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first process. You remember that the door in the corner leads to a hallway, to a stairwell, to a set of doors to the street. This would be an example of thinking-of-acts. The street would be the prepotent stimulus because it produces a favorable act to the original stimulus. Alternately, you could think that it might be dangerous to use the stairwell as smoke tends to pool in them and instead run to a window to call for help. This would be another version of a prepotent stimulus because it produces an alternative adjustment that is more favorable than the original. This might be because you learned that it may be safer to stay near a window and call for help than to go further into the burning building, creating a self-preservation adjustment.
387:, which has found extensive application in almost every field of psychology, frequently among scientists who are unaware that they are using the early ideas that were formulated to explain the behavior of rats in mazes. Tolman assessed both response learning and place learning. Response learning is when the rat knows that the response of going a certain way in the maze will always lead to food; place learning is when the rats learn to associate the food in a specific spot each time. In his trials he observed that all of the rats in the place-learning maze learned to run the correct path within eight trials and that none of the response-learning rats learned that quickly, and some did not even learn it at all after seventy-two trials.
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the subordinate acts fulfill that purpose. Adjustments are the response to a stimulus and can be arranged in a hierarchy with the lowest adjustment producing subordinate acts. Subordinate acts are randomized independent actions, excluding reflexes, that are part of larger groups of activity. While considered infinitely numerous, the amount found in a grouping is limited with identifiable boundaries. The cycle begins with a stimulus that produces a determining adjustment or a hierarchy of adjustments. The lowest adjustment then cues subordinate acts that persist until the purpose of the adjustment is fulfilled.
324:. Tolman would selectively breed rats for the ability to learn the mazes he constructed. Despite the fact that his major research focus involved instinct and purpose, he was open to the idea of researching innate abilities in the rats. Tolman's study was the first experiment to examine the genetic basis of maze learning by breeding distinct lineages of rats selected for their maze performance. Tolman started and continued this research project until 1932, where, after coming back from Europe on a sabbatical leave, his interest started to decrease. Tolman's theoretical model was described in his paper "
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328:" (1938). The three different variables that influence behavior are: independent, intervening, and dependent variables. The experimenter can manipulate the independent variables; these independent variables (e.g., stimuli provided) in turn influence the intervening variables (e.g., motor skill, appetite). Independent variables are also factors of the subject that the experimenter specifically chooses for. The dependent variables (e.g., speed, number of errors) allows the psychologist to measure the strength of the intervening variables.
363:", persuaded many psychologists interested in animal learning that it was more productive to focus on the behavior itself rather than using it to make hypotheses about mental states. The influence of Tolman's ideas faded temporarily in the later 1950s and 1960s. However, his achievements had been considerable. His 1938 and 1955 papers, produced to answer Hull's charge that he left the rat "buried in thought" in the maze, unable to respond, anticipated and prepared the ground for much later work in
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339:. In his studies of learning in rats, Tolman sought to demonstrate that animals could learn facts about the world that they could subsequently use in a flexible manner, rather than simply learning automatic responses that were triggered off by environmental stimuli. In the language of the time, Tolman was an "S-S" (stimulus-stimulus), non-
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cuing subordinate acts. Following the thinking, a prepotent stimulus turns those thoughts into acts. There are two ways a stimulus would be considered prepotent: (a) the original adjustment is favorable to the act produced by the foresee stimulus, or (b) the stimulus creates an alternative adjustment more favorable than the original.
