804: 9025: 3591:, particularly in Upper Egypt. There remained a significant minority of 3360:, the Ottomans were victorious against an army led by al-Ghuri himself. 2785: 2209:

and installed their ally Shakanda as king. This brought the fortress of

12006: 11964: 11243: 10968: 9302: 4509:

of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that the

4163:: "Stupid fellow. For God's sake—who pays any heed to the caliph now?" 4156: 3887: 3600: 3442: 3156: 3152: 3132: 3074: 2986: 2953: 2934: 2811:

Ambassadors of al-Nasir Faraj present tribute, including a giraffe, to

2765: 2746: 2374: 2324: 2210: 1930: 1237:), usurping power from his successor in 1250. The Mamluks under Sultan 343: 254: 3678:, Sufi mysticism, and elements of popular religion such as sainthood, 2858:

in Cairo, completed in 1432. The carved dome (center) covers his tomb.

12845: 12317: 10947:(1967). "Northern Lebanon Under the Dominance of Ġazīr (1517–1591)". 6007: 5867: 5153: 5010: 4926: 4913:

were often decorated with star-shaped or hexagonal geometric motifs.

4542: 4447: 4387: 4255: 4144: 4014: 3953: 3783: 3731: 3699: 3695: 3671: 3551: 3456:, who could also rise to high ranks. Each household was headed by an 3361: 3353: 3002: 2907: 2194: 2161: 2050: 1922: 1691: 1287: 697: 186: 9597: 9434: 5288:

Over-stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East

11518: 11286: 10782:"The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period" 10339:

A History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Day

9575: 9573: 9571: 6559: 6475: 6368:

Arab dress: a short history; from the dawn of Islam to modern times

6167: 5253:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland

5114: 5025: 4435: 3948: 3767: 3686:(visitation) to the tombs of saintly or religious individuals, and 3666: 3334: 3264: 2919: 2731: 2412: 2145: 2141: 2000: 1985: 1603: 1538: 1471: 1441: 1291: 925: 10093:

Crowds and Sultans: Urban Protest in Late Medieval Egypt and Syria

9535: 9533: 9531: 9529: 9386: 9314: 8856: 8854: 7702:

Ibn Iyas, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1955). Wiet, Gaston (trans.) (ed.).

4143:. Three years later, Baybars reestablished the institution of the 3347:, the new Ottoman sultan, defeated the Safavids decisively at the 3151:

With the death of Mehmed II in 1481 and the accession of his son,

2821:

Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son,

1533:

Tensions between as-Salih and his mamluks culminated in 1249 when

5031: 4979: 4936: 4868: 4802: 3957: 3809: 3705: 3681: 3619: 3378: 3344: 3338: 3223: 3121: 3096: 3078: 3046: 3036: 2879: 2739: 2681: 2667:

and Baraka, both Circassian mamluks of Yalbugha. Barquq was made

2574: 2352: 2265: 2257: 2239: 2178: 2114: 2042: 2028: 1996: 1949: 1579: 1422: 1389: 1310: 1279: 1253: 1242: 608: 423: 283: 272: 260: 11165:"The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest" 9946:

Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery

9815:

The Arts of the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria: Evolution and Impact

9568: 9502: 9265: 9263: 9224: 6889: 4367:, turning the latter into the state's chief financial official. 4343:(grand master of the house) to distinguish from his subordinate 1885:

The Mamluk Sultanate and some of the main contemporary polities

1403: 11550: 11508: 11355: 10786:

The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517

9752:

Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture

9526: 9374: 8936: 8924: 8851: 6703: 6019: 6017: 5101: 5097: 5053: 4922: 4885: 4857: 4805:, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey, and cheeses. 4767: 4620: 4414: 4132: 4108: 4026: 3757: 3715: 3675: 3623: 3615: 3581: 3575: 3563: 3499: 2974: 2930: 2887: 2742: 2664: 2654: 2518: 2420: 2381: 2360: 2305: 2293: 2281: 2198: 2182: 2137: 1981: 1836: 1461: 1453: 1419: 1379: 1306: 1192: 1188: 1180: 474: 288: 11201:"The Term Mamlūk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate" 10702:

The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt 640–1517

9925:

New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual

8993: 8899: 8897: 8895: 8893: 4929:

and horizontal scenes of animals, hunters, and riders playing

3750:

The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the

11581: 11386: 11246:, Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, 1997. 9260: 8116: 8104: 6954: 6952: 5017: 4872: 4798: 4763: 4533: 4427: 4410: 4395: 3908: 3763: 3689: 3446:

One of the last Mamluks, painted by William Page in 1816-1824

3082: 3054: 2891: 2812: 2792: 2761: 2753: 2735: 2615: 2522: 2459:(head judge) to issue legal rulings advancing his interests. 2401:

Mamluk court scene, with possible depiction of Mamluk Sultan

2364: 2190: 2170: 2110: 2106: 2081: 2057: 1941: 1901: 1623: 1568: 1283: 1238: 1184: 411: 200: 11211:(1). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas: 7–34. 10453:. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. 9985:

Clifford, Winslow William (2013). Conermann, Stephan (ed.).

9350: 9292: 9290: 9214: 9212: 9210: 9197: 9195: 9193: 8802: 8800: 8798: 8424: 8400: 8388: 8160: 8158: 8133: 8131: 7951: 7426: 7424: 7422: 7331: 7329: 7327: 6979: 6735: 6733: 6731: 6729: 6716: 6714: 6143: 6131: 6046: 6044: 6014: 5883: 5881: 5879: 5877: 4503:

were a central component of the Mamluk power structure. The

1470:(viceroy) of Egypt during the absence of his father, Sultan 11994: 11293:, translator, Journal d'un Bourgeois du Caire. Paris: 1955. 8914: 8912: 8890: 8839: 7683: 7248: 7246: 6631: 6629: 6627: 6625: 6424: 6422: 6420: 6418: 6416: 6414: 6186: 6184: 6182: 6107: 5953: 5438: 5436: 4930: 4418: 4240:

Horsemen wheeling around, with a sword in each one's hand.

3434: 3386: 3272: 2895: 2619: 2456: 2193:(western Arabia), the desert regions west of the Nile, and 2089: 1503: 1437: 1299: 11061:

Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals

11020:

Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras IV

10533:

World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca

9480: 9478: 9476: 9474: 9338: 9248: 9236: 8878: 8738: 8650: 8648: 8646: 8621: 8619: 8604: 8582: 8580: 8478: 8189: 7731: 7729: 7727: 7635: 7275: 7273: 7053: 7043: 7041: 6949: 6937: 6841: 6119: 6085: 6083: 5970: 5968: 5941: 5803: 5801: 5747: 5725: 5723: 5659: 5657: 5376:. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 164–165. 4909:

over pastel-coloured backgrounds set within wide margins.

4682:

across several provinces and for short terms. This led to

4551:, successfully resisted the abolition of their hereditary 4390:(1136–1206). Edition created for an amir of Mamluk Sultan 1195:. The sultanate was established with the overthrow of the 10722:

The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World

10073:

Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter

9558: 9556: 9554: 9552: 9550: 9548: 9490: 9422: 9287: 9207: 9190: 9005: 8981: 8969: 8795: 8716: 8714: 8677: 8675: 8436: 8155: 8143: 8128: 8092: 7992: 7990: 7963: 7939: 7419: 7324: 7312: 7028: 7026: 7024: 7022: 7020: 7018: 6969: 6967: 6831: 6829: 6726: 6711: 6702:

Collection of Mamluk Qur'an Manuscripts inscribed in the

6487: 6465: 6463: 6461: 6201: 6199: 6041: 5874: 5735: 5708: 5698: 5696: 5669: 5642: 5572: 5570: 5568: 5541: 5529: 5228:

Turan, Fikret; Boeschoten, Hendrik; Stein, Heidi (2007).

3562:

Collection of Mamluk Qur'an Manuscripts inscribed in the

3474: 3200:", "Campson Gauro, king of Egypt") by Florentine painter 10008:

L'Égypte des Mamelouks: L'empire des esclaves, 1250–1517

9904:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. 9147: 9135: 8909: 8866: 8817: 8815: 8755: 8753: 8687: 8412: 8376: 8364: 8318: 8316: 8314: 8294: 8292: 8290: 8288: 8254: 8225: 8223: 8068: 8058: 8056: 8043: 8041: 8039: 8014: 8012: 7975: 7659: 7583: 7571: 7484: 7448: 7243: 7089: 7065: 6793: 6622: 6571: 6411: 6179: 5818: 5816: 5788: 5786: 5477: 5475: 5433: 5342:. Wisconsin, USA: Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 757. 4563:

was an emir's main income source, and starting in 1337,

4166: 3827:

and Baybars II, were averse to granting Bedouin sheikhs

3228:

and his second in command. In Syria, al-Ghuri appointed

2775: 1995:

and confronted the Mongol army Hulagu left behind under

11338:

The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society

11016:"Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt" 10877:"Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing" 9471: 9410: 9398: 9362: 9326: 9113: 9111: 8726: 8699: 8643: 8616: 8577: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8536: 8534: 8521: 8519: 8517: 8468: 8466: 8453: 8451: 7929: 7927: 7914: 7912: 7910: 7873: 7871: 7808: 7796: 7752: 7750: 7748: 7746: 7744: 7724: 7625: 7623: 7603:"The reception of the Venetian ambassadors in Damascus" 7561: 7559: 7557: 7555: 7553: 7551: 7536: 7524: 7460: 7360: 7358: 7356: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7348: 7346: 7344: 7300: 7290: 7288: 7270: 7231: 7180: 7168: 7146: 7144: 7142: 7140: 7125: 7101: 7038: 6865: 6853: 6816: 6814: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6771: 6769: 6767: 6610: 6547: 6394:

Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras

6211: 6095: 6080: 6068: 5965: 5905: 5798: 5759: 5720: 5654: 5448: 5374:

Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert

2542:, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. 9545: 9514: 9159: 8765: 8711: 8672: 8235: 8208: 7987: 7015: 6964: 6925: 6913: 6901: 6826: 6781: 6641: 6535: 6458: 6446: 6434: 6196: 5929: 5917: 5893: 5771: 5693: 5681: 5630: 5618: 5606: 5582: 5565: 5553: 5499: 5460: 4970:(built 1470–1474), one of the finest examples of late 4664:

system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of

4424:

The Mamluks created an administrative body called the

3803: 3073:

as his successor. After two months he was replaced by

1571:

retinue from the Jazira and Syria as a counterweight.

1207:

in 1517. Mamluk history is generally divided into the

9275: 9123: 9096: 9084: 9072: 9060: 8827: 8812: 8750: 8546: 8311: 8285: 8220: 8170: 8080: 8053: 8036: 8009: 7820: 7647: 7472: 6155: 6056: 6029: 5828: 5813: 5783: 5594: 5487: 5472: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5393: 4384:

The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices

3608:, while additionally promoting the other major Sunni 3419:

Armour of a Mamluk horseman from the Ottoman period,

1549:, which only dissipated with the intervention of the 11148:(7th ed.). American University in Cairo Press. 11018:. In Vermeulen, Urbain; van Steenbergen, Jo (eds.). 10825:

The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages

10743:

The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages

9901:

Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture

9667:. In Necipoğlu, Gülru; Barry Flood, Finbarr (eds.). 9585: 9108: 8948: 8660: 8631: 8592: 8558: 8531: 8514: 8502: 8490: 8463: 8448: 8352: 8340: 8328: 8273: 8024: 7924: 7907: 7895: 7883: 7868: 7856: 7844: 7832: 7741: 7671: 7620: 7548: 7512: 7436: 7382: 7370: 7341: 7285: 7258: 7192: 7156: 7137: 7113: 7077: 7003: 6991: 6877: 6805: 6764: 6653: 6235: 6223: 5421: 5227: 5209: 5063: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5023: 5015: 4997: 4989: 4983: 4934: 4816: 4810: 4771: 4722: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4659: 4650: 4644: 4638: 4632: 4626: 4618: 4608: 4593: 4582: 4576: 4570: 4564: 4558: 4552: 4546: 4536: 4523: 4517: 4510: 4504: 4498: 4492: 4482: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4451: 4441: 4433: 4425: 4404: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4310: 4304: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4277: 4271: 4265: 4259: 4249: 4228: 4222: 4212: 4206: 4200: 4193: 4118: 4106: 4098: 4088: 4082: 4075: 4069: 4063: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4024: 4018: 4005: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3971: 3873: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3755: 3703: 3687: 3679: 3657: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3609: 3603: 3573: 3528: 3520: 3457: 3451: 3432: 3247: 3241: 3221: 3011: 2996: 2873: 2863: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2668: 2582: 2435: 2429: 2368: 2055: 2041:(1320–1340). This is a probable depiction of Sultan 1909: 1617: 1611: 1550: 1509: 1501: 1465: 1387: 1344: 1338: 1332: 1326: 1159: 87: 61: 11268:

Description topographique et historique de l'Egypte

10997:

Tarikh Misr al-Islamiyah (History of Islamic Egypt)