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Tolman developed a two-level theory of instinct in response to the debate, at the time, of the relevance of instinct to psychology. Instinct was broken down into two parts: determining or driving adjustments and subordinate acts. Adjustments are motivations or purposes behind subordinate acts, while
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Aside from the contributions Tolman made to learning theory such as purposive behaviorism and latent learning, he also wrote an article on his view of ways of learning and wrote some works involving psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Tolman was very concerned that psychology should be applied
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he decided to abandon physics, chemistry, and mathematics in order to study philosophy and psychology. James' influence on Tolman could be seen in Tolman's courageous attitude and his willingness to cope with issues that cause controversy and are against the popular views of the time. Tolman always
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Humans are unique in that we can think out our actions ahead of time. Tolman called this thoughts-of-acts or thinking-of-acts. This prevents us from acting completely random until something finally works. Thinking-of-acts triggers an inhibitory process that prevents the determining adjustment from
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A key paper by Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish in 1946 demonstrated that rats learned the layout of a maze, which they explored freely without reinforcement. After some trials, a food item was placed to a certain point of the maze, and the rats learned to navigate to that point very quickly. However,
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An example of this theory in action could be being trapped in a burning building. Without thinking, the lowest determining adjustment would be to escape, producing various acts where you may run around randomly trying to stumble upon an escape route. Or, you could stop and think, inhibiting that
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In 1948 Tolman wrote an article regarding the life of Kurt Lewin after Lewin's death in 1947. It contained some of Lewin's background, his contributions, and honest criticisms of his research. Overall Tolman wrote about him in a very positive light. Tolman regarded him along with
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Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L. III; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century".
412:", Tolman takes the three subjects and explains how all three depend or interrelate with each other and must be looked at as a whole. Tolman creates a hypothetical situation and shows the conditions and interrelations between the three subjects in the situation.
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Tolman is best known for his studies of learning in rats using mazes, and he published many experimental articles, of which his paper with
Ritchie and Kalish in 1946 was probably the most influential. His major theoretical contributions came in his 1932 book,
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As mentioned previously, Tolman's father wished for his son to eventually take over the manufacturing company. Tolman was more interested in pursuing psychology than pursuing his father's career. Fortunately his family was very supportive of this decision.
408:", Tolman takes independent, dependent, and intervening variables under the context of psychology and sociology. Then he puts them together and show the interrelations between the two subjects in terms of variables and research. In another publication, "
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494:, the Berkeley campus' newly constructed Education and Psychology building was named "Tolman Hall" in honor of the late professor. Tolman's portrait hung in the entrance hall of the building. Tolman Hall was demolished in 2019 due to seismic unsafety.
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Hull and his followers were able to produce alternative explanations of Tolman's findings, and the debate between S-S and S-R learning theories became increasingly complicated. Skinner's iconoclastic paper of 1950, entitled "
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in early 1950s. In recognition of Tolman's contributions to both the development of psychology and academic freedom, the
Education and Psychology building on Berkeley campus, the "Tolman Hall", was named after him.
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Furthermore, psychologists began to renew the study of animal cognition in the last quarter of the 20th century. This renewed interested in animal research was prompted by experiments in cognitive psychology.
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Tolman Hall
Dedication Ceremony, 1963, left to right Clark Kerr, Kathleen Tolman, Edythe Brown (wife of department chair), Chancellor Edward Strong, Ernest R. Hilgard (guest speaker)
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to argue that animals could learn the connections between stimuli and did not need any explicit biologically significant event to make learning occur. This is known as
506:(APA) in 1937 and chairman of Lewin's Society for the Psychological Study of Social issues in 1940; he was a member of the Society of Experimental Psychologists, the
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on June 11, 1954. In his address he advocated and made argument for the need of academic freedom, as well as criticized scapegoating. The resulting court case,
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era of the early 1950s, because he refused to sign a loyalty oath — not because of any lack of felt loyalty to the United States but because it infringed on
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Tolman, EC; Gleitman, H (Dec 1949). "Studies in learning and motivation; equal reinforcements in both end-boxes; followed by shock in one end-box".
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Tolman was married to
Kathleen Drew Tolman. They had three children, Deborah, Mary, and Edward James. Noted singer-songwriter, music producer
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In 1912, Tolman went to
Giessen in Germany to study for his PhD examination. While there he was introduced to and later returned to study
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Tolman, EC; Gleitman, H (Oct 1949). "Studies in spatial learning; place and response learning under different degrees of motivation".
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Lora Vander Zwaag, "Edward C. Tolman: 1886-1959" Psychology
History. Muskingum University, December, 1998. 10 November 2014.
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351:. The rival theory, the much more mechanistic "S-R" (stimulus-response) reinforcement-driven view, was taken up by
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Account of Tolman's "Sign
Learning" theory from the Theory Into Practice database, compiled by Greg Kearsley
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Tolman, EC; Ritchie, BF; Kalish, D (1946). "Studies in spatial learning. I. Orientation and the short-cut".
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to try to solve human problems, and in addition to his technical publications, he wrote a book called
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in 1911. Tolman's father was a president of a manufacturing company and his mother was adamant of her
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Best, PJ; White, AM (1999-01-01). "Placing hippocampal single-unit studies in a historical context".
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survey, published in 2002, ranked Tolman as the 45th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.
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Innis, NK (1992). "Tolman and Tryon: Early research on the inheritance of the ability to learn".
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452:, where he was an instructor from 1915 to 1918. Most of Tolman career, however, was spent at the
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514:. APA gave him an award in 1957 for distinguished contributions. He was elected a Fellow of the
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Tolman, EC (1952). "A theoretical analysis of the relations between sociology and psychology".
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195:. Through Tolman's theories and works, he founded what is now a branch of psychology known as
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APA Distinguished
Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology recipients
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overturning the oath and forcing the reinstatement of all those who had refused to sign it.
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for graduate studies and worked in the laboratory of Hugo
Munsterburg. He received his
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American Higher
Education Transformed, 1940–2005: Documenting the National Discourse
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Purpose and Cognition: Edward Tolman and the Transformation of American Psychology
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In 1963, at the insistence of the then President of the University of California,
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sought to fire him, he sued. Tolman made an address to the Special Convocation at
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Some of Tolman's early researches were early developments of what is now called
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Tolman was one of the leading figures in protecting academic freedom during the
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background. Tolman attended MIT because of family pressures, but after reading
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Guide to Papers Relating to Edward C. Tolman and the Loyalty Oath Controversy
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said he was strongly influenced by the Gestalt psychologists, especially
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A theoretical Analysis of the Relations between Psychology and Sociology
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10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1999)9:4<346::AID-HIPO2>3.0.CO;2-3
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Tolman, EC (1938). "The determinants of behavior at a choice point".
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779:"Timeline: Summary of events of the Loyalty Oath Controversy 1949-54"
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1461:. Washington D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. pp. 294–295.
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Tolman, EC (May 1949). "There is more than one kind of learning".
471:. Tolman was a leader of the resistance to the oath, and when the
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Behavior and psychological man: essays in motivation and learning
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Tolman received many awards and honors. He was president of the
242:
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Tolman, EC (1949). "There is more than one kind of learning".
456:(from 1918 to 1954), where he was a professor of psychology.
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Tolman, EC (1938). "Physiology, psychology, and sociology".
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as psychologists who would be well recognized in the future.
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Skinner, BF (1950). "Are theories of learning necessary?".
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in his methodology, he was not a radical behaviorist like
371:– a stream of work that was recognized by the award of a
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604:"Of rats and men: Tolman, behavior and academic freedom"
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Tolman, E.C. (1948). "Cognitive maps in rats and men".
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Tolman, EC (1954). "Freedom and the cognitive mind".
187:(April 14, 1886 – November 19, 1959) was an American
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Presidents of the American Psychological Association
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Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Tolman, EC (Sep 1955). "Principles of performance".
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Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
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837:History of Psychology 4ed, Hothersall. pp 487-489.
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367:, as psychologists began to discover and apply
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302:The determinants of behavior at a choice point
2589:Members of the American Philosophical Society
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1422:History of Psychology 4ed, Hothersall. p. 495
1205:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
1158:History of Psychology 4ed, Hothersall. p. 493
1109:History of Psychology 4ed, Hothersall. p. 494
925:
459:He was one of the senior professors whom the
448:Edward Tolman started his academic career in
326:The Determiners of Behavior at a Choice Point
2594:Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
1301:Tolman, EC (1948). "Kurt Lewin: 1890-1947".