9856:"A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis" 6523: 6511: 6499: 6276:Yedida Kalfon Stillman, Norman A. Stillman (2003). 5409: 5197: 3721: 3381:in Middle Egypt with some of his remaining forces. 3333:Ottoman painting showing the head of Mamluk Sultan 2392: 2351:, being overthrown the following year by an ethnic 1940:, as heir to the sultanate and Aybak's close aide, 11305: 11103: 10885:The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950–1800) 10575:The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923 10134: 9024:Currie, Gabriela; Christensen, Lars (April 2022). 5390: 5117:practice was unique in the medieval Muslim world. 4062:stemmed from their primary loyalty being to their 2264:Baraka was ousted in a power struggle ending with 2189:, while attempting to extend their control to the 1892:. Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the 1578:, a junior regiment of the Salihiyya commanded by 1325:refer to the dynasty as the 'State of the Turks' ( 10252:The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages 9023: 6370:(Rev. 2. ed.). Brill. p. 67, Plate 22. 4569:holders sometimes leased or sold rights to their 3275:. The Safavids styled themselves as champions of 2054:improve intracommunication, Baybars instituted a 1957:had established a shadow state opposed to Qutuz. 1402:since at least the 9th century, rising to become 12971: 11335:Winter, Michael; Levanoni, Amalia, eds. (2004). 10643:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 213–226. 10071:. In Wasserstein, David J.; Ayalon, Ami (eds.). 9898:Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2009). "Flags". 9832: 9811: 9768: 9749: 9603: 9579: 9539: 9508: 9392: 9380: 9320: 9269: 6895: 6565: 6481: 6282:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. Fig. 22. 6173: 6023: 5249:"Some Notes on the Feudal System of the Mamlūks" 4135:. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the 2659:Sha'ban was succeeded by his seven-year-old son 1448:, who, upon entering service, were converted to 27:State in Egypt, Hejaz and the Levant (1250–1517) 11167:. In Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich (eds.). 11146:Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide 11013: 9858:. In Chrissis, Nikolaos G.; Carr, Mike (eds.). 9625:Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades 8942: 8930: 8860: 4617:), which a survey of land parcels (measured by 4440:(inspector-general) in charge. There were four 4181:Mamluk lancers, early 16th century (etching by 4087:s, who were recruited by his predecessors. The 3742:for various practical and scientific purposes. 2117:on 18 May. In 1271, Baybars captured the major 11334: 9949:. Albany: State University of New York Press. 9771:"The Jalayirid Connection in Mamluk Metalware" 9662: 9440: 4017:), the sultan's assumption of the regal title 3170:or 1484, which soon triggered the start of an 2367:. To consolidate control, Lajin redistributed 13010:States and territories disestablished in 1517 11371: 10929:. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. 10641:Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art 10422:"The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan" 9877:Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). 9754:. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. 6390: 4478:'s role from the legal realm to enforcement. 3400: 3315:, but ultimately it did not accomplish much. 2113:before conquering the Crusader stronghold of 1522: 1121: 11169:The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society 10272:The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society 10110: 9880:The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800 9663:Avcıoğlu, Nebahat; Volait, Mercedes (2017). 9230: 6338: 6311: 5193:Mamluk Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas (1375) 4766:and Qalawun signed a similar agreement with 174:Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan 73: 47: 10118:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 9669:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture 9184:The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History 6391:Vermeulen, Urbain; Smet, Daniel De (1995). 5371: 4316: 3580:s (schools of jurisprudence) and different 3112:. Shah Suwar held out in his fortress near 2749:to Upper Egypt to check the Arab Bedouins. 2389:al-Suffar in the plains south of Damascus. 2272:coalition, but routed the coalition at the 13005:States and territories established in 1250 11378: 11364: 11194:. Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 387–410. 11083:. In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex (eds.). 10376:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10208: 10150:. In Conermann, Stephan; Şen, Gül (eds.). 9897: 9876: 9833:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2014). "Africa". 9720:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9496: 9356: 9308: 9296: 9254: 9242: 9218: 9201: 9180:"The Art of the Mamluk Period (1250–1517)" 9030:. Cambridge University Press. p. 74. 8484: 7716:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7318: 6635: 6577: 4123:(Ilkhanid deserters or prisoners of war). 3914: 3650:s prevailed. The diffusion of the post of 2482: 1128: 1114: 168: 11216: 11057: 10922: 10699: 10678: 10520: 10384:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 321–330. 10089: 9786: 9728:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 944–945. 9011: 8999: 8987: 8975: 8903: 8872: 8845: 8806: 8303:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8265:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8246:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8200:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8181:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 8164: 8149: 8137: 8122: 8110: 8001:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica ( 7969: 7945: 7689: 6739: 6428: 6190: 6149: 6137: 6125: 6101: 5911: 5807: 5765: 5753: 5729: 5663: 5600: 5454: 5442: 5356: 4074:also rebelled at times, particularly the 3782:In Syria, the Mamluks uprooted the local 3656:enabled Mamluk sultans to patronize each 2772:tribes of southern and eastern Anatolia. 2625: 2011: 1606:. Consensus settled on al-Salih's widow, 1541:in their bid to conquer Egypt during the 13020:16th-century disestablishments in Africa 11143: 10592: 10571: 10550: 10332: 10288: 10269: 10229: 10187: 10171:The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1 10045: 9984: 9942: 9918: 9641: 9484: 9416: 9404: 9368: 9344: 9332: 9281: 8960: 8918: 8744: 8732: 8720: 8705: 8693: 8681: 8610: 8586: 8442: 8430: 8418: 8406: 8394: 8382: 8370: 7957: 7826: 7814: 7802: 7704:Journal d'un Bourgeois du Caire, vol. II 7701: 7641: 7252: 6985: 6859: 6847: 6720: 6647: 6616: 6589: 6493: 6469: 6452: 6440: 6397:. Peeters Publishers. pp. 313–314. 6365: 6345:. New York : Rizzoli. p. 162. 6318:. New York : Rizzoli. p. 148. 6217: 6205: 6113: 6089: 6074: 6050: 5974: 5959: 5947: 5935: 5923: 5899: 5887: 5777: 5741: 5714: 5702: 5687: 5675: 5648: 5636: 5624: 5612: 5588: 5559: 5547: 5535: 5505: 5466: 5088: 4962: 4925:today), a large brass basin inlaid with 4840: 4742: 4701: 4374: 4235: 4176: 3982:). The vice-regent of Egypt was the top 3725: 3558:in 1334. This manuscript is part of the 3545: 3441: 3414: 3328: 3254: 3187: 3126: 3087: 3040: 3019:Inal died on 26 February 1461. His son, 2952: 2948: 2918:in 1425–1426, during which the island's 2850: 2698: 2635: 2593: 2544: 2461: 2396: 2323: 2243: 2233: 2150: 2068: 2032: 1959: 1483: 10994: 10975: 10657: 10467: 10132: 10024: 9645:The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land 9428: 7768: 6871: 6787: 6035: 5834: 5822: 5792: 5481: 5427: 5215: 3377:Mamluks surrendered. Tuman Bay fled to 3318: 30:For the Mamluk sultanate of Delhi, see 14: 12972: 11162: 11124: 11101: 10980:. American University in Cairo Press. 10943: 10901: 10874: 10853: 10842: 10634: 10488: 10471:A History of African Societies to 1870 10309: 10295:. State University of New York Press. 10168: 10096:. American University in Cairo Press. 9963: 9853: 9740: 9685: 9618: 9562: 9520: 9165: 9153: 9141: 9102: 9090: 9078: 9066: 8884: 8833: 8821: 8771: 8759: 8298: 8260: 8241: 8195: 8176: 8074: 8062: 8047: 8018: 7996: 7059: 7032: 6973: 6958: 6943: 6931: 6919: 6907: 6835: 6241: 6229: 6161: 6062: 5493: 5337: 5246: 5203: 5072: 4879:industry. Trade with Iran, India, and 4068:. Emirs who were part of the sultan's 3632:(chief judge) and instead appointed a 3584:orders, but also small communities of 2037:Enthroned ruler and attendants in the 1867: 1856: 1740: 13015:13th-century establishments in Africa 12404: 12215: 12038: 11879: 11398: 11359: 11303: 11198: 11188:Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 11185: 11078: 11036: 10821: 10802: 10779: 10760: 10739: 10718: 10613: 10509: 10446: 10145: 10066: 9591: 9446: 9129: 9117: 9027:Eurasian Musical Journeys: Five Tales 8954: 8666: 8654: 8625: 8598: 8552: 8496: 8457: 8358: 8346: 8334: 8322: 8279: 8229: 8098: 8086: 8030: 7756: 7735: 7653: 7629: 7565: 7542: 7530: 7518: 7490: 7478: 7466: 7442: 7430: 7364: 7335: 7306: 7294: 7279: 7264: 7237: 7198: 7186: 7174: 7150: 7131: 7119: 7107: 7095: 7083: 7047: 7009: 6671: 6659: 6541: 6529: 6517: 6505: 5986: 5846: 5576: 5415: 5403: 5290:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 67. 5285: 4738: 4670:(taxable lands) were appropriated as 4603:, and rural demography in particular. 4167:Military and administrative hierarchy 4126: 2961:minted in Cairo between 1438 and 1440 2914:piracy. Related to this, he launched 2872:, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the 2776:Crises and restoration of state power 2201:. In 1276, the Mamluks defeated King 1845: 1834: 1729: 1718: 1709: 1698: 1689: 1676: 1667: 1656: 1647: 12954: 10529: 10419: 10398: 10356: 10248: 10005: 8637: 8571: 8540: 8525: 8508: 8472: 8214: 7981: 7933: 7918: 7901: 7889: 7877: 7862: 7850: 7838: 7677: 7665: 7589: 7577: 7454: 7388: 7376: 7162: 7071: 6997: 6883: 6820: 6799: 6775: 6553: 4010:of the provinces were mamluk emirs. 3527:. The sons of mamluks, known as the 3498:By the time the Mamluks took power, 3183: 1823: 1812: 1803: 1794: 1785: 1776: 1767: 1758: 1749: 1496:, Mamluk Egypt or Syria, circa 1330. 13045:Historical transcontinental empires 12944: 7769:Jenkins, Everett Jr. (7 May 2015). 3994:of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the 3804:Bedouin relationship with the state 3541: 3267:had emerged in 1501 and forged the 3053:", "The great Caitbeius, Sultan of 3030: 2846: 2517:. Al-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide, 2022: 1191:(freed slave soldiers) headed by a 1149: 74: 48: 24: 11297: 11266:Idem in French: Bouriant, Urbain, 11226: 10765:. University of Washington Press. 10639:. In Ettinghausen, Richard (ed.). 9943:Brummett, Palmira Johnson (1994). 9177: 6678:. Thames and Hudson. p. 193. 6593:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 5365: 5136: 4968:Funerary complex of Sultan Qaitbay 4863:Mamluk decorative arts—especially 4288:(commander of the royal stables), 2969:, with a leading emir of Barsbay, 2648: 1557:Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh 1490:Sulwan al-Muta’ fi ‘Udwan al-Atba’ 25: 13066: 12325:Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces 11249:Idem in English: Bohn, Henry G., 10849:. University of California Press. 10523:Memoirs of John lord de Joinville 10492:Economic Concepts of Ibn Taimiyah 10215:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 68–79. 10141:. University of California Press. 9186:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 6754:"The Cresques Project – Panel IV" 5331: 5304: 2359:, who in turn was succeeded by a 1944:, as strongman. The Bahriyya and 1630:, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. 12953: 12943: 12933: 12924: 12923: 12182:Refugees of the Syrian civil war 11385: 11314:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 9812:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2012). 9769:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2009). 9750:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007). 9171: 9017: 8777: 7762: 7695: 7595: 7508:(in Italian). 1646. p. 218. 7496: 7394: 7204: 6745: 5169:Military of the Mamluk Sultanate 4432:to supervise the market, with a 4294:(chief of the mamluk corps) and 4173:Military of the Mamluk Sultanate 3932: 3923: 3722:Christian and Jewish communities 3286:The latter's expansion into the 2804: 2795:(left) and the Mamluk troops of 2784: 2496: 1347–1351, 1354–1361 2393:Third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad 1641: 1635: 1582:, defeated the Crusaders at the 1517: 1097: 696: 654: 629: 615: 601: 587: 573: 559: 545: 531: 153: 113: 106: 12666:Identification card controversy 11238:The Concise History of Humanity 10805:The Mamluk Sultanate: A History 10593:McGregor, Andrew James (2006). 10314:. In Conermann, Stephan (ed.). 10133:Fischel, Walter Joseph (1967). 9612: 9454:"Neo-Mamluk Style Beyond Egypt" 6698:This manuscript is part of the 6692: 6665: 6583: 6384: 6359: 6332: 6305: 6269: 6247: 5980: 5840: 5511: 4952: 4481: 4270:(commander of the arsenal) and 3754:which gave Christians and Jews 3744:Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum 3374:Ottoman attack at al-Raydaniyya 2838: 2705:Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Barquq 2504: 2493: 2446: 2125:. Despite an alliance with the 2008:1260, inaugurating Bahri rule. 1476: 1427: 1370:Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate 1359:History of the Mamluk Sultanate 1269: 1258: 1232: 11572:Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt 11322:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 11171:. Cambridge University Press. 11110:. Cambridge University Press. 11058:Streusand, Douglas E. (2018). 10828:. Princeton University Press. 10807:. Cambridge University Press. 10788:. Cambridge University Press. 10746:. Princeton University Press. 10725:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. 10704:. Cambridge University Press. 10599:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 10474:. Cambridge University Press. 10274:. Cambridge University Press. 10255:. Cambridge University Press. 10173:. Cambridge University Press. 9928:. Edinburgh University Press. 7406:The Metropolitan Museum of Art 6339:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977). 6312:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977). 5279: 5247:Poliak, A. N. (January 1937). 5240: 5221: 5185: 5164:List of Sunni Muslim dynasties 4697: 4446:s based in Cairo, Alexandria, 4386:(Kitab al-hiyal al-nafisa) of 3890:tribes of Upper Egypt, became 3325:Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517) 2598:Qur'an commissioned by sultan 2405:. Probably Egypt, dated 1334. 1386:slave, distinguished from the 13: 1: 13000:Former countries in West Asia 12990:Medieval history of Palestine 11880: 10860:. Stanford University Press. 10854:Powell, Eve M. Trout (2012). 10232:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 5340:The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 5179: 4707: 4382:: folio from a manuscript of 4337:was often referred to as the 3897: 3797:Timurid destruction of Aleppo 3556:Ahmad ibn Kamal al-Mutatabbib 3420: 3164: 2791:Battle between the troops of 1886: 1555:(commander of the military), 128: 12199:Twin towns and sister cities 12039: 11711:Assassination of Anwar Sadat 11079:Teule, Herman G. B. (2013). 11014:van Steenbergen, Jo (2005). 10614:Muslu, Cihan Yüksel (2014). 10420:Holt, Peter Malcolm (2005). 10399:Holt, Peter Malcolm (1986). 10052:. Harvard University Press. 9854:Binbaş, İlker Evrim (2014). 9745:. London: Variorum Reprints. 9311:, pp. 70, 85–87, 92–93. 7213:Rönesans'ta Osmanlı esintisi 6707:Memory of the World Register 6366:Stillman, Yedida K. (2003). 5372:Hillenbrand, Carole (2007). 3567:Memory of the World Register 3470:, began to appear in Egypt. 3356:. On 24 August 1516, at the 2957:Gold dinar of Mamluk sultan 2644:, late 1370s or early 1380s. 2591:, who killed Hasan in 1361. 2455:, as well as compelling the 7: 13035:Medieval history of Lebanon 12727:Vehicle registration plates 12405: 12381:Water supply and sanitation 12216: 11399: 11304:Petry, Carl Forbes (2012). 11144:Williams, Caroline (2018). 11043:. Oxford University Press. 10784:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). 10489:Islahi, Abdul Azim (1988). 10468:Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). 10342:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 10234:. Brill. pp. 124–129. 9743:The Mamluk Military Society 9623:. In Pryor, John H. (ed.). 6700:National Library of Egypt's 5338:Setton, Kenneth M. (1969). 5147: 5064: 5052: 5046: 5040: 5024: 5016: 4998: 4990: 4984: 4935: 4817: 4811: 4772: 4723: 4715:Museum of Islamic Art, Doha 4706:Mamluk Wool Carpet, Egypt, 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4619: 4609: 4594: 4583: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4537: 4524: 4518: 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4483: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4452: 4442: 4434: 4426: 4405: 4363: 4357: 4351: 4345: 4339: 4333: 4311: 4305: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4250: 4229: 4223: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4119: 4107: 4099: 4089: 4083: 4076: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4025: 4019: 4006: 3996: 3990: 3984: 3978: 3972: 3874: 3863: 3857: 3851: 3841: 3835: 3829: 3756: 3704: 3688: 3680: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3610: 3604: 3574: 3560:National Library of Egypt's 3536: 3529: 3521: 3493: 3458: 3452: 3433: 3248: 3242: 3222: 3012: 2997: 2995:, who Barsbay had made his 2874: 2864: 2856:Barsbay's mausoleum complex 2726: 2720: 2714: 2669: 2583: 2436: 2430: 2386:Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar 2369: 2330:Mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun 2121:fortress from the Crusader 2056: 1910: 1618: 1612: 1551: 1510: 1502: 1466: 1388: 1345: 1339: 1333: 1327: 1160: 623:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 88: 62: 10: 13071: 13030:Medieval history of Jordan 12995:Former countries in Africa 12386:Water resources management 11218:10.3989/alqantara.2013.001 10926:Cairo: The City Victorious 10902:Rabbat, Nasser O. (1995). 10495:. The Islamic Foundation. 10405:. Addison Wesley Longman. 10188:Grainger, John D. (2016). 10049:Cairo: Histories of a City 9441:Avcıoğlu & Volait 2017 6596:. Routledge. p. 269. 5312:"Mamluk | Islamic dynasty" 5140: 5106:Metropolitan Museum of Art 4956: 4848:, basin from the reign of 4834: 4825: 4545:), who became part of the 4370: 4170: 4147:by making a member of the 3488: 3404: 3401:Mamluks under Ottoman rule 3322: 3297:a series of confrontations 3051:Mag Caitbeivs Cairi Svltan 3034: 2760:and the Turkmen allies of 2652: 2629: 2451:) with his own appointee, 2317:, forming out of them the 2237: 2075:Metropolitan Museum of Art 2026: 2015: 1526: 1523:Conflict with the Ayyubids 1464:by 1229, while serving as 1406:in Egypt and Syria as the 1367: 1363: 1356: 1352: 1290:, the Hejaz, and southern 29: 13040:Medieval history of Syria 13025:Medieval history of Libya 12985:Medieval history of Egypt 12919: 12745: 12417: 12413: 12400: 12281:Impact on the environment 12271:Entrepreneurship policies 12224: 12211: 12047: 12034: 11888: 11875: 11843: 11745: 11411: 11407: 11394: 10679:Northrup, Linda (1998a). 10572:McCarthy, Justin (2014). 10551:Levanoni, Amalia (1995). 10516:. Chester Beatty Library. 10318:. Bonn University Press. 10191:Syria: An Outline History 10154:. Bonn University Press. 10090:Elbendary, Amina (2015). 9883:. Yale University Press. 9818:. V&R unipress GmbH. 9788:10.1163/22118993-90000147 9642:Asbridge, Thomas (2010). 6590:Petersen, Andrew (2002). 5265:10.1017/S0035869X00096179 4941:script prominently used. 4919:Baptistère of Saint-Louis 4846:Baptistère de Saint Louis 4557:. In the Mamluk era, the 3833:, and when they did, the 3202:Cristofano dell'Altissimo 3198:Campson Gavro re d'Egitto 3059:Cristofano dell'Altissimo 3057:") by Florentine painter 2155:Horseman impales a bear. 2095:Armenian Cilician Kingdom 2039:Baptistère de Saint Louis 1574:On 11 February 1250, the 1508:(akin to fiefs; singular 1199:in Egypt in 1250 and was 1175:, was a state that ruled 859:Roman and Byzantine Egypt 510: 506: 497:Ottoman conquest of Cairo 493: 471: 458: 454: 446: 442: 429: 417: 405: 392: 388: 378: 374: 361: 349: 337: 324: 320: 310: 294: 282: 237: 206: 196: 182: 167: 139: 103: 98: 41: 18:Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate 12052:Administrative divisions 11728:2011 Egyptian revolution 11669:1952 Egyptian revolution 11465:Lighthouse of Alexandria 11163:Winter, Michael (1998). 10843:Popper, William (1955). 10661:Mamluk 'Askari 1250–1517 10521:Joinville, Jean (1807). 10249:Heng, Geraldine (2018). 10146:Fuess, Albrecht (2022). 10114:; Rettig, Simon (2016). 10046:AlSayyad, Nezar (2013). 10025:Cummins, Joseph (2011). 9231:Farhad & Rettig 2016 6259:islamicart.museumwnf.org 5987:Fuess, Albrecht (2018). 5847:Fuess, Albrecht (2018). 5286:Ayubi, Nazih N. (1996). 5174: 5159:Egypt in the Middle Ages 4380:A Blood-Measuring Device 4282:(secretary or adviser), 3307:in 1507 but lost at the 3007:conquered Constantinople 2916:campaigns against Cyprus 2684:and Aleppo, Mintash and 2513:, who al-Nasir Muhammad 2468:Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque 1337:) or 'State of Turkey' ( 69:State of the Circassians 12256:Egyptian stock exchange 11102:Varlik, Nükhet (2015). 11037:Stilt, Kristen (2011). 10999:. Cairo: Dar al-Maref. 10995:Shayyal, Jamal (1967). 10976:Sanders, Paula (2008). 10961:10.1163/157005867X00029 10923:Rodenbeck, Max (1999). 10875:Rabbat, Nasser (2001). 10822:Petry, Carl F. (2014). 10803:Petry, Carl F. (2022). 10780:Petry, Carl F. (1998). 10761:Petry, Carl F. (1993). 10740:Petry, Carl F. (1981). 10719:Paine, Lincoln (2015). 10658:Nicolle, David (2014). 10635:Nickel, Helmut (1972). 10530:King, David A. (1999). 10310:Herzog, Thomas (2014). 10289:Hathaway, Jane (2012). 9991:Bonn University Press. 9619:Amitai, Reuven (2006). 6758:www.cresquesproject.net 5317:Encyclopædia Britannica 5100:, dated 1329. Qawsun's 4896:were widely available. 4522:holders to treat their 3976:(deputy sultans, sing. 3915:Authority of the sultan 3512:Mamluk-Kipchak language 3305:defeated the Portuguese 3025:Khushqadam al-Mu'ayyadi 2551:complex of Sultan Hasan 2515:designated as successor 2483:End of the Bahri regime 2278:captured and garrisoned 1999:in the plains south of 1316: 804:3rd Intermediate Period 784:2nd Intermediate Period 764:1st Intermediate Period 581:Principality of Antioch 356:Abū al-Faḍl Al-Musta'in 121:Flags according to the 12587:International rankings 11592:Egyptian–Ethiopian War 11320:Encyclopaedia of Islam 11125:Welsby, Derek (2002). 11022:. Peeters Publishers. 10447:Irwin, Robert (1986). 10336:; Daly, M. W. (1961). 10067:Drory, Joseph (2006). 9964:Christ, Georg (2012). 9862:. Ashgate Publishing. 9741:Ayalon, David (1979). 9648:. Simon and Schuster. 9627:. Ashgate Publishing. 9497:Bloom & Blair 2009 9357:Blair & Bloom 1995 9309:Blair & Bloom 1995 9297:Blair & Bloom 1995 9255:Blair & Bloom 1995 9243:Blair & Bloom 1995 9219:Blair & Bloom 1995 9202:Blair & Bloom 1995 8485:Blair & Bloom 1995 7319:Blair & Bloom 1995 6675:Qurʾāns of the Mamlūks 6578:Blair & Bloom 1995 5191:Photographic extract: 5143:List of Mamluk sultans 5109: 4974: 4860: 4830: 4755: 4754:. Mamluk period, 1315. 4717: 4605: 4399: 4245: 4189: 3962:Chester Beatty Library 3949:Al-Kawākib ad-durriyya 3746: 3638:from each of the four 3569: 3447: 3427: 3341: 3263:In the meantime, Shah 3260: 3209: 3177:status quo ante bellum 3140: 3100: 3066: 3005:, the Ottoman sultan, 2962: 2859: 2708: 2645: 2626:Burji rule (1382–1517) 2603: 2558: 2475: 2424: 2333: 2261: 2166: 2077: 2046: 2012:Bahri rule (1250–1382) 1969: 1964:Horsemen with lances. 1497: 1274:), they conquered the 32:Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) 12192:Terrorism and tourism 11650:1948 Arab–Israeli War 11482:Library of Alexandria 11307:"Circassians, Mamlūk" 10664:. Osprey Publishing. 10510:James, David (1983). 10010:(in French). Perrin. 10006:Clot, André (2009) . 9604:Behrens-Abouseif 2009 9580:Behrens-Abouseif 2014 9540:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9509:Behrens-Abouseif 2012 9443:, pp. 1140–1142. 9393:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9381:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9321:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9270:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 9036:10.1017/9781108913805 6896:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6672:James, David (1988). 6566:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6482:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6174:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 6024:Behrens-Abouseif 2014 5996:Mamlūk Studies Review 5862:(2): 76, 84, Fig. 5. 5856:Mamlūk Studies Review 5362:Levanoni 1995, p. 17. 5092: 4966: 4844: 4746: 4705: 4590: 4450:and Lower Egypt. The 4378: 4239: 4180: 3946:to the manuscript of 3729: 3549: 3445: 3418: 3332: 3323:Further information: 3258: 3206:Galleria degli Uffizi 3196:(r. 1501–1516, here " 3191: 3130: 3091: 3063:Galleria degli Uffizi 3044: 3035:Further information: 2956: 2949:Successors of Barsbay 2854: 2702: 2640:Mamluk Sultan in the 2639: 2602:, dated to 1372 until 2597: 2548: 2465: 2400: 2327: 2300:in Jerusalem and the 2247: 2234:Early Qalawuni period 2154: 2105:, and shortly after, 2072: 2036: 1963: 1927:Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi 1565:al-Mu'azzam Turanshah 1487: 1374:Black Sea slave trade 744:Early Dynastic Period 207:Common languages 12903:World Heritage Sites 12722:Units of measurement 12177:Proposed new capital 11923:Environmental issues 11684:United Arab Republic 11577:Muhammad Ali dynasty 11199:Yosef, Koby (2013). 10031:. Fair Winds Press. 9002:, pp. 269, 271. 8943:van Steenbergen 2005 8931:van Steenbergen 2005 8861:van Steenbergen 2005 7706:. Paris. p. 67. 6051:Holt & Daly 1961 5058:) and multi-storied 5044:s (a combination of 5007:four-iwan floor plan 3956:made for the sultan 3550:Finispiece from the 3358:Battle of Marj Dabiq 3319:Fall to the Ottomans 3243:al-Ṭabaqa al-Khamisa 3075:Timurbugha al-Zahiri 3049:(r.1468-1496, here " 2707:in Cairo (1384–1386) 2408:Maqamat of al-Hariri 2332:in Cairo (1284–1285) 1991:The Mamluks entered 1882:class=notpageimage| 1584:Battle of al-Mansura 1494:Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli 1432:), who replaced the 1340:al-Dawla al-Turkiyya 1215:(1250–1382) and the 1014:Muhammad Ali dynasty 567:Kingdom of Jerusalem 189:nominally under the 12575:Freedom of religion 12470:Mass sexual assault 11835:Timekeeping devices 11733:2013 Rabaa massacre 11706:Egyptian–Libyan War 10357:Holt, P.M. (1991). 10334:Holt, Peter Malcolm 9671:. Wiley Blackwell. 9606:, pp. 149–159. 9233:, pp. 104–105. 8887:, pp. 146–147. 8433:, pp. 182–183. 8397:, pp. 176–177. 8198:, pp. 114–115. 8125:, pp. 268–269. 8113:, pp. 265–266. 8101:, pp. 394–395. 7984:, pp. 421–422. 7960:, pp. 126–127. 7668:, pp. 236–237. 7592:, pp. 235–236. 7580:, pp. 232–234. 7457:, pp. 226–228. 7433:, pp. 145–147. 7338:, pp. 128–129. 7074:, pp. 193–195. 7062:, pp. 293–294. 6988:, pp. 284–286. 6961:, pp. 291–292. 6946:, pp. 290–291. 6802:, pp. 127–128. 6568:, pp. 201–203. 6556:, pp. 122–123. 6484:, pp. 173–175. 6176:, pp. 132–134. 6152:, pp. 115–116. 6140:, pp. 119–120. 6116:, pp. 109–110. 5962:, pp. 103–104. 5073:Emblems and blazons 4972:Mamluk architecture 4959:Mamluk architecture 4326:master of the house 3391:Janbirdi al-Ghazali 3349:Battle of Chaldiran 3099:in Jerusalem (1482) 3071:Yalbay al-Mu'ayyadi 2979:Knights of St. John 2363:mamluk of Qalawun, 2355:mamluk of Qalawun, 2119:Krak des Chevaliers 2005:Battle of Ain Jalut 1537:'s forces captured 1404:governing dynasties 1161:Salṭanat al-Mamālīk 849:Ptolemaic dynasties 161:Mecia de Viladestes 12765:Art (contemporary) 12445:Capital punishment 12335:Telecommunications 12012:Towns and villages 11980:Qattara Depression 11793:Muslim Brotherhood 11763:Cigarette industry 11623:British occupation 11534:Crusader invasions 11504:Rashidun Caliphate 11310:. In Fleet, Kate; 11253:, AMS Press, 1969. 11129:. British Museum. 10082:9-78-0-415-37278-7 9703:Lévi-Provençal, E. 8966:Stilt 2011, p. 24. 8409:, p. 178–179. 7493:, pp. 99–100. 5950:, pp. 99–100. 