713:Smith, Wilson; Bender, Thomas (2008-04-11).
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199:. Tolman also promoted the concept known as
926:Tolman, EC; Postman, L (1954). "Learning".
858:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
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2564:University of California, Berkeley faculty
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508:United States National Academy of Sciences
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1438:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1433:"Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter T"
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473:Regents of the University of California
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383:", Tolman introduced the concept of a
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1506:Purposive behavior in animals and men
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516:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
410:Physiology, Psychology, and Sociology
292:Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men
235:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
191:and a professor of psychology at the
76:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1538:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
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404:. Moreover, in one of his papers, "
2584:20th-century American psychologists
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942:10.1146/annurev.ps.05.020154.000331
361:Are theories of learning necessary?
294:, and in a series of papers in the
203:first coined by Blodgett (1929). A
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1672:American Psychological Association
1598:Works by or about Edward C. Tolman
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1002:Journal of Experimental Psychology
966:Journal of Experimental Psychology
755:University of California, Berkeley
504:American Psychological Association
454:University of California, Berkeley
233:, Edward C. Tolman studied at the
193:University of California, Berkeley
129:University of California, Berkeley
14:
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16:American psychologist (1886–1959)
1545:"Cognitive maps in rats and men"
802:Carroll, David W. (2017-04-27).
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483:, led in 1955 to the California
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777:Douglass, John; Thomas, Sally.
269:. Later, Tolman transferred to
229:, brother of Caltech physicist
1584:University of California Press
808:. Cambridge University Press.
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512:American Philosophical Society
381:Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men
306:Cognitive maps in rats and men
1:
602:Bergman, Barry (2014-11-13).
551:
220:
665:Review of General Psychology
583:National Academy of Sciences
379:in 2002. In his 1948 paper "
206:Review of General Psychology
7:
1457:Ritchie, Benbow F. (1964).
929:Annual Review of Psychology
870:10.1037/0096-3445.121.4.429
748:"Tolman, Edward (1886–195)"
545:The Logic of Modern Physics
537:
331:Although Tolman was firmly
10:
2615:
2569:Behaviourist psychologists
1084:10.1037/0003-066X.47.2.190
227:West Newton, Massachusetts
45:West Newton, Massachusetts
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687:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139
463:sought to dismiss in the
444:Northwestern and Berkeley
310:Principles of performance
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2497:Jessica Henderson Daniel
1356:"Tolman Hall demolition"
530:, is Tolman's grandson.
461:University of California
395:Other psychological work
251:Principles of Psychology
2461:Suzanne Bennett Johnson
2073:Robert Richardson Sears
1918:Harry Levi Hollingworth
1805:Walter Bowers Pillsbury
1710:George Stuart Fullerton
450:Northwestern University
133:Northwestern University
2181:George Armitage Miller
1871:Margaret Floy Washburn
1787:Henry Rutgers Marshall
1612:History of Tolman Hall
1272:"Instinct and Purpose"
440:
1330:American Psychologist
1211:(2, Suppl): 291–298.
1072:American Psychologist
438:
343:theorist: he drew on
316:Purposive behaviorism
197:purposive behaviorism
102:purposive behaviorism
90:Behavioral psychology
2503:Rosie Phillips Davis
2234:Wilbert J. McKeachie
2014:John Edward Anderson
1954:Louis Leon Thurstone
1948:Walter Richard Miles
1942:Walter Samuel Hunter
1865:Shepherd Ivory Franz
1799:Charles Hubbard Judd
1781:James Rowland Angell
1704:James McKeen Cattell
1692:George Trumbull Ladd
1621:The Bancroft Library
1549:Psychological Review
1515:Psychological Review
1508:. New York: Century.