5110: 4975: 4894:Chinese porcelains 4861: 4756: 4739:Trade and industry 4718: 4581:became taxed. The 4400: 4246: 4190: 4127:Role of the caliph 3988:, followed by the 3820:(eastern Arabia). 3747: 3570: 3448: 3428: 3342: 3337:being remitted to 3261: 3210: 3172:Ottoman–Mamluk war 3145:Republic of Venice 3141: 3101: 3067: 2971:Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq 2963: 2959:Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq 2860: 2830:al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh 2709: 2686:Yalbugha al-Nasiri 2646: 2608:al-Mansur Muhammad 2604: 2559: 2511:al-Mansur Abu Bakr 2476: 2425: 2365:Husam al-Din Lajin 2334: 2262: 2256:by the Mamluks of 2252:, led against the 2187:Dahlak Archipelago 2167: 2078: 2047: 1970: 1916:Faris al-Din Aktay 1588:Battle of Fariskur 1535:Louis IX of France 1498: 1346:Dawlat al-Jarakisa 1061:Sultanate of Egypt 1051:British occupation 1024:Khedivate of Egypt 896:Rashidun caliphate 717:Predynastic Period 89:Dawlat al-Jarākisa 43:State of the Turks 13050:Former sultanates 12967: 12966: 12915: 12914: 12911: 12910: 12839:Football stadiums 12770:Botanical gardens 12649:Catholic dioceses 12541:Gender inequality 12465:Human trafficking 12396: 12395: 12330:Tallest buildings 12291:Military industry 12207: 12206: 12148:Political parties 12101:Islamic extremism 12089:Foreign relations 12030: 12029: 11871: 11870: 11867: 11866: 11611:French occupation 11529:Fatimid Caliphate 11524:Ikhshidid dynasty 11348:978-90-04-13286-3 11279:Idem in English: 11262:978-977-241-175-7 11178:978-0-521-59115-7 11155:978-977-416-855-0 11136:978-0-7141-1947-2 11117:978-1-316-35182-6 11094:978-90-04-25278-3 11071:978-0-429-96813-6 11050:978-0-19-960243-8 11029:978-90-429-1524-4 11006:978-977-02-5975-7 10987:978-977-416-095-0 10915:978-90-04-10124-1 10894:978-90-04-11794-5 10867:978-0-8047-8375-0 10835:978-1-4008-5641-1 10814:978-1-108-47104-6 10795:978-0-521-06885-7 10772:978-0-295-97307-4 10753:978-1-4008-5641-1 10732:978-1-101-97035-5 10711:978-0-521-06885-7 10692:978-3-515-06861-1 10685:. Franz Steiner. 10671:978-1-78200-929-0 10650:978-0-87099-111-0 10627:978-0-85773-580-5 10606:978-0-2759-8601-8 10585:978-1-317-89048-5 10564:978-90-04-10182-1 10543:978-90-04-11367-1 10502:978-0-86037-665-1 10481:978-0-521-45599-2 10439:978-0-415-45096-6 10412:978-1-317-87152-1 10391:978-90-04-08112-3 10349:978-1-317-86366-3 10325:978-3-8471-0228-1 10302:978-0-7914-8610-8 10281:978-0-5215-9115-7 10262:978-1-108-42278-9 10241:978-90-04-16165-8 10201:978-1-4738-6083-4 10194:. Pen and Sword. 10180:978-0-521-06885-7 10161:978-3-8470-1152-1 10125:978-1-58834-578-3 10103:978-977-416-717-1 10059:978-0-674-07245-9 10038:978-1-61058-055-7 10017:978-2-262-03045-2 9998:978-3-8471-0091-1 9977:978-90-04-22199-4 9956:978-0-7914-1701-0 9935:978-1-4744-6462-8 9911:978-0-19-530991-1 9890:978-0-300-05888-8 9869:978-1-4094-3926-4 9846:978-0-85773-541-6 9825:978-3-89971-915-4 9761:978-977-416-077-6 9678:978-1-119-06857-0 9655:978-1-84983-770-5 9634:978-0-7546-5197-0 9431:, pp. 39–41. 9395:, pp. 80–84. 9359:, pp. 83–84. 9347:, pp. 30–31. 9323:, pp. 73–77. 9156:, pp. 33–34. 9144:, pp. 19–20. 8906:, pp. 37–38. 8848:, pp. 38–39. 8747:, pp. 11–12. 8657:, pp. 22–23. 8628:, pp. 30–31. 8613:, pp. 31–32. 8263:, pp. 15–16. 8077:, pp. 60–61. 7782:978-1-4766-0889-1 7738:, pp. 50–52. 7692:, pp. 44–45. 7644:, pp. 42–44. 7545:, pp. 48–49. 7533:, pp. 47–48. 7469:, pp. 92–93. 7309:, pp. 46–47. 7282:, pp. 45–46. 7240:, pp. 43–44. 7189:, pp. 42–43. 7177:, pp. 41–42. 7134:, pp. 40–41. 7110:, pp. 39–40. 7098:, p. 36, 42. 7050:, pp. 38–39. 6850:, pp. 76–80. 6723:, pp. 88–89. 6685:978-0-500-97367-7 6603:978-1-134-61366-3 6544:, pp. 28–29. 6496:, pp. 31–33. 6404:978-90-6831-683-4 6377:978-90-04-11373-2 6352:978-0-8478-0081-0 6325:978-0-8478-0081-0 6128:, pp. 84–85. 6053:, pp. 17–18. 5890:, pp. 92–93. 5756:, pp. 70–71. 5744:, pp. 73–74. 5717:, pp. 79–80. 5678:, pp. 75–76. 5651:, pp. 72–73. 5579:, pp. 19–21. 5550:, pp. 68–69. 5538:, pp. 67–68. 5383:978-0-7486-2572-7 5349:978-0-299-04844-0 5005:The cruciform or 4850:al-Nasir Muhammad 4532:, where longtime 4392:Al-Nasir Muhammad 4309:(from the Arabic 4137:Abbasid Caliphate 3973:nuwwab al-saltana 3795:Antioch, and the 3593:Coptic Christians 3479:final elimination 3301:Gujarat Sultanate 3184:Reign of al-Ghuri 3110:Yashbak min Mahdi 3021:al-Mu'ayyad Ahmad 2939:Anatolian beyliks 2745:tribesmen of the 2730:were Alexandria, 2694:northern Caucasus 2612:Peter I of Cyprus 2600:Al-Ashraf Sha'ban 2589:Yalbugha al-Umari 2540:al-Muzaffar Hajji 2500:al-Ashraf Sha'ban 2403:al-Nasir Muhammad 2349:al-Nasir Muhammad 2207:Battle of Dongola 2136:range, including 2123:County of Tripoli 1942:Sayf al-Din Qutuz 1933:in 1254 or 1255. 1561:Upper Mesopotamia 1529:Battle of al-Kura 1434:Fatimid Caliphate 1296:al-Nasir Muhammad 1164:), also known as 1158: 1138: 1137: 1089: 1088: 1042:Late Modern Egypt 1032: 1031: 1004:French occupation 974: 973: 936:Ikhshidid dynasty 906:Umayyad caliphate 877: 876: 831:Greco-Roman Egypt 822: 821: 725: 724: 708:Prehistoric Egypt 670: 669: 666: 665: 662: 661: 642: 641: 637:Tahirid Sultanate 595:County of Tripoli 539:Abbasid Caliphate 460:• Murder of 431:• 1516–1517 419:• 1260–1277 407:• 1250–1257 368:Al-Mutawakkil III 363:• 1508–1516 351:• 1406–1414 339:• 1262–1302 305:elective monarchy 191:Abbasid Caliphate 176:Al-Nasir Muhammad 92: 66: 16:(Redirected from 13062: 12980:Mamluk Sultanate 12957: 12956: 12947: 12946: 12937: 12927: 12926: 12732:Waste management 12497:Academic grading 12415: 12414: 12402: 12401: 12374:Railway stations 12352:Cultural tourism 12251:Economic regions 12213: 12212: 12036: 12035: 11877: 11876: 11546:Mamluk Sultanate 11477:Diocese of Egypt 11460:Battle of Actium 11409: 11408: 11396: 11395: 11380: 11373: 11366: 11357: 11356: 11352: 11331: 11309: 11281:History of Egypt 11222: 11220: 11195: 11182: 11159: 11140: 11121: 11109: 11098: 11075: 11054: 11033: 11010: 10991: 10972: 10940: 10919: 10898: 10881:Kennedy, Hugh N. 10871: 10850: 10839: 10818: 10799: 10776: 10757: 10736: 10715: 10696: 10675: 10654: 10631: 10610: 10589: 10568: 10547: 10526: 10517: 10506: 10485: 10464: 10443: 10416: 10395: 10353: 10329: 10306: 10285: 10266: 10245: 10226: 10205: 10184: 10165: 10142: 10140: 10129: 10112:Farhad, Massumeh 10107: 10086: 10063: 10042: 10021: 10002: 9981: 9960: 9939: 9915: 9894: 9873: 9850: 9839:. I. B. Tauris. 9829: 9808: 9790: 9765: 9746: 9737: 9682: 9659: 9638: 9607: 9601: 9595: 9589: 9583: 9577: 9566: 9560: 9543: 9537: 9524: 9518: 9512: 9506: 9500: 9494: 9488: 9482: 9469: 9468: 9466: 9464: 9450: 9444: 9438: 9432: 9426: 9420: 9414: 9408: 9402: 9396: 9390: 9384: 9378: 9372: 9366: 9360: 9354: 9348: 9342: 9336: 9330: 9324: 9318: 9312: 9306: 9300: 9294: 9285: 9279: 9273: 9267: 9258: 9252: 9246: 9240: 9234: 9228: 9222: 9216: 9205: 9199: 9188: 9187: 9175: 9169: 9163: 9157: 9151: 9145: 9139: 9133: 9127: 9121: 9115: 9106: 9100: 9094: 9088: 9082: 9076: 9070: 9064: 9058: 9057: 9021: 9015: 9009: 9003: 8997: 8991: 8985: 8979: 8973: 8967: 8964: 8958: 8952: 8946: 8940: 8934: 8928: 8922: 8916: 8907: 8901: 8888: 8882: 8876: 8870: 8864: 8858: 8849: 8843: 8837: 8831: 8825: 8819: 8810: 8804: 8793: 8792: 8781: 8775: 8769: 8763: 8757: 8748: 8742: 8736: 8730: 8724: 8718: 8709: 8703: 8697: 8691: 8685: 8679: 8670: 8664: 8658: 8652: 8641: 8635: 8629: 8623: 8614: 8608: 8602: 8596: 8590: 8584: 8575: 8569: 8556: 8550: 8544: 8538: 8529: 8523: 8512: 8506: 8500: 8494: 8488: 8482: 8476: 8470: 8461: 8455: 8446: 8440: 8434: 8428: 8422: 8416: 8410: 8404: 8398: 8392: 8386: 8380: 8374: 8368: 8362: 8356: 8350: 8344: 8338: 8332: 8326: 8320: 8309: 8308: 8296: 8283: 8277: 8271: 8270: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8239: 8233: 8227: 8218: 8217:, p. 76-78. 8212: 8206: 8205: 8193: 8187: 8186: 8174: 8168: 8162: 8153: 8147: 8141: 8135: 8126: 8120: 8114: 8108: 8102: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8072: 8066: 8060: 8051: 8045: 8034: 8028: 8022: 8016: 8007: 8006: 7994: 7985: 7979: 7973: 7967: 7961: 7955: 7949: 7943: 7937: 7931: 7922: 7916: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7875: 7866: 7860: 7854: 7848: 7842: 7836: 7830: 7824: 7818: 7812: 7806: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7789: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7739: 7733: 7722: 7721: 7715: 7707: 7699: 7693: 7687: 7681: 7675: 7669: 7663: 7657: 7651: 7645: 7639: 7633: 7627: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7613: 7599: 7593: 7587: 7581: 7575: 7569: 7563: 7546: 7540: 7534: 7528: 7522: 7516: 7510: 7509: 7500: 7494: 7488: 7482: 7476: 7470: 7464: 7458: 7452: 7446: 7440: 7434: 7428: 7417: 7416: 7414: 7412: 7398: 7392: 7386: 7380: 7374: 7368: 7362: 7339: 7333: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7283: 7277: 7268: 7262: 7256: 7250: 7241: 7235: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7224: 7218: 7208: 7202: 7196: 7190: 7184: 7178: 7172: 7166: 7160: 7154: 7148: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7036: 7030: 7013: 7007: 7001: 6995: 6989: 6983: 6977: 6971: 6962: 6956: 6947: 6941: 6935: 6929: 6923: 6917: 6911: 6905: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6881: 6875: 6869: 6863: 6857: 6851: 6845: 6839: 6833: 6824: 6818: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6785: 6779: 6773: 6762: 6761: 6749: 6743: 6737: 6724: 6718: 6709: 6696: 6690: 6689: 6669: 6663: 6657: 6651: 6645: 6639: 6633: 6620: 6614: 6608: 6607: 6587: 6581: 6575: 6569: 6563: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6521: 6515: 6509: 6503: 6497: 6491: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6467: 6456: 6450: 6444: 6438: 6432: 6426: 6409: 6408: 6388: 6382: 6381: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6336: 6330: 6329: 6309: 6303: 6302: 6273: 6267: 6266: 6251: 6245: 6239: 6233: 6227: 6221: 6215: 6209: 6203: 6194: 6188: 6177: 6171: 6165: 6159: 6153: 6147: 6141: 6135: 6129: 6123: 6117: 6111: 6105: 6099: 6093: 6087: 6078: 6072: 6066: 6060: 6054: 6048: 6039: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6012: 6011: 6008:10.6082/M100007Z 5993: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5963: 5957: 5951: 5945: 5939: 5933: 5927: 5921: 5915: 5909: 5903: 5897: 5891: 5885: 5872: 5871: 5868:10.6082/M100007Z 5853: 5844: 5838: 5832: 5826: 5820: 5811: 5805: 5796: 5790: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5733: 5727: 5718: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5691: 5685: 5679: 5673: 5667: 5661: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5563: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5515: 5509: 5503: 5497: 5491: 5485: 5479: 5470: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5431: 5425: 5419: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5388: 5387: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5354: 5353: 5335: 5329: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5225: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5189: 5067: 5057: 5049: 5043: 5029: 5021: 5001: 4995: 4987: 4940: 4820: 4814: 4775: 4752:The Musical Boat 4726: 4712: 4709: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4654: 4648: 4642: 4636: 4630: 4624: 4615:cadastral survey 4612: 4597: 4586: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4540: 4527: 4521: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4486: 4477: 4471: 4465: 4455: 4445: 4439: 4431: 4408: 4366: 4360: 4358:ustadar al-aliya 4354: 4348: 4342: 4340:ustadar al-aliya 4336: 4330: 4327: 4324: 4321: 4318: 4314: 4308: 4299: 4293: 4287: 4281: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4253: 4232: 4226: 4216: 4210: 4204: 4197: 4122: 4115:Dome of the Rock 4112: 4104: 4092: 4086: 4079: 4073: 4067: 4061: 4055: 4049: 4030: 4022: 4009: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3979:na'ib al-saltana 3975: 3936: 3927: 3877: 3868: 3861:and the post of 3860: 3854: 3844: 3838: 3832: 3761: 3709: 3693: 3685: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3613: 3607: 3579: 3542:Muslim community 3532: 3526: 3481:at the hands of 3461: 3455: 3438: 3425: 3422: 3370:defeated at Gaza 3251: 3245: 3227: 3169: 3166: 3093:Sabil of Qaitbay 3061:(16th century), 3031:Reign of Qaitbay 3015: 3000: 2998:atabeg al-asakir 2993:Sayf al-Din Inal 2983:al-Mansur Uthman 2904:Sharifs of Mecca 2890:rather than the 2877: 2875:atabeg al-asakir 2867: 2865:atabeg al-asakir 2847:Reign of Barsbay 2842: 2841: 1406–1413 2840: 2808: 2788: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2703:Interior of the 2672: 2670:atabeg al-asakir 2586: 2566:arrived in Egypt 2536:al-Kamil Sha'ban 2532:al-Salih Isma'il 2508: 2507: 1363–1367 2506: 2497: 2495: 2472:Citadel of Cairo 2466:Interior of the 2450: 2449: 1302–1340 2448: 2439: 2433: 2372: 2357:al-Adil Kitbugha 2338:al-Ashraf Khalil 2328:Interior of the 2310:hospital complex 2290:Prophet's Mosque 2250:siege of Tripoli 2203:David of Makuria 2061: 2023:Reign of Baybars 1913: 1891: 1888: 1876: 1874: 1865: 1863: 1854: 1852: 1843: 1841: 1832: 1830: 1821: 1819: 1810: 1808: 1801: 1799: 1792: 1790: 1783: 1781: 1774: 1772: 1765: 1763: 1756: 1754: 1747: 1745: 1738: 1736: 1727: 1725: 1716: 1714: 1707: 1705: 1696: 1694: 1687: 1685: 1674: 1672: 1665: 1663: 1654: 1652: 1645: 1639: 1621: 1615: 1598:of Damascus and 1554: 1513: 1507: 1488:Frontispiece of 1480: 1479: 1218–1238 1478: 1469: 1431: 1430: 1174–1193 1429: 1393: 1348: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1278:, expanded into 1273: 1272: 1290–1293 1271: 1265:al-Ashraf Khalil 1262: 1261: 1279–1290 1260: 1236: 1235: 1240–1249 1234: 1163: 1153: 1151: 1142:Mamluk Sultanate 1130: 1123: 1116: 1104:Egypt portal 1102: 1101: 1100: 1071:Kingdom of Egypt 1047: 1046: 990: 989: 892: 891: 835: 834: 740: 739: 713: 712: 700: 690: 672: 671: 658: 657: 646: 645: 633: 632: 619: 618: 605: 604: 591: 590: 577: 576: 563: 562: 549: 548: 535: 534: 528: 527: 512: 511: 172: 157: 149: 133: 130: 117: 110: 93: 91: 85: 77: 76: 72: 67: 65: 59: 51: 50: 46: 39: 38: 21: 13070: 13069: 13065: 13064: 13063: 13061: 13060: 13059: 12970: 12969: 12968: 12963: 12907: 12898:Public holidays 12888:National anthem 12741: 12654:Coptic Churches 12597:Egyptian Arabic 12507:Medical schools 12409: 12392: 12308:Nuclear program 12220: 12203: 12133:Nationality law 12126:Supreme Council 12111:Law enforcement 12043: 12026: 12002:Sinai Peninsula 11985:Red Sea Riviera 11884: 11863: 11839: 11741: 11628:1919 revolution 11616:Revolt of Cairo 11541:Ayyubid dynasty 11519:Tulunid dynasty 11403: 11390: 11384: 11349: 11316:Rowson, Everett 11300: 11298:Further reading 11274:Ibn Taghribirdi 11229: 11227:Primary sources 11179: 11156: 11137: 11118: 11095: 11072: 11051: 11030: 11007: 10988: 10937: 10916: 10895: 10868: 10836: 10815: 10796: 10773: 10754: 10733: 10712: 10693: 10672: 10651: 10628: 10620:. I.B. Tauris. 