1477:Psychological Review
1404:search.amphilsoc.org
1400:"APS Member History"
1303:Psychological Review
1276:Psychological Review
1240:Psychological Review
1170:Psychological Review
1037:Psychological Review
893:Psychological Review
783:www.lib.berkeley.edu
629:Psychological Review
365:cognitive psychology
297:Psychological Review
237:, receiving B.S. in
231:Richard Chace Tolman
64:Berkeley, California
2455:Melba J. T. Vasquez
2324:Charles Spielberger
2282:Janet Taylor Spence
2091:Orval Hobart Mowrer
2085:Laurance F. Shaffer
1966:Albert Poffenberger
1829:Robert S. Woodworth
1775:Mary Whiton Calkins
1576:Tolman, EC (1951).
1543:Tolman, EC (1948).
1534:Tolman, EC (1942).
1504:Tolman, EC (1932).
1459:Edward Chace Tolman
1270:Tolman, EC (1920).
498:Awards & honors
481:Tolman v. Underhill
322:behavioral genetics
185:Edward Chace Tolman
23:Edward Chace Tolman
2449:Carol D. Goodheart
2217:Donald T. Campbell
2008:Calvin Perry Stone
1996:Leonard Carmichael
1895:I. Madison Bentley
1853:John Wallace Baird
1793:George M. Stratton
1763:William Lowe Bryan
1716:James Mark Baldwin
1670:Presidents of the
1536:Drives towards war
1376:"Edward C. Tolman"
576:"Edward C. Tolman"
441:
345:Gestalt psychology
279:Harvard University
271:Harvard University
267:Gestalt psychology
163:Edwin Bissell Holt
80:Harvard University
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2515:Jennifer F. Kelly
2485:Susan H. McDaniel
2467:Donald N. Bersoff
2395:Norine G. Johnson
2378:Patrick H. DeLeon
2348:Robert J. Resnick
2306:Raymond D. Fowler
2300:Bonnie Strickland
2252:Nicholas Cummings
2246:M. Brewster Smith
2145:Charles E. Osgood
2026:Edwin Ray Guthrie
1859:Walter Dill Scott
1380:www.nasonline.org
815:978-1-108-21060-7
726:978-0-8018-9585-2
477:McGill University
402:Drives Toward War
182:
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169:Doctoral students
146:Studies in Memory
109:Scientific career
56:November 19, 1959
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2521:Frank C. Worrell
2419:Ronald F. Levant
2413:Diane F. Halpern
2407:Robert Sternberg
2330:Jack Wiggins Jr.
2312:Joseph Matarazzo
2258:Florence Denmark
2240:Theodore H. Blau
2193:Kenneth B. Clark
2103:Theodore Newcomb
2079:J. McVicker Hunt
1978:Edward C. Tolman
1936:Herbert Langfeld
1823:Howard C. Warren
1817:Edward Thorndike
1722:Hugo Münsterberg
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1602:Internet Archive
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2109:Lee Cronbach
1977:
1930:Karl Lashley
1924:Edwin Boring
1883:Lewis Terman
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1630:Find a Grave
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58:(1959-11-19)
2554:1959 deaths
2549:1886 births
2038:Carl Rogers
1122:Hippocampus
528:Russ Tolman
373:Nobel prize
333:behaviorist
304:" (1938), "
260:Kurt Koffka
2543:Categories
2276:Max Siegel
1728:John Dewey
1409:2023-03-14
1385:2023-03-14
1361:2019-03-18
1309:(1): 1–4.
788:2019-03-18
760:2019-03-18
613:2019-03-18
588:2019-03-18
552:References
510:, and the
492:Clark Kerr
312:" (1955).
256:Kurt Lewin
221:Early life
119:Psychology
2227:1976–2000
2066:1951–1975
1905:1926–1950
1744:1901–1925
1679:1892–1900
936:: 27–56.
695:145668721
673:CiteSeerX
518:in 1949.
281:in 1915.
1569:18870876
1521:: 1–41.
1497:15440996
1442:10 April
1225:14937965
1190:18128182
1143:10495017
1057:18128182
1022:15391108
987:15398592
950:13149127
913:13254969
649:18870876
538:See also
465:McCarthy
225:Born in
1600:at the
1092:1567088
878:1431737
2529:(2023)
2523:(2022)
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