10607: 10586: 10565: 10544: 10503: 10482: 10461: 10440: 10413: 10392: 10363:Bosworth, C. E. 10350: 10326: 10303: 10282: 10263: 10242: 10223: 10202: 10181: 10162: 10126: 10104: 10083: 10060: 10039: 10018: 9999: 9978: 9957: 9936: 9920:Bosworth, C. E. 9912: 9891: 9870: 9847: 9826: 9762: 9679: 9656: 9635: 9615: 9610: 9602: 9598: 9590: 9586: 9578: 9569: 9561: 9546: 9538: 9527: 9519: 9515: 9507: 9503: 9495: 9491: 9483: 9472: 9462: 9460: 9452: 9451: 9447: 9439: 9435: 9427: 9423: 9415: 9411: 9403: 9399: 9391: 9387: 9379: 9375: 9367: 9363: 9355: 9351: 9343: 9339: 9331: 9327: 9319: 9315: 9307: 9303: 9295: 9288: 9280: 9276: 9268: 9261: 9253: 9249: 9241: 9237: 9229: 9225: 9217: 9208: 9200: 9191: 9178:Yalman, Suzan. 9176: 9172: 9164: 9160: 9152: 9148: 9140: 9136: 9128: 9124: 9116: 9109: 9101: 9097: 9089: 9085: 9077: 9073: 9065: 9061: 9046: 9022: 9018: 9010: 9006: 8998: 8994: 8986: 8982: 8974: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8953: 8949: 8941: 8937: 8929: 8925: 8917: 8910: 8902: 8891: 8883: 8879: 8871: 8867: 8859: 8852: 8844: 8840: 8832: 8828: 8820: 8813: 8805: 8796: 8789:Aga Khan Museum 8783: 8782: 8778: 8770: 8766: 8758: 8751: 8743: 8739: 8731: 8727: 8719: 8712: 8704: 8700: 8696:, pp. 8–9. 8692: 8688: 8680: 8673: 8665: 8661: 8653: 8644: 8636: 8632: 8624: 8617: 8609: 8605: 8597: 8593: 8585: 8578: 8570: 8559: 8551: 8547: 8539: 8532: 8524: 8515: 8507: 8503: 8495: 8491: 8483: 8479: 8471: 8464: 8456: 8449: 8445:, p. 1183. 8441: 8437: 8429: 8425: 8417: 8413: 8405: 8401: 8393: 8389: 8381: 8377: 8369: 8365: 8357: 8353: 8345: 8341: 8333: 8329: 8321: 8312: 8302: 8297: 8286: 8278: 8274: 8264: 8259: 8255: 8245: 8240: 8236: 8228: 8221: 8213: 8209: 8199: 8194: 8190: 8180: 8175: 8171: 8163: 8156: 8148: 8144: 8136: 8129: 8121: 8117: 8109: 8105: 8097: 8093: 8085: 8081: 8073: 8069: 8061: 8054: 8046: 8037: 8029: 8025: 8017: 8010: 8000: 7995: 7988: 7980: 7976: 7968: 7964: 7956: 7952: 7944: 7940: 7932: 7925: 7917: 7908: 7900: 7896: 7888: 7884: 7876: 7869: 7861: 7857: 7849: 7845: 7837: 7833: 7825: 7821: 7813: 7809: 7801: 7797: 7787: 7785: 7783: 7767: 7763: 7755: 7742: 7734: 7725: 7709: 7708: 7700: 7696: 7688: 7684: 7676: 7672: 7664: 7660: 7652: 7648: 7640: 7636: 7628: 7621: 7611: 7609: 7601: 7600: 7596: 7588: 7584: 7576: 7572: 7564: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7517: 7513: 7502: 7501: 7497: 7489: 7485: 7477: 7473: 7465: 7461: 7453: 7449: 7441: 7437: 7429: 7420: 7410: 7408: 7400: 7399: 7395: 7387: 7383: 7375: 7371: 7363: 7342: 7334: 7325: 7317: 7313: 7305: 7301: 7293: 7286: 7278: 7271: 7263: 7259: 7251: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7222: 7220: 7216: 7210: 7209: 7205: 7197: 7193: 7185: 7181: 7173: 7169: 7161: 7157: 7149: 7138: 7130: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7106: 7102: 7094: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7070: 7066: 7058: 7054: 7046: 7039: 7031: 7016: 7008: 7004: 6996: 6992: 6984: 6980: 6972: 6965: 6957: 6950: 6942: 6938: 6930: 6926: 6918: 6914: 6906: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6882: 6878: 6870: 6866: 6858: 6854: 6846: 6842: 6834: 6827: 6819: 6806: 6798: 6794: 6786: 6782: 6774: 6765: 6752: 6750: 6746: 6738: 6727: 6719: 6712: 6697: 6693: 6686: 6670: 6666: 6658: 6654: 6646: 6642: 6636:Al-Harithy 1996 6634: 6623: 6615: 6611: 6604: 6588: 6584: 6576: 6572: 6564: 6560: 6552: 6548: 6540: 6536: 6528: 6524: 6516: 6512: 6504: 6500: 6492: 6488: 6480: 6476: 6468: 6459: 6451: 6447: 6439: 6435: 6427: 6412: 6405: 6389: 6385: 6378: 6364: 6360: 6353: 6337: 6333: 6326: 6310: 6306: 6290: 6274: 6270: 6253: 6252: 6248: 6240: 6236: 6228: 6224: 6216: 6212: 6204: 6197: 6189: 6180: 6172: 6168: 6160: 6156: 6148: 6144: 6136: 6132: 6124: 6120: 6112: 6108: 6100: 6096: 6088: 6081: 6073: 6069: 6061: 6057: 6049: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6022: 6015: 5991: 5985: 5981: 5973: 5966: 5958: 5954: 5946: 5942: 5934: 5930: 5922: 5918: 5910: 5906: 5898: 5894: 5886: 5875: 5851: 5845: 5841: 5833: 5829: 5821: 5814: 5806: 5799: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5764: 5760: 5752: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5728: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5701: 5694: 5686: 5682: 5674: 5670: 5662: 5655: 5647: 5643: 5635: 5631: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5566: 5558: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5534: 5530: 5523:Aga Khan Museum 5517: 5516: 5512: 5504: 5500: 5492: 5488: 5480: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5453: 5449: 5441: 5434: 5426: 5422: 5414: 5410: 5402: 5391: 5384: 5370: 5366: 5361: 5357: 5350: 5336: 5332: 5322: 5320: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5284: 5280: 5245: 5241: 5236:. Harrassowitz. 5226: 5222: 5214: 5210: 5202: 5198: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5177: 5150: 5145: 5139: 5137:List of sultans 5084:Ibn Taghribirdi 5075: 4961: 4955: 4839: 4833: 4828: 4741: 4710: 4700: 4658:Gradually, the 4631:(endowment) or 4489: 4373: 4328: 4325: 4322: 4319: 4264:(chamberlain), 4242:Nihāyat al-su’l 4175: 4169: 4161:Ibn Taghribirdi 4149:Abbasid dynasty 4129: 4015:oath of loyalty 3968: 3967: 3966: 3965: 3939: 3938: 3937: 3929: 3928: 3917: 3900: 3806: 3792:Maronite Church 3740:Coptic calendar 3724: 3544: 3539: 3496: 3491: 3423: 3413: 3403: 3327: 3321: 3277:Twelver Shi'ism 3214:Qansuh al-Ghuri 3194:Qansuh al-Ghuri 3186: 3167: 3039: 3033: 2951: 2849: 2837: 2819: 2818: 2817: 2816: 2815: 2809: 2801: 2800: 2789: 2778: 2758:Ottoman dynasty 2657: 2651: 2649:Reign of Barquq 2634: 2628: 2523:al-Ashraf Kujuk 2503: 2492: 2485: 2445: 2395: 2302:Ibrahimi Mosque 2242: 2236: 2227:al-Sa'id Baraka 2222:further south. 2157:Nihāyat al-suʾl 2103:Knights Templar 2031: 2025: 2020: 2014: 1966:Nihāyat al-su’l 1946:al-Mughith Umar 1911:atabeg al-askar 1906: 1905: 1904: 1898:Delhi Sultanate 1889: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1619:atabeg al-askar 1600:al-Mughith Umar 1552:atabeg al-askar 1543:Seventh Crusade 1531: 1525: 1520: 1475: 1426: 1376: 1366: 1361: 1355: 1328:Dawlat al-Atrak 1319: 1305:One such emir, 1276:Crusader states 1268: 1257: 1231: 1197:Ayyubid dynasty 1134: 1098: 1096: 1091: 1090: 1044: 1034: 1033: 987: 976: 975: 956:Ayyubid dynasty 946:Fatimid dynasty 926:Tulunid dynasty 916:Abbasid dynasty 889: 879: 878: 832: 824: 823: 737: 727: 726: 710: 688: 681: 655: 630: 616: 602: 588: 574: 560: 553:Ayyubid dynasty 546: 532: 502:22 January 1517 499: 486: 464: 432: 420: 408: 395: 364: 352: 340: 327: 278: 233: 178: 158: 151: 143:Attributed arms 141: 135: 131: 119: 118: 111: 94: 86: 79: 71: 70: 68: 63:Dawlat al-Atrāk 60: 53: 45: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13068: 13058: 13057: 13055:Former empires 13052: 13047: 13042: 13037: 13032: 13027: 13022: 13017: 13012: 13007: 13002: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12982: 12965: 12964: 12962: 12961: 12951: 12941: 12931: 12920: 12917: 12916: 12913: 12912: 12909: 12908: 12906: 12905: 12900: 12895: 12890: 12885: 12880: 12875: 12874: 12873: 12868: 12863: 12858: 12848: 12843: 12842: 12841: 12836: 12834:Football clubs 12826: 12825: 12824: 12819: 12809: 12804: 12803: 12802: 12797: 12787: 12782: 12777: 12772: 12767: 12762: 12757: 12751: 12749: 12743: 12742: 12740: 12739: 12734: 12729: 12724: 12719: 12714: 12713: 12712: 12707: 12706: 12705: 12695: 12694: 12693: 12688: 12683: 12673: 12668: 12663: 12658: 12657: 12656: 12651: 12641: 12636: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12610: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12589: 12584: 12583: 12582: 12577: 12567: 12562: 12561: 12560: 12555: 12545: 12544: 12543: 12533: 12532: 12531: 12521: 12520: 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12499: 12489: 12484: 12479: 12478: 12477: 12472: 12467: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12430:Animal welfare 12427: 12421: 12419: 12411: 12410: 12398: 12397: 12394: 12393: 12391: 12390: 12389: 12388: 12378: 12377: 12376: 12371: 12366: 12356: 12355: 12354: 12344: 12343: 12342: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12321: 12320: 12313:Power stations 12310: 12305: 12304: 12303: 12293: 12288: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12268: 12263: 12261:Egyptian pound 12258: 12253: 12248: 12243: 12242: 12241: 12231: 12225: 12222: 12221: 12209: 12208: 12205: 12204: 12202: 12201: 12196: 12195: 12194: 12184: 12179: 12174: 12173: 12172: 12165:Prime Minister 12162: 12161: 12160: 12150: 12145: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12129: 12128: 12118: 12113: 12108: 12103: 12098: 12097: 12096: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12060: 12059: 12048: 12045: 12044: 12032: 12031: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12004: 11999: 11998: 11997: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11970:Northern coast 11967: 11962: 11961: 11960: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11910: 11905: 11900: 11895: 11889: 11886: 11885: 11873: 11872: 11869: 11868: 11865: 11864: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11845: 11841: 11840: 11838: 11837: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11811: 11810: 11805: 11800: 11790: 11785: 11780: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11760: 11755: 11749: 11747: 11743: 11742: 11740: 11739: 11738: 11737: 11736: 11735: 11730: 11720: 11715: 11714: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11701:Yom Kippur War 11693: 11692: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11676: 11671: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11653: 11652: 11642: 11637: 11632: 11631: 11630: 11620: 11619: 11618: 11603: 11602: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11594: 11584: 11579: 11569: 11568: 11567: 11557: 11556: 11555: 11554: 11553: 11543: 11538: 11537: 11536: 11526: 11521: 11516: 11511: 11506: 11496: 11491: 11490: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11469: 11468: 11467: 11462: 11452: 11451: 11450: 11445: 11435: 11434: 11433: 11423: 11417: 11415: 11405: 11404: 11392: 11391: 11383: 11382: 11375: 11368: 11360: 11354: 11353: 11347: 11332: 11312:Krämer, Gudrun 11299: 11296: 11295: 11294: 11284: 11277: 11271: 11264: 11254: 11247: 11241: 11228: 11225: 11224: 11223: 11196: 11183: 11177: 11160: 11154: 11141: 11135: 11122: 11116: 11099: 11093: 11076: 11070: 11055: 11049: 11034: 11028: 11011: 11005: 10992: 10986: 10973: 10955:(2): 144–166. 10941: 10935: 10920: 10914: 10899: 10893: 10872: 10866: 10851: 10840: 10834: 10819: 10813: 10800: 10794: 10777: 10771: 10758: 10752: 10737: 10731: 10716: 10710: 10697: 10691: 10676: 10670: 10655: 10649: 10637:"A Mamluk Axe" 10632: 10626: 10611: 10605: 10590: 10584: 10569: 10563: 10548: 10542: 10527: 10518: 10507: 10501: 10486: 10480: 10465: 10459: 10444: 10438: 10417: 10411: 10396: 10390: 10367:van Donzel, E. 10354: 10348: 10330: 10324: 10307: 10301: 10286: 10280: 10267: 10261: 10246: 10240: 10227: 10221: 10206: 10200: 10185: 10179: 10166: 10160: 10143: 10130: 10124: 10108: 10102: 10087: 10081: 10064: 10058: 10043: 10037: 10022: 10016: 10003: 9997: 9982: 9976: 9961: 9955: 9940: 9934: 9916: 9910: 9895: 9889: 9874: 9868: 9851: 9845: 9830: 9824: 9809: 9781:(1): 149–159. 9766: 9760: 9747: 9738: 9699:Kramers, J. H. 9695:Gibb, H. A. R. 9683: 9677: 9660: 9654: 9639: 9633: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9608: 9596: 9584: 9582:, p. 178. 9567: 9565:, p. 213. 9544: 9525: 9523:, p. 217. 9513: 9511:, p. 309. 9501: 9489: 9470: 9445: 9433: 9421: 9409: 9397: 9385: 9373: 9361: 9349: 9337: 9325: 9313: 9301: 9286: 9274: 9259: 9257:, p. 107. 9247: 9245:, p. 109. 9235: 9223: 9206: 9189: 9170: 9168:, p. 163. 9158: 9146: 9134: 9132:, p. 244. 9122: 9107: 9095: 9083: 9071: 9059: 9044: 9016: 9014:, p. 261. 9012:Northrup 1998b 9004: 9000:Northrup 1998b 8992: 8990:, p. 277. 8988:Northrup 1998b 8980: 8978:, p. 270. 8976:Northrup 1998b 8968: 8959: 8947: 8945:, p. 477. 8935: 8933:, p. 476. 8923: 8921:, p. 171. 8908: 8904:Elbendary 2015 8889: 8877: 8873:Elbendary 2015 8865: 8863:, p. 475. 8850: 8846:Elbendary 2015 8838: 8826: 8811: 8809:, p. 254. 8807:Northrup 1998b 8794: 8776: 8774:, p. 158. 8764: 8749: 8737: 8725: 8710: 8698: 8686: 8671: 8659: 8642: 8640:, p. 243. 8630: 8615: 8603: 8591: 8576: 8574:, p. 248. 8557: 8555:, p. 468. 8545: 8543:, p. 240. 8530: 8528:, p. 239. 8513: 8511:, p. 238. 8501: 8489: 8487:, p. 113. 8477: 8475:, p. 237. 8462: 8447: 8435: 8423: 8421:, p. 182. 8411: 8399: 8387: 8385:, p. 175. 8375: 8373:, p. 173. 8363: 8351: 8339: 8327: 8325:, p. 120. 8310: 8284: 8272: 8253: 8244:, p. 115. 8234: 8232:, p. 109. 8219: 8207: 8188: 8169: 8167:, p. 267. 8165:Northrup 1998b 8154: 8152:, p. 268. 8150:Northrup 1998b 8142: 8140:, p. 269. 8138:Northrup 1998b 8127: 8123:Northrup 1998b 8115: 8111:Northrup 1998b 8103: 8091: 8089:, p. 394. 8079: 8067: 8052: 8035: 8023: 8008: 7999:, p. 114. 7986: 7974: 7972:, p. 114. 7970:Rodenbeck 1999 7962: 7950: 7948:, p. 113. 7946:Rodenbeck 1999 7938: 7936:, p. 410. 7923: 7921:, p. 325. 7906: 7904:, p. 263. 7894: 7892:, p. 258. 7882: 7880:, p. 256. 7867: 7865:, p. 254. 7855: 7853:, p. 253. 7843: 7841:, p. 251. 7831: 7819: 7807: 7795: 7781: 7761: 7740: 7723: 7694: 7690:Streusand 2018 7682: 7680:, p. 239. 7670: 7658: 7656:, p. 415. 7646: 7634: 7619: 7594: 7582: 7570: 7547: 7535: 7523: 7511: 7495: 7483: 7481:, p. 138. 7471: 7459: 7447: 7435: 7418: 7393: 7391:, p. 218. 7381: 7379:, p. 217. 7369: 7340: 7323: 7311: 7299: 7284: 7269: 7257: 7255:, p. 289. 7242: 7230: 7203: 7191: 7179: 7167: 7165:, p. 209. 7155: 7136: 7124: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7076: 7064: 7052: 7037: 7035:, p. 294. 7014: 7002: 7000:, p. 195. 6990: 6978: 6976:, p. 293. 6963: 6948: 6936: 6934:, p. 314. 6924: 6922:, p. 290. 6912: 6910:, p. 300. 6900: 6898:, p. 225. 6888: 6886:, p. 147. 6876: 6874:, p. 194. 6864: 6852: 6840: 6838:, p. 291. 6825: 6823:, p. 128. 6804: 6792: 6780: 6778:, p. 127. 6763: 6744: 6742:, p. 288. 6740:Northrup 1998b 6725: 6710: 6691: 6684: 6664: 6662:, p. 637. 6652: 6640: 6621: 6619:, p. 119. 6609: 6602: 6582: 6570: 6558: 6546: 6534: 6522: 6510: 6498: 6486: 6474: 6457: 6445: 6433: 6431:, p. 253. 6429:Northrup 1998b 6410: 6403: 6383: 6376: 6358: 6351: 6331: 6324: 6304: 6288: 6268: 6246: 6234: 6222: 6220:, p. 114. 6210: 6195: 6193:, p. 252. 6191:Northrup 1998b 6178: 6166: 6164:, p. 139. 6154: 6150:Northrup 1998a 6142: 6138:Northrup 1998a 6130: 6126:Northrup 1998a 6118: 6106: 6102:Northrup 1998a 6094: 6092:, p. 108. 6079: 6077:, p. 107. 6067: 6065:, p. 254. 6055: 6040: 6028: 6013: 5979: 5977:, p. 106. 5964: 5952: 5940: 5928: 5916: 5912:Northrup 1998a 5904: 5892: 5873: 5839: 5827: 5812: 5808:Northrup 1998a 5797: 5782: 5770: 5766:Northrup 1998a 5758: 5754:Northrup 1998a 5746: 5734: 5730:Northrup 1998a 5719: 5707: 5692: 5680: 5668: 5664:Northrup 1998a 5653: 5641: 5629: 5617: 5605: 5601:Joinville 1807 5593: 5581: 5564: 5552: 5540: 5528: 5510: 5498: 5496:, p. 944. 5486: 5471: 5459: 5455:Rodenbeck 1999 5447: 5445:, p. 250. 5443:Northrup 1998b 5432: 5420: 5408: 5389: 5382: 5364: 5355: 5348: 5330: 5303: 5296: 5278: 5239: 5220: 5208: 5196: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5149: 5146: 5141:Main article: 5138: 5135: 5074: 5071: 4957:Main article: 4954: 4951: 4877:Venetian glass 4837:Mamluk carpets 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4812:diwan al-khass 4795:Southeast Asia 4740: 4737: 4699: 4696: 4643:organized the 4488: 4480: 4372: 4369: 4346:ustadar saghir 4291:ru'us al-nawab 4187:British Museum 4171:Main article: 4168: 4165: 4128: 4125: 3941: 3940: 3931: 3930: 3922: 3921: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3899: 3896: 3814:Arabian horses 3805: 3802: 3788:Greek Orthodox 3723: 3720: 3614:s, namely the 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3508:Kipchak Turkic 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3411:Ottoman Empire 3402: 3399: 3320: 3317: 3269:Safavid Empire 3220:was appointed 3192:Mamluk Sultan 3185: 3182: 3045:Mamluk Sultan 3032: 3029: 2950: 2947: 2943:central Africa 2848: 2845: 2823:an-Nasir Faraj 2810: 2803: 2802: 2797:al-Nasir Faraj 2790: 2783: 2782: 2781: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2774: 2675:al-Salih Hajji 2653:Main article: 2650: 2647: 2630:Main article: 2627: 2624: 2571:al-Salih Salih 2563:Bubonic Plague 2555:time of plague 2527:al-Nasir Ahmad 2489:al-Nasir Hasan 2484: 2481: 2394: 2391: 2298:al-Aqsa Mosque 2274:battle of Homs 2235: 2232: 2134:Jabal Ansariya 2099:captured Safed 2027:Main article: 2024: 2021: 2016:Main article: 2013: 2010: 1978:sacked Baghdad 1880: 1879: 1640: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1628:al-Ashraf Musa 1608:Shajar al-Durr 1596:an-Nasir Yusuf 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1458:as-Salih Ayyub 1365: 1362: 1357:Main article: 1354: 1351: 1334:Dawlat al-Turk 1318: 1315: 1228:as-Salih Ayyub 1205:Ottoman Empire 1150:سلطنة المماليك 1136: 1135: 1133: 1132: 1125: 1118: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1073: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1057: 1056: 1053: 1045: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1010: 1009: 1006: 1000: 999: 996: 988: 982: 981: 978: 977: 972: 971: 968: 966:Mamluk dynasty 962: 961: 958: 952: 951: 948: 942: 941: 938: 932: 931: 928: 922: 921: 918: 912: 911: 908: 902: 901: 898: 890: 887:Medieval Egypt 885: 884: 881: 880: 875: 874: 871: 869:Sasanian Egypt 865: 864: 861: 855: 854: 851: 845: 844: 841: 839:Argead dynasty 833: 830: 829: 826: 825: 820: 819: 816: 810: 809: 806: 800: 799: 796: 790: 789: 786: 780: 779: 776: 774:Middle Kingdom 770: 769: 766: 760: 759: 756: 750: 749: 746: 738: 733: 732: 729: 728: 723: 722: 719: 711: 706: 705: 702: 701: 693: 692: 683: 682: 675: 668: 667: 664: 663: 660: 659: 652: 650:Ottoman Empire 643: 640: 639: 634: 626: 625: 620: 612: 611: 606: 598: 597: 592: 584: 583: 578: 570: 569: 564: 556: 555: 550: 542: 541: 536: 524: 523: 518: 508: 507: 504: 503: 500: 494: 491: 490: 487: 479:al-Salih Hajji 472: 469: 468: 465: 459: 456: 455: 452: 451: 448: 444: 443: 440: 439: 433: 430: 427: 426: 421: 418: 415: 414: 409: 406: 403: 402: 399:Shajar al-Durr 396: 393: 390: 389: 386: 385: 382: 376: 375: 372: 371: 365: 362: 359: 358: 353: 350: 347: 346: 341: 338: 335: 334: 328: 325: 322: 321: 318: 317: 314: 308: 307: 296: 292: 291: 286: 280: 279: 277: 276: 270: 264: 258: 252: 241: 239: 235: 234: 232: 231: 226: 221: 219:Mamluk-Kipchak 216: 210: 208: 204: 203: 198: 194: 193: 184: 180: 179: 173: 165: 164: 152: 137: 136: 120: 112: 105: 104: 101: 100: 96: 95: 42: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13067: 13056: 13053: 13051: 13048: 13046: 13043: 13041: 13038: 13036: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13026: 13023: 13021: 13018: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12977: 12975: 12960: 12952: 12950: 12942: 12940: 12936: 12932: 12930: 12922: 12921: 12918: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12896: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12886: 12884: 12881: 12879: 12876: 12872: 12869: 12867: 12864: 12862: 12859: 12857: 12854: 12853: 12852: 12849: 12847: 12844: 12840: 12837: 12835: 12832: 12831: 12830: 12827: 12823: 12820: 12818: 12815: 12814: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12792: 12791: 12788: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12773: 12771: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12760:Art (ancient) 12758: 12756: 12753: 12752: 12750: 12748: 12744: 12738: 12735: 12733: 12730: 12728: 12725: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12715: 12711: 12708: 12704: 12701: 12700: 12699: 12696: 12692: 12689: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12678: 12677: 12674: 12672: 12669: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12646: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12639:Blasphemy law 12637: 12635: 12632: 12631: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12617: 12615: 12612: 12608: 12607:Sign Language 12605: 12603: 12602:Saʽidi Arabic 12600: 12598: 12595: 12594: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12581: 12578: 12576: 12573: 12572: 12571: 12568: 12566: 12563: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12550: 12549: 12546: 12542: 12539: 12538: 12537: 12534: 12530: 12527: 12526: 12525: 12522: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12494: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12485: 12483: 12480: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12462: 12461: 12458: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12422: 12420: 12416: 12412: 12408: 12403: 12399: 12387: 12384: 12383: 12382: 12379: 12375: 12372: 12370: 12367: 12365: 12362: 12361: 12360: 12357: 12353: 12350: 12349: 12348: 12345: 12341: 12338: 12337: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12319: 12316: 12315: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12302: 12299: 12298: 12297: 12294: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12284: 12282: 12279: 12277: 12274: 12272: 12269: 12267: 12264: 12262: 12259: 12257: 12254: 12252: 12249: 12247: 12244: 12240: 12239:National Bank 12237: 12236: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12226: 12223: 12219: 12214: 12210: 12200: 12197: 12193: 12190: 12189: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12175: 12171: 12168: 12167: 12166: 12163: 12159: 12156: 12155: 12154: 12151: 12149: 12146: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12127: 12124: 12123: 12122: 12119: 12117: 12114: 12112: 12109: 12107: 12104: 12102: 12099: 12095: 12092: 12091: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12058: 12055: 12054: 12053: 12050: 12049: 12046: 12042: 12037: 12033: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11996: 11993: 11992: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11959: 11956: 11955: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11904: 11901: 11899: 11896: 11894: 11891: 11890: 11887: 11883: 11878: 11874: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11842: 11836: 11833: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11795: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11786: 11784: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11750: 11748: 11744: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11725: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11716: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11698: 11697: 11694: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11670: 11667: 11666: 11665: 11662: 11661: 11660: 11657: 11651: 11648: 11647: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11629: 11626: 11625: 11624: 11621: 11617: 11614: 11613: 11612: 11609: 11608: 11607: 11604: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11589: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11574: 11573: 11570: 11566: 11565:Ottoman Egypt 11563: 11562: 11561: 11558: 11552: 11549: 11548: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11535: 11532: 11531: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11515: 11512: 11510: 11507: 11505: 11502: 11501: 11500: 11497: 11495: 11492: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11474: 11473: 11470: 11466: 11463: 11461: 11458: 11457: 11456: 11453: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11440: 11439: 11436: 11432: 11429: 11428: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11419: 11418: 11416: 11414: 11410: 11406: 11402: 11397: 11393: 11388: 11381: 11376: 11374: 11369: 11367: 11362: 11361: 11358: 11350: 11344: 11340: 11339: 11333: 11329: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11308: 11302: 11301: 11292: 11288: 11285: 11282: 11278: 11275: 11272: 11270:, Paris 1895. 11269: 11265: 11263: 11259: 11255: 11252: 11248: 11245: 11242: 11240: 11239: 11234: 11231: 11230: 11219: 11214: 11210: 11206: 11202: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11184: 11180: 11174: 11170: 11166: 11161: 11157: 11151: 11147: 11142: 11138: 11132: 11128: 11123: 11119: 11113: 11108: 11107: 11100: 11096: 11090: 11086: 11082: 11077: 11073: 11067: 11064:. Routledge. 11063: 11062: 11056: 11052: 11046: 11042: 11041: 11035: 11031: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11012: 11008: 11002: 10998: 10993: 10989: 10983: 10979: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10945:Salibi, Kamal 10942: 10938: 10936:0-679-44651-6 10932: 10928: 10927: 10921: 10917: 10911: 10907: 10906: 10900: 10896: 10890: 10886: 10882: 10878: 10873: 10869: 10863: 10859: 10858: 10852: 10848: 10847: 10841: 10837: 10831: 10827: 10826: 10820: 10816: 10810: 10806: 10801: 10797: 10791: 10787: 10783: 10778: 10774: 10768: 10764: 10759: 10755: 10749: 10745: 10744: 10738: 10734: 10728: 10724: 10723: 10717: 10713: 10707: 10703: 10698: 10694: 10688: 10684: 10683: 10677: 10673: 10667: 10663: 10662: 10656: 10652: 10646: 10642: 10638: 10633: 10629: 10623: 10619: 10618: 10612: 10608: 10602: 10598: 10597: 10591: 10587: 10581: 10578:. Routledge. 10577: 10576: 10570: 10566: 10560: 10556: 10555: 10549: 10545: 10539: 10535: 10534: 10528: 10525:. Gyan Books. 10524: 10519: 10515: 10514: 10513:The Arab Book 10508: 10504: 10498: 10494: 10493: 10487: 10483: 10477: 10473: 10472: 10466: 10462: 10460:0-8093-1286-7 10456: 10452: 10451: 10445: 10441: 10435: 10432:. Routledge. 10431: 10427: 10426:Hawting, G.R. 10423: 10418: 10414: 10408: 10404: 10403: 10397: 10393: 10387: 10383: 10379: 10377: 10372: 10368: 10364: 10360: 10355: 10351: 10345: 10341: 10340: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10308: 10304: 10298: 10294: 10293: 10287: 10283: 10277: 10273: 10268: 10264: 10258: 10254: 10253: 10247: 10243: 10237: 10233: 10228: 10224: 10222:90-04-10633-2 10218: 10214: 10213: 10207: 10203: 10197: 10193: 10192: 10186: 10182: 10176: 10172: 10167: 10163: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10138: 10131: 10127: 10121: 10117: 10113: 10109: 10105: 10099: 10095: 10094: 10088: 10084: 10078: 10075:. Routledge. 10074: 10070: 10065: 10061: 10055: 10051: 10050: 10044: 10040: 10034: 10030: 10029: 10023: 10019: 10013: 10009: 10004: 10000: 9994: 9990: 9989: 9983: 9979: 9973: 9969: 9968: 9962: 9958: 9952: 9948: 9947: 9941: 9937: 9931: 9927: 9926: 9921: 9917: 9913: 9907: 9903: 9902: 9896: 9892: 9886: 9882: 9881: 9875: 9871: 9865: 9861: 9857: 9852: 9848: 9842: 9838: 9837: 9831: 9827: 9821: 9817: 9816: 9810: 9806: 9802: 9798: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9780: 9776: 9772: 9767: 9763: 9757: 9753: 9748: 9744: 9739: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9721: 9716: 9712: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9692: 9691:"Al-Baḥriyya" 9688: 9687:Ayalon, David 9684: 9680: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9661: 9657: 9651: 9647: 9646: 9640: 9636: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9617: 9616: 9605: 9600: 9594:, p. 13. 9593: 9588: 9581: 9576: 9574: 9572: 9564: 9559: 9557: 9555: 9553: 9551: 9549: 9542:, p. 94. 9541: 9536: 9534: 9532: 9530: 9522: 9517: 9510: 9505: 9499:, p. 76. 9498: 9493: 9487:, p. 97. 9486: 9485:Hathaway 2012 9481: 9479: 9477: 9475: 9459: 9458:Rawi Magazine 9455: 9449: 9442: 9437: 9430: 9425: 9419:, p. 17. 9418: 9417:Williams 2018 9413: 9407:, p. 34. 9406: 9405:Williams 2018 9401: 9394: 9389: 9383:, p. 79. 9382: 9377: 9371:, p. 31. 9370: 9369:Williams 2018 9365: 9358: 9353: 9346: 9345:Williams 2018 9341: 9335:, p. 30. 9334: 9333:Williams 2018 9329: 9322: 9317: 9310: 9305: 9299:, p. 70. 9298: 9293: 9291: 9283: 9282:Williams 2018 9278: 9271: 9266: 9264: 9256: 9251: 9244: 9239: 9232: 9227: 9221:, p. 99. 9220: 9215: 9213: 9211: 9204:, p. 97. 9203: 9198: 9196: 9194: 9185: 9181: 9174: 9167: 9162: 9155: 9150: 9143: 9138: 9131: 9126: 9120:, p. 24. 9119: 9114: 9112: 9105:, p. 33. 9104: 9099: 9093:, p. 32. 9092: 9087: 9081:, p. 40. 9080: 9075: 9069:, p. 39. 9068: 9063: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9045:9781108913805 9041: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9028: 9020: 9013: 9008: 9001: 8996: 8989: 8984: 8977: 8972: 8963: 8957:, p. 23. 8956: 8951: 8944: 8939: 8932: 8927: 8920: 8919:Levanoni 1995 8915: 8913: 8905: 8900: 8898: 8896: 8894: 8886: 8881: 8875:, p. 37. 8874: 8869: 8862: 8857: 8855: 8847: 8842: 8836:, p. 43. 8835: 8830: 8824:, p. 42. 8823: 8818: 8816: 8808: 8803: 8801: 8799: 8790: 8786: 8780: 8773: 8768: 8762:, p. 93. 8761: 8756: 8754: 8746: 8745:Levanoni 1995 8741: 8735:, p. 10. 8734: 8733:Levanoni 1995 8729: 8722: 8721:Levanoni 1995 8717: 8715: 8708:, p. 11. 8707: 8706:Levanoni 1995 8702: 8695: 8694:Levanoni 1995 8690: 8683: 8682:Levanoni 1995 8678: 8676: 8669:, p. 20. 8668: 8663: 8656: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8639: 8634: 8627: 8622: 8620: 8612: 8611:Levanoni 1995 8607: 8601:, p. 31. 8600: 8595: 8589:, p. 14. 8588: 8587:Levanoni 1995 8583: 8581: 8573: 8568: 8566: 8564: 8562: 8554: 8549: 8542: 8537: 8535: 8527: 8522: 8520: 8518: 8510: 8505: 8499:, p. 26. 8498: 8493: 8486: 8481: 8474: 8469: 8467: 8460:, p. 14. 8459: 8454: 8452: 8444: 8443:Levanoni 1995 8439: 8432: 8431:Levanoni 1995 8427: 8420: 8419:Levanoni 1995 8415: 8408: 8407:Levanoni 1995 8403: 8396: 8395:Levanoni 1995 8391: 8384: 8383:Levanoni 1995 8379: 8372: 8371:Levanoni 1995 8367: 8361:, p. 13. 8360: 8355: 8349:, p. 12. 8348: 8343: 8337:, p. 11. 8336: 8331: 8324: 8319: 8317: 8315: 8306: 8301:, p. 16. 8300: 8295: 8293: 8291: 8289: 8282:, p. 10. 8281: 8276: 8268: 8262: 8257: 8249: 8243: 8238: 8231: 8226: 8224: 8216: 8211: 8203: 8197: 8192: 8184: 8179:, p. 14. 8178: 8173: 8166: 8161: 8159: 8151: 8146: 8139: 8134: 8132: 8124: 8119: 8112: 8107: 8100: 8095: 8088: 8083: 8076: 8071: 8065:, p. 60. 8064: 8059: 8057: 8050:, p. 21. 8049: 8044: 8042: 8040: 8033:, p. 70. 8032: 8027: 8021:, p. 96. 8020: 8015: 8013: 8004: 7998: 7993: 7991: 7983: 7978: 7971: 7966: 7959: 7958:Hathaway 2019 7954: 7947: 7942: 7935: 7930: 7928: 7920: 7915: 7913: 7911: 7903: 7898: 7891: 7886: 7879: 7874: 7872: 7864: 7859: 7852: 7847: 7840: 7835: 7828: 7827:Grainger 2016 7823: 7817:, p. 82. 7816: 7815:Brummett 1994 7811: 7805:, p. 85. 7804: 7803:McCarthy 2014 7799: 7784: 7778: 7775:. McFarland. 7774: 7773: 7765: 7759:, p. 52. 7758: 7753: 7751: 7749: 7747: 7745: 7737: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7719: 7713: 7705: 7698: 7691: 7686: 7679: 7674: 7667: 7662: 7655: 7650: 7643: 7642:Brummett 1994 7638: 7632:, p. 50. 7631: 7626: 7624: 7608: 7604: 7598: 7591: 7586: 7579: 7574: 7568:, p. 49. 7567: 7562: 7560: 7558: 7556: 7554: 7552: 7544: 7539: 7532: 7527: 7521:, p. 47. 7520: 7515: 7507: 7506: 7499: 7492: 7487: 7480: 7475: 7468: 7463: 7456: 7451: 7445:, p. 42. 7444: 7439: 7432: 7427: 7425: 7423: 7407: 7403: 7397: 7390: 7385: 7378: 7373: 7367:, p. 45. 7366: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7337: 7332: 7330: 7328: 7321:, p. 93. 7320: 7315: 7308: 7303: 7297:, p. 46. 7296: 7291: 7289: 7281: 7276: 7274: 7267:, p. 44. 7266: 7261: 7254: 7253:Williams 2018 7249: 7247: 7239: 7234: 7215: 7214: 7207: 7201:, p. 43. 7200: 7195: 7188: 7183: 7176: 7171: 7164: 7159: 7153:, p. 41. 7152: 7147: 7145: 7143: 7141: 7133: 7128: 7122:, p. 40. 7121: 7116: 7109: 7104: 7097: 7092: 7086:, p. 38. 7085: 7080: 7073: 7068: 7061: 7056: 7049: 7044: 7042: 7034: 7029: 7027: 7025: 7023: 7021: 7019: 7012:, p. 39. 7011: 7006: 6999: 6994: 6987: 6986:Williams 2018 6982: 6975: 6970: 6968: 6960: 6955: 6953: 6945: 6940: 6933: 6928: 6921: 6916: 6909: 6904: 6897: 6892: 6885: 6880: 6873: 6868: 6862:, p. 15. 6861: 6860:McGregor 2006 6856: 6849: 6848:Bosworth 1996 6844: 6837: 6832: 6830: 6822: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6811: 6809: 6801: 6796: 6790:, p. 75. 6789: 6784: 6777: 6772: 6770: 6768: 6759: 6755: 6748: 6741: 6736: 6734: 6732: 6730: 6722: 6721:Levanoni 1995 6717: 6715: 6708: 6705: 6701: 6695: 6687: 6681: 6677: 6676: 6668: 6661: 6656: 6650:, p. 68. 6649: 6648:Haarmann 1998 6644: 6638:, p. 70. 6637: 6632: 6630: 6628: 6626: 6618: 6617:Levanoni 1995 6613: 6605: 6599: 6595: 6594: 6586: 6580:, p. 82. 6579: 6574: 6567: 6562: 6555: 6550: 6543: 6538: 6532:, p. 27. 6531: 6526: 6520:, p. 24. 6519: 6514: 6508:, p. 21. 6507: 6502: 6495: 6494:Levanoni 1995 6490: 6483: 6478: 6472:, p. 30. 6471: 6470:Levanoni 1995 6466: 6464: 6462: 6455:, p. 29. 6454: 6453:Levanoni 1995 6449: 6443:, p. 28. 6442: 6441:Levanoni 1995 6437: 6430: 6425: 6423: 6421: 6419: 6417: 6415: 6406: 6400: 6396: 6395: 6387: 6379: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6354: 6348: 6344: 6343: 6342:Arab painting 6335: 6327: 6321: 6317: 6316: 6315:Arab painting 6308: 6301: 6298: 6291: 6289:9789004113732 6285: 6281: 6280: 6272: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6250: 6244:, p. 38. 6243: 6238: 6232:, p. 34. 6231: 6226: 6219: 6218:Asbridge 2010 6214: 6208:, p. 32. 6207: 6206:Levanoni 1995 6202: 6200: 6192: 6187: 6185: 6183: 6175: 6170: 6163: 6158: 6151: 6146: 6139: 6134: 6127: 6122: 6115: 6114:Asbridge 2010 6110: 6104:, p. 84. 6103: 6098: 6091: 6090:Asbridge 2010 6086: 6084: 6076: 6075:Asbridge 2010 6071: 6064: 6059: 6052: 6047: 6045: 6038:, p. 52. 6037: 6032: 6025: 6020: 6018: 6009: 6005: 6002:(2): Fig. 6. 6001: 5997: 5990: 5983: 5976: 5975:Asbridge 2010 5971: 5969: 5961: 5960:Asbridge 2010 5956: 5949: 5948:Asbridge 2010 5944: 5938:, p. 98. 5937: 5936:Asbridge 2010 5932: 5926:, p. 97. 5925: 5924:Asbridge 2010 5920: 5914:, p. 73. 5913: 5908: 5902:, p. 95. 5901: 5900:Asbridge 2010 5896: 5889: 5888:Asbridge 2010 5884: 5882: 5880: 5878: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5843: 5837:, p. 91. 5836: 5831: 5825:, p. 90. 5824: 5819: 5817: 5810:, p. 72. 5809: 5804: 5802: 5795:, p. 89. 5794: 5789: 5787: 5780:, p. 80. 5779: 5778:Clifford 2013 5774: 5768:, p. 71. 5767: 5762: 5755: 5750: 5743: 5742:Clifford 2013 5738: 5732:, p. 70. 5731: 5726: 5724: 5716: 5715:Clifford 2013 5711: 5705:, p. 78. 5704: 5703:Clifford 2013 5699: 5697: 5690:, p. 77. 5689: 5688:Clifford 2013 5684: 5677: 5676:Clifford 2013 5672: 5666:, p. 69. 5665: 5660: 5658: 5650: 5649:Clifford 2013 5645: 5639:, p. 73. 5638: 5637:Clifford 2013 5633: 5627:, p. 72. 5626: 5625:Clifford 2013 5621: 5615:, p. 71. 5614: 5613:Clifford 2013 5609: 5602: 5597: 5591:, p. 70. 5590: 5589:Clifford 2013 5585: 5578: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5562:, p. 69. 5561: 5560:Clifford 2013 5556: 5549: 5548:Clifford 2013 5544: 5537: 5536:Clifford 2013 5532: 5524: 5520: 5514: 5508:, p. 67. 5507: 5506:Clifford 2013 5502: 5495: 5490: 5484:, p. 94. 5483: 5478: 5476: 5469:, p. 65. 5468: 5467:Clifford 2013 5463: 5457:, p. 57. 5456: 5451: 5444: 5439: 5437: 5429: 5424: 5418:, p. 53. 5417: 5412: 5405: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5394: 5385: 5379: 5375: 5368: 5359: 5351: 5345: 5341: 5334: 5319: 5318: 5313: 5307: 5299: 5297:9780857715494 5293: 5289: 5282: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5259:(1): 97–107. 5258: 5254: 5250: 5243: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5218:, p. 72. 5217: 5212: 5206:, p. 69. 5205: 5200: 5194: 5188: 5184: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5144: 5134: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5118: 5116: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5085: 5081: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5060:caravanserais 5056: 5055: 5048: 5042: 5035: 5033: 5028: 5027: 5020: 5019: 5012: 5008: 5003: 5000: 4994: 4993: 4986: 4981: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4960: 4950: 4947: 4942: 4939: 4938: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4921:(kept at the 4920: 4914: 4912: 4911:Frontispieces 4908: 4903: 4897: 4895: 4889: 4887: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4838: 4823: 4819: 4813: 4806: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4725: 4716: 4704: 4695: 4692: 4686: 4680: 4674: 4668: 4662: 4656: 4653: 4647: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4616: 4611: 4604: 4602: 4596: 4589: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4544: 4541:holders (see 4539: 4535: 4531: 4530:Mount Lebanon 4526: 4520: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4495: 4485: 4479: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4430: 4429: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4368: 4365: 4359: 4353: 4347: 4341: 4335: 4313: 4312:ustadh al-dar 4307: 4301: 4298: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4231: 4225: 4218: 4215: 4209: 4203: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4183:Daniel Hopfer 4179: 4174: 4164: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4124: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4110: 4103: 4102: 4094: 4091: 4085: 4078: 4072: 4071:khushdashiyya 4066: 4060: 4059:khushdashiyya 4054: 4053:khushdashiyya 4048: 4047:khushdashiyya 4043: 4037: 4034: 4033:Friday prayer 4029: 4028: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3992: 3986: 3980: 3974: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3935: 3926: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3866: 3865:amir al-ʿarab 3859: 3853: 3848: 3847:Syrian Desert 3843: 3837: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3801: 3798: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3778: 3772: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3759: 3753: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3719: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3707: 3701: 3697: 3692: 3691: 3684: 3683: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3660: 3654: 3653:qadi al-qudah 3648: 3642: 3636: 3635:qadi al-qudah 3630: 3629:qadi al-qudah 3625: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3577: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3534: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3516: 3513: 3510:, namely the 3509: 3504: 3501: 3486: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3454: 3444: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3407:Ottoman Egypt 3398: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3382: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3316: 3314: 3310: 3309:Battle of Diu 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3292:Vasco da Gama 3289: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3257: 3253: 3250: 3244: 3237: 3233: 3231: 3226: 3225: 3219: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3181: 3179: 3178: 3173: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3146: 3143:In 1489, the 3138: 3134: 3129: 3125: 3123: 3117: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3014: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2967:al-Aziz Yusuf 2960: 2955: 2946: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2927: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2883: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2857: 2853: 2844: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2824: 2814: 2807: 2798: 2794: 2787: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2662: 2661:al-Mansur Ali 2656: 2643: 2642:Catalan Atlas 2638: 2633: 2632:Burji Mamluks 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2501: 2490: 2480: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2443: 2438: 2432: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2382:Mahmud Ghazan 2378: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2342:captured Acre 2339: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2231: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2127:Isma'ili Shia 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2087: 2084:in 1265, and 2083: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2065: 2060: 2059: 2052: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2030: 2019: 2018:Bahri Mamluks 2009: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1938:al-Mansur Ali 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1917: 1912: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1894:Mongol Empire 1883: 1875: 1873: 1864: 1862: 1853: 1842: 1831: 1820: 1809: 1800: 1791: 1782: 1773: 1764: 1755: 1746: 1737: 1726: 1724: 1715: 1706: 1695: 1686: 1673: 1664: 1653: 1644: 1638: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1592: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1530: 1518:Rise to power 1515: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1482: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1442:Kipchak Turks 1439: 1435: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1392: 1391: 1385: 1381: 1375: 1371: 1360: 1350: 1347: 1341: 1335: 1329: 1324: 1323:Bahri Mamluks 1314: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1266: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1229: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1173:Mamluk Empire 1170: 1167: 1162: 1156: 1147: 1143: 1131: 1126: 1124: 1119: 1117: 1112: 1111: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1095: 1094: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1037: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1001: 997: 995: 994:Ottoman Egypt 992: 991: 985: 980: 979: 969: 967: 964: 963: 959: 957: 954: 953: 949: 947: 944: 943: 939: 937: 934: 933: 929: 927: 924: 923: 919: 917: 914: 913: 909: 907: 904: 903: 899: 897: 894: 893: 888: 883: 882: 872: 870: 867: 866: 862: 860: 857: 856: 852: 850: 847: 846: 842: 840: 837: 836: 828: 827: 817: 815: 812: 811: 807: 805: 802: 801: 797: 795: 792: 791: 787: 785: 782: 781: 777: 775: 772: 771: 767: 765: 762: 761: 757: 755: 752: 751: 747: 745: 742: 741: 736: 735:Ancient Egypt 731: 730: 720: 718: 715: 714: 709: 704: 703: 699: 695: 694: 691: 685: 684: 679: 674: 673: 653: 651: 648: 647: 644: 638: 635: 628: 627: 624: 621: 614: 613: 610: 607: 600: 599: 596: 593: 586: 585: 582: 579: 572: 571: 568: 565: 558: 557: 554: 551: 544: 543: 540: 537: 530: 529: 526: 525: 522: 519: 517: 514: 513: 509: 505: 501: 498: 492: 489:November 1382 488: 484: 480: 476: 470: 466: 463: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 434: 428: 425: 422: 416: 413: 410: 404: 400: 397: 391: 387: 383: 381: 377: 373: 369: 366: 360: 357: 354: 348: 345: 342: 336: 332: 329: 323: 319: 315: 313: 309: 306: 303: 300: 297: 293: 290: 287: 285: 281: 274: 271: 268: 265: 262: 259: 256: 253: 250: 246: 243: 242: 240: 236: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 209: 205: 202: 199: 195: 192: 188: 185: 181: 177: 171: 166: 162: 156: 150: 148: 147:Mamluk Sultan 144: 138: 126: 125: 124:Catalan Atlas 116: 109: 102: 97: 90: 83: 75:دولة الجراكسة 64: 57: 49:دولة الأتراك‎ 40: 37: 33: 19: 12785:Coat of arms 12755:Architecture 12644:Christianity 12624:Prostitution 12570:Human rights 12529:Abaza family 12517:Universities 12482:Demographics 12435:Billionaires 12079:Constitution 12074:Conscription 12057:Governorates 11938:Halfaya Pass 11808:1954–present 11768:Constitution 11723:2010s Crisis 11635:World War II 11597:Urabi revolt 11545: 11514:Islamization 11448:31st Dynasty 11443:27th Dynasty 11337: 11319: 11280: 11267: 11250: 11236: 11208: 11204: 11191: 11187: 11168: 11145: 11126: 11105: 11084: 11060: 11039: 11019: 10996: 10977: 10952: 10948: 10925: 10904: 10884: 10856: 10845: 10824: 10804: 10785: 10762: 10742: 10721: 10701: 10681: 10660: 10640: 10616: 10595: 10574: 10553: 10532: 10522: 10512: 10491: 10470: 10449: 10429: 10401: 10381: 10374: 10338: 10315: 10291: 10271: 10251: 10231: 10211: 10190: 10170: 10151: 10136: 10115: 10092: 10072: 10048: 10027: 10007: 9987: 9966: 9945: 9924: 9900: 9879: 9859: 9835: 9814: 9778: 9774: 9751: 9742: 9725: 9718: 9668: 9644: 9624: 9613:Bibliography 9599: 9587: 9516: 9504: 9492: 9461:. Retrieved 9457: 9448: 9436: 9429:Sanders 2008 9424: 9412: 9400: 9388: 9376: 9364: 9352: 9340: 9328: 9316: 9304: 9277: 9250: 9238: 9226: 9183: 9173: 9161: 9149: 9137: 9125: 9098: 9086: 9074: 9062: 9026: 9019: 9007: 8995: 8983: 8971: 8962: 8950: 8938: 8926: 8880: 8868: 8841: 8829: 8788: 8779: 8767: 8740: 8728: 8723:, p. 9. 8701: 8689: 8684:, p. 8. 8662: 8633: 8606: 8594: 8548: 8504: 8492: 8480: 8438: 8426: 8414: 8402: 8390: 8378: 8366: 8354: 8342: 8330: 8275: 8256: 8237: 8210: 8191: 8172: 8145: 8118: 8106: 8094: 8082: 8070: 8026: 7977: 7965: 7953: 7941: 7897: 7885: 7858: 7846: 7834: 7822: 7810: 7798: 7786:. Retrieved 7771: 7764: 7703: 7697: 7685: 7673: 7661: 7649: 7637: 7610:. Retrieved 7606: 7597: 7585: 7573: 7538: 7526: 7514: 7504: 7498: 7486: 7474: 7462: 7450: 7438: 7409:. Retrieved 7405: 7396: 7384: 7372: 7314: 7302: 7260: 7233: 7221:. 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Retrieved 5315: 5306: 5287: 5281: 5256: 5252: 5242: 5233: 5223: 5216:Fischel 1967 5211: 5199: 5187: 5126:fleur-de-lis 5119: 5111: 5076: 5041:sabil-kuttab 5036: 5004: 4976: 4953:Architecture 4943: 4915: 4898: 4890: 4862: 4854:French Kings 4807: 4787: 4781:, Genoa and 4757: 4751: 4733: 4729: 4719: 4657: 4606: 4591: 4490: 4457: 4423: 4401: 4383: 4379: 4302: 4247: 4241: 4219: 4195:Awlad al-nas 4191: 4153:al-Mustansir 4141:al-Musta'sim 4130: 4101:amir al-hajj 4095: 4038: 4012: 3969: 3947: 3944:frontispiece 3942:Illuminated 3901: 3891: 3871: 3822: 3807: 3781: 3773: 3752:Pact of Umar 3748: 3712:Ibn Taymiyya 3664: 3597: 3589:Shia Muslims 3571: 3530:awlad al-nas 3517: 3505: 3497: 3483:Muhammad Ali 3472: 3453:awlad al-nas 3449: 3429: 3383: 3366: 3343: 3313:Salman Ra'is 3288:Indian Ocean 3285: 3262: 3249:awlad al-nas 3238: 3234: 3211: 3197: 3175: 3161:Ala al-Dawla 3150: 3142: 3118: 3102: 3068: 3050: 3018: 2991: 2964: 2928: 2901: 2884: 2861: 2827: 2820: 2770:Qara Qoyunlu 2751: 2710: 2690:Burji regime 2679: 2658: 2618:perform the 2605: 2584:awlad al-nas 2573:. The emirs 2560: 2486: 2477: 2426: 2406: 2379: 2346: 2335: 2288:such as the 2286: 2263: 2224: 2168: 2160: 2156: 2079: 2064:Golden Horde 2048: 1990: 1971: 1965: 1935: 1920: 1907: 1871: 1860: 1825: 1722: 1671:GOLDEN HORDE 1593: 1573: 1563:)-based son 1532: 1499: 1489: 1446:Central Asia 1416:Ayyubid rule 1377: 1320: 1304: 1225: 1221:Burji period 1213:Bahri period 1172: 1168: 1165: 1141: 1139: 1085:1953–present 984:Early modern 965: 863:30 BC–641 AD 798:1550–1069 BC 788:1650–1550 BC 778:2055–1650 BC 768:2181–2055 BC 758:2686–2181 BC 748:3150–2686 BC 721:6000–3000 BC 521:Succeeded by 520: 515: 485:rule begins 436:Tuman Bay II 394:• 1250 331:Al-Mustansir 326:• 1261 302:stratocratic 267:Christianity 229:Oghuz Turkic 140: 122: 36: 12949:WikiProject 12710:Scientology 12580:LGBT rights 12502:Law schools 12286:Lighthouses 12229:Agriculture 11958:Mount Sinai 11918:Earthquakes 11718:Mubarak era 11689:Six-Day War 11679:Suez Crisis 11674:Land reform 11421:Prehistoric 11291:Gaston Wiet 11233:Abu al-Fida 10371:Pellat, Ch. 9715:Pellat, Ch. 9707:Schacht, J. 9563:Nickel 1972 9521:Nickel 1972 9166:Varlik 2015 9154:Christ 2012 9142:Christ 2012 9103:Christ 2012 9091:Christ 2012 9079:Islahi 1988 9067:Islahi 1988 8885:Salibi 1967 8834:Islahi 1988 8822:Islahi 1988 8772:Binbaş 2014 8760:Popper 1955 8075:Rabbat 2001 8063:Rabbat 2001 8048:Powell 2012 8019:Winter 1998 7060:Garcin 1998 7033:Garcin 1998 6974:Garcin 1998 6959:Garcin 1998 6944:Garcin 1998 6932:Garcin 1998 6920:Garcin 1998 6908:Garcin 1998 6836:Garcin 1998 6242:Amitai 2006 6230:Amitai 2006 6162:Rabbat 1995 6063:Welsby 2002 5494:Ayalon 1960 5323:13 November 5234:Turcologica 5204:Rabbat 2001 5098:Amir Qawsun 5094:Mosque lamp 5080:Bohemund VI 4946:glassmaking 4902:illuminated 4760:Middle Ages 4750:(d. 1206), 4711: 1500 4698:Agriculture 4601:grain trade 4417:and copper 4297:amir majlis 4267:amir jandar 3905:paramountcy 3884:Lower Egypt 3777:persecution 3730:Mamluk-era 3667:Shadhiliyya 3424: 1550 3395:Bab Zuwayla 3354:janissaries 3168: 1483 3131:A shirt of 2834:al-Musta'in 2579:Sirghitmish 2474:(1318–1335) 2442:al-Mustakfi 2315:Circassians 2173:kingdom of 1974:Hulagu Khan 1890: 1300 1452:and taught 1450:Sunni Islam 814:Late Period 808:1069–664 BC 794:New Kingdom 754:Old Kingdom 687:History of 516:Preceded by 477:overthrows 299:Semi-feudal 245:Sunni Islam 132: 1375 12974:Categories 12861:Newspapers 12851:Mass media 12703:Synagogues 12671:Irreligion 12619:Literature 12614:Liberalism 12553:Healthcare 12455:Corruption 12138:Parliament 12069:Corruption 12064:Civil Code 12007:Suez Canal 11965:Nile Delta 11850:Alexandria 11820:Population 11815:Parliament 11783:Healthcare 11664:Nasser era 11438:Achaemenid 11413:Chronology 11244:Al-Maqrizi 11205:Al-Qanṭara 10380:Volume VI: 9592:Petry 2022 9130:Petry 1981 9118:Stilt 2011 8955:Stilt 2011 8667:Stilt 2011 8655:Stilt 2011 8626:Stilt 2011 8599:Stilt 2011 8553:Petry 1998 8497:James 1983 8458:Stilt 2011 8359:Teule 2013 8347:Teule 2013 8335:Teule 2013 8323:Stilt 2011 8299:Britannica 8280:Teule 2013 8261:Britannica 8242:Britannica 8230:Stilt 2011 8196:Britannica 8177:Britannica 8099:Yosef 2012 8087:Yosef 2012 8031:Petry 1981 7997:Britannica 7757:Petry 2022 7736:Petry 2022 7654:Paine 2015 7630:Petry 2022 7566:Petry 2022 7543:Petry 2022 7531:Petry 2022 7519:Petry 2022 7491:Petry 1993 7479:Muslu 2014 7467:Petry 1993 7443:Petry 2022 7431:Fuess 2022 7365:Petry 2022 7336:Muslu 2014 7307:Petry 2022 7295:Petry 2022 7280:Petry 2022 7265:Petry 2022 7238:Petry 2022 7223:22 January 7199:Petry 2022 7187:Petry 2022 7175:Petry 2022 7151:Petry 2022 7132:Petry 2022 7120:Petry 2022 7108:Petry 2022 7096:Petry 2022 7084:Petry 2022 7048:Petry 2022 7010:Petry 2022 6660:Petry 1998 6542:Drory 2006 6530:Drory 2006 6518:Drory 2006 6506:Drory 2006 5577:Irwin 1986 5416:Petry 2022 5404:Yosef 2013 5180:References 4927:arabesques 4907:scrollwork 4835:See also: 4809:treasury ( 4285:amir akhur 4002:Abu'l Fida 3898:Government 3888:Banu Hilal 3554:copied by 3405:See also: 3281:Portuguese 3153:Bayezid II 2766:Aq Qoyunlu 2747:Nile Delta 2375:Baybars II 2321:regiment. 2284:fortress. 2238:See also: 2211:Qasr Ibrim 1931:Alexandria 1684:GREAT KHAN 1547:al-Mansura 1527:See also: 1384:manumitted 1368:See also: 1217:Circassian 843:332–310 BC 818:664–332 BC 467:2 May 1250 344:Al-Hakim I 295:Government 284:Demonym(s) 275:(minority) 269:(minority) 263:(minority) 257:(minority) 255:Shia Islam 224:Circassian 163:map, 1413) 12856:Magazines 12846:Egyptians 12681:Ahmadiyya 12592:Languages 12558:Hospitals 12492:Education 12359:Transport 12318:Aswan Dam 12246:Companies 12187:Terrorism 12153:President 12116:Massacres 12106:Judiciary 12084:Elections 11953:Mountains 11882:Geography 11860:Port Said 11803:1939–1954 11798:1928–1938 11753:Anarchism 11696:Sadat era 11640:Sultanate 11587:Khedivate 11487:Christian 11455:Ptolemaic 11341:. Brill. 11328:1873-9830 11087:. Brill. 10908:. Brill. 10887:. Brill. 10557:. Brill. 10536:. Brill. 10359:"Mamlūks" 9970:. Brill. 9797:0732-2992 9734:495469456 9724:Volume I: 9711:Lewis, B. 9054:248169243 8638:Holt 2005 8572:Holt 2005 8541:Holt 2005 8526:Holt 2005 8509:Holt 2005 8473:Holt 2005 8215:King 1999 7982:Clot 2009 7934:Clot 2009 7919:Holt 1991 7902:Clot 2009 7890:Clot 2009 7878:Clot 2009 7863:Clot 2009 7851:Clot 2009 7839:Clot 2009 7788:22 August 7712:cite book 7678:Clot 2009 7666:Clot 2009 7590:Clot 2009 7578:Clot 2009 7455:Clot 2009 7389:Clot 2009 7377:Clot 2009 7163:Clot 2009 7072:Clot 2009 6998:Clot 2009 6884:Heng 2018 6821:Holt 1986 6800:Holt 1986 6776:Holt 1986 6554:Holt 1986 5273:0035-869X 5154:Furusiyya 5011:hypostyle 4783:Barcelona 4748:Al-Jazarī 4543:Buhturids 4469:muhtasibs 4448:al-Fustat 4413:, silver 4388:Al-Jazari 4273:khazindar 4256:majordomo 4145:caliphate 4120:wafidiyya 3954:Al-Busiri 3732:astrolabe 3700:Badawiyya 3696:Rifa'iyya 3485:in 1811. 3362:Khayr Bak 3218:Tuman Bay 3003:Mehmed II 2977:from the 2453:al-Wathiq 2254:Crusaders 2181:areas of 2165:headgear. 2162:kallawtah 2130:Assassins 2101:from the 2051:Ilkhanate 1993:Palestine 1829:SULTANATE 1762:BYZANTIUM 1704:SULTANATE 1693:ILKHANATE 1412:Ikhshidid 1288:Cyrenaica 1201:conquered 1155:romanized 1075:1922–1953 1065:1914–1922 1055:1882–1922 1028:1867–1914 1018:1805–1953 1008:1798–1801 998:1517–1867 970:1250–1517 960:1171–1250 853:310–30 BC 462:Turanshah 238:Religion 187:Sultanate 99:1250–1517 12929:Category 12893:Olympics 12829:Football 12661:Hinduism 12629:Religion 12536:Feminism 12524:Families 12487:Diaspora 12450:Censuses 12440:Cannabis 12425:Abortion 12369:Airports 12364:Airlines 12340:Internet 12143:Passport 12121:Military 12094:Missions 12041:Politics 12022:Wildlife 11746:By topic 11659:Republic 11494:Sassanid 11318:(eds.). 11287:Ibn Iyas 10382:Mahk–Mid 10373:(eds.). 9922:(1996). 9805:27811138 9775:Muqarnas 9717:(eds.). 9689:(1960). 5148:See also 5115:heraldic 5032:Minarets 5026:muqarnas 4980:madrasas 4865:enameled 4475:muhtasib 4458:muhtasib 4453:muhtasib 4443:muhtasib 4436:muhtasib 4398:in 1354. 4157:al-Hakim 4020:al-malik 3892:de facto 3880:Sharqiya 3784:Maronite 3768:poll tax 3586:Ismai'li 3537:Religion 3494:Language 3335:al-Ghuri 3265:Ismail I 3240:Corps' ( 2920:Lusignan 2894:port of 2732:Damanhur 2423:descent. 2319:Burjiyya 2220:al-Abwab 2185:and the 2146:Anatolia 2142:Elbistan 2001:Nazareth 1986:Damascus 1807:MARINIDS 1660:CHAGATAI 1604:al-Karak 1576:Bahriyya 1539:Damietta 1472:al-Kamil 1292:Anatolia 1183:and the 1081:Republic 950:969–1171 678:a series 676:Part of 12959:Commons 12878:Museums 12822:regions 12790:Cuisine 12775:Castles 12747:Culture 12717:Smoking 12698:Judaism 12686:Mosques 12565:Housing 12512:Schools 12418:General 12407:Society 12347:Tourism 12276:Fishing 12234:Banking 12218:Economy 11943:Islands 11933:Geology 11928:Fossils 11913:Deserts 11908:Climate 11898:Borders 11844:By city 11830:Saladin 11778:Genetic 11758:Capital 11645:Kingdom 11560:Ottoman 11426:Ancient 11401:History 10969:4055631 10949:Arabica 10883:(ed.). 10428:(ed.). 9463:10 June 7607:Qantara 5130:shields 5122:charges 4937:thuluth 4886:minbars 4871:glass, 4826:Culture 4803:bullion 4713:–1550. 4691:iqtaʿat 4679:iqtaʿat 4578:iqta'at 4572:iqtaʿat 4554:iqtaʿat 4500:Iqtaʿat 4415:dirhams 4371:Economy 4364:ustadar 4355:s. The 4352:ustadar 4334:ustadar 4320: 4306:ustadar 4279:dawadar 4251:ustadar 4224:iqtaʿat 3958:Qaitbay 3875:iqtaʿat 3858:iqtaʿat 3852:iqtaʿat 3842:iqtaʿat 3836:iqtaʿat 3830:iqtaʿat 3818:Bahrayn 3810:Al Fadl 3682:ziyarat 3620:Hanbali 3601:Shafi'i 3489:Society 3468:Georgia 3379:Bahnasa 3345:Selim I 3339:Selim I 3224:dawadar 3122:Erzurum 3114:Zamantı 3097:al-Aqsa 3079:Qaitbay 3047:Qaitbay 3037:Qaitbay 3013:iqta'at 2989:coins. 2987:debased 2912:Genoese 2908:Catalan 2880:Barsbay 2799:(right) 2743:Hawwara 2727:niyabat 2718:(sing. 2715:niyabat 2682:Malatya 2575:Shaykhu 2470:in the 2437:iqta'at 2431:iqta'at 2413:Kipchak 2370:iqtaʿat 2266:Qalawun 2260:in 1289 2258:Qalawun 2240:Qalawun 2205:in the 2179:Red Sea 2175:Makuria 2115:Antioch 2043:Baybars 2029:Baybars 2003:at the 1997:Kitbuqa 1950:Jericho 1789:ENGLAND 1771:MUSCOVY 1753:BEYLIKS 1713:YADAVAS 1662:KHANATE 1580:Baybars 1569:Kurdish 1504:iqtaʿat 1423:Saladin 1408:Tulunid 1364:Origins 1353:History 1311:Barsbay 1280:Makuria 1254:Qalawun 1250:Mongols 1243:Baybars 1203:by the 1189:mamluks 1171:or the 1157:: 940:935–969 930:868–905 920:750–935 910:661–750 900:641–661 873:619–629 609:Makuria 495:• 473:• 447:History 424:Baybars 401:(first) 333:(first) 273:Judaism 261:Alawite 197:Capital 145:of the 12939:Portal 12780:Cinema 12634:Baháʼí 12548:Health 12296:Mining 12266:Energy 11990:Rivers 11903:Cities 11825:Postal 11606:Modern 11551:Mamluk 11509:Fustat 11499:Muslim 11431:topics 11389:topics 11345: 11326: 11289:, and 11260: 11175: 11152: 11133: 11114: 11091: 11068: 11047: 11026: 11003: 10984: 10967: 10933: 10912: 10891: 10864: 10832: 10811: 10792: 10769: 10750: 10729: 10708: 10689: 10668: 10647: 10624: 10603: 10582: 10561: 10540: 10499: 10478: 10457: 10436: 10409: 10388: 10369:& 10346: 10322: 10299: 10278: 10259: 10238: 10219: 10198: 10177: 10158: 10122: 10100: 10079: 10056: 10035: 10014: 9995: 9974: 9953: 9932: 9908: 9887: 9866: 9843: 9822: 9803: 9795: 9758: 9732: 9713:& 9675: 9652: 9631: 9052: 9042: 7779: 7612:13 May 7411:12 May 7219:. 2004 6704:UNESCO 6682: 6600: 6401: 6374: 6349: 6322: 6297:hiyasa 6286: 5380: 5346: 5294: 5271: 5102:blazon 5065:wikala 5054:kuttab 4985:zawiya 4923:Louvre 4873:inlaid 4869:gilded 4858:Louvre 4799:ducats 4793:, and 4779:Venice 4768:Ceylon 4667:kharaj 4637:. The 4621:feddan 4487:system 4411:dinars 4133:caliph 4090:qarani 4084:qarani 4077:nuwwab 4065:ustadh 4027:khutba 4007:nuwwab 3997:nuwwab 3758:dhimmi 3736:Coptic 3706:zawiya 3676:hadith 3672:Qur'an 3659:madhab 3647:madhab 3641:madhab 3624:Hanafi 3616:Maliki 3611:madhab 3605:madhab 3576:madhab 3564:UNESCO 3552:Qur'an 3500:Arabic 3464:Bosnia 3459:ustadh 3372:. 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In 9050:S2CID 7217:(PDF) 5992:(PDF) 5852:(PDF) 5175:Notes 5047:sabil 5018:ablaq 4992:sabil 4881:China 4818:iqtaʿ 4791:India 4773:iqtaʿ 4764:Genoa 4724:iqtaʿ 4685:iqtaʿ 4673:iqtaʿ 4661:iqtaʿ 4646:iqtaʿ 4634:iqtaʿ 4595:iqtaʿ 4584:iqtaʿ 4566:Iqtaʿ 4560:iqtaʿ 4548:halqa 4538:iqtaʿ 4534:Druze 4525:iqtaʿ 4519:iqtaʿ 4512:iqtaʿ 4506:iqtaʿ 4494:iqtaʿ 4484:Iqtaʿ 4428:hisba 4419:fulus 4406:iqtaʿ 4396:Cairo 4261:hajib 4230:iqtaʿ 4214:halqa 4208:halqa 4202:halqa 4109:Kiswa 3991:na'ib 3985:na'ib 3909:Cairo 3825:Salar 3764:jizya 3734:with 3716:Sunna 3690:dhikr 3523:nisba 3303:. 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