1050:
plan. Both agriculture and industry and productivity increase failed to meet planned growth targets
Problems in agriculture were in part a result of drought (1976) and severe winter and spring flooding (1979). Other factors, such as shortages of agricultural machinery and spare parts and poor quality of fertilizer, also affected the agricultural sector. Large imports of grain necessarily continued. During the plan period, growth rates in personal consumption declined, reaching a low point of 0.5% in 1979. At the same time, in contrast to the previous plan period, retail prices rose by about 11% over the 5-year period. During the last few years of the plan, there were widespread consumer complaints about the unavailability of basic commodities such as meat, milk, and vegetables. The economy's performance was lackluster despite the continuing infusion of substantial investment funds. In part, the rise in the investment rate in the 1970s reflected large capital expenditures for increased mining of coal and other fuels and for the development of engineering branches to produce equipment for nuclear power plants. Nevertheless, given the considerable funding poured into the economy, the mediocre condition of the Czechoslovak industrial plant in general at the end of the 1970s must have been discouraging to economic planners.
1088:
workplace, improving discipline, and continuing the "structural" shift of the economy from productive activities requiring great consumption of energy to more advanced technologies and capitalintensive industry. National income was to rise 19%, or just over 3.5% annually on average. Plans called for industrial output to grow 15.8%, an average increase of about 3% yearly, while personal consumption was to grow by only 11.9%. Modest as these targets were, they were higher than the results achieved during the
Seventh Five-Year Plan. Only agriculture was to grow at a rate slower than that of the previous plan period; with a total increase of 6.9%, it would average just over 1% growth annually. Investment, while still low, would increase 10.4% during the plan (as compared with 2.5% in the 1981–85 period). Special attention was to be given to the machine-building and electronics industries, the chemical and metallurgical industries, construction of nuclear power plants and expansion of the natural gas network, and environment-related projects. The plan called for exports to grow at a higher rate than the national income. The government did not plan any substantial borrowing in hard currency, concentrating instead on paying off its relatively modest (US$ 2 billion) debt to the West.
1079:
Economic
Management after 1980." Relatively conservative in design and initiated without fanfare, these reforms permitted somewhat greater freedom of action for managers of enterprises in selected operational areas, giving them more authority over their own investment activities and over providing financial incentives to workers. The intention was to make industry as a whole more aware of prices and costs. The reforms did not call for any appreciable loosening of central planning and control. In 1982 parallel reform measures were introduced for agriculture; the measures permitted farm officials to exercise greater management initiative and limited the number of binding targets imposed on farm production. Many Western observers believed that these reforms did have a helpful effect during the final years of the plan. It was felt, however, that these partial reforms were not sufficiently comprehensive to bring about the modernization and improvements in efficiency sought by Czechoslovakia's leaders.
912:"During the second five-year plan the industrial output increased by 66 percent, rising to four times the pre-war level (1937). The national income increased by a factor of 2.5 between 1948 and 1960. The socialist sector now owned 87.4 percent of the farmland, and the organization of farmers into cooperatives was virtually completed. Nevertheless, in terms of the growth of production, agriculture lagged behind industry. The successes of socialist construction quickly raised the living standard of the people. A national conference of the Communist Party, held on July 5–7, 1960, confirmed the victory of socialist production relations in the country. Several days later, on July 11, the National Assembly adopted a new constitution under which the country was renamed the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR). The constitution proclaimed the CSSR a socialist state based on a firm alliance, headed by the working class, of the peasantry, the working class, and the intelligentsia."
378:
the information previously furnished to the planners by the enterprise managers. To ensure plan fulfillment, managers tend to exaggerate their material and labor requirements and then to hoard these inputs, especially if there is a reason to worry about punctual delivery of supplies. Furthermore, since planning under the Soviet model aims at full utilization of resources, plans are typically "taut," and an ambitious manager who seeks to obtain resources beyond those needed to achieve the plan norms may find the process difficult and discouraging, if not impossible. Given the emphasis on the fulfillment of the plan, managers may also hesitate to adopt new technology, since the introduction of a new procedure might impede operations and even jeopardize plan fulfillment. Critics have also noted that central planning of production can result in an inappropriate assortment of goods from the consumers' point of view or in low-quality production.
905:
investment efforts were yielding diminishing returns. Large investments were required to sustain economic growth. In 1958 and 1959, in response to this troubling situation, the government made several relatively minor adjustments in the functioning of organizations and prices—the first of the country's economic reforms. The reforms involved some limited decentralization of authority, most notably giving enterprises more autonomy in handling investment funds. The intention was not to alter the Soviet economic model to any great extent but rather to enhance its overall operation. The reforms did not result in noticeable improvements in economic performance, however. Eventually, in 1962, planners quietly scrapped the entire reform program, reimposing most of the central controls.
59:
1054:
reflected in the price of oil from the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia's principal source of fuel and raw materials. Prices of other materials on which the country's economy depended also increased faster than the prices of its exports, which consisted primarily of manufactured goods (especially machinery). Party and government leaders were cautious about increasing foreign indebtedness and attempted to maintain a high level of exports. Increasingly in the 1970s, a substantial portion of the country's production of consumer goods and machinery was diverted to export markets to meet the rising import bill. Restraints on imports from noncommunist countries reduced inputs for domestic industries.
922:
1296:
its importance as the chief source of revenue only in the late 1960s, when other levies extracted funds from state enterprises. The tax was collected on goods destined for retail, the rate varying according to the difference between the producer's costs plus approved margin and the selling price as specified by pricing officials. Retail prices of manufactured consumer goods, such as clothing and particularly tobacco products, alcoholic beverages, and sugar, were substantially higher than those of such basic necessities as potatoes, milk, and eggs. The turnover tax appeared to be both a source of revenue and a tool used to influence consumption patterns.
1246:. Planning authorities were in a position to use the centralized banking system to carry out major corrective measures, as occurred in 1953 when inflationary pressures became serious and the population's accumulated savings were largely wiped out by a conversion of the currency. After this experience, officials placed stricter controls on investments, permitting real wages and the standard of living to rise gradually. But in the late 1970s, and particularly in the early 1980s, the worsening terms of trade, bottlenecks in the economy, and the need for large investments in energy and industry combined to limit the allocations for consumption.
1067:
policy. The early years of the
Seventh Five-Year Plan saw a serious slump in the economy. During 1981 and 1982, personal consumption actually declined. The cost of living rose more rapidly than wages. During the final three years, however, an economic recovery made up for the earlier poor performances; according to official calculations, the country succeeded in either meeting or surpassing domestic goals during the plan period as a whole. Results of the "intensification" effort were disappointing, however, as leaders acknowledged. During the plan, consumption of energy decreased by only 1.7% per annum, less than the 2% goal of the plan .
1292:, wage rates, and prices for the products manufactured and the inputs used in the process, however, managers had little freedom to manage. In the 1950s, the government had collected nearly all enterprise funds above costs for redirection according to its priorities. After the 1958 reforms, enterprises obtained a little more control over surplus funds, although the government continued to control the amount of the surplus. In the 1980s, the government was encouraging enterprises to undertake modernization and other limited investment from their own funds and bank credit and to rely less on budget funds.
1164:(Kčs), or crown, was the national currency and consisted of 100 haléřů. In 1986 the currency continued to be convertible only under restricted conditions and at official rates. Violation of exchange regulations constituted a serious offense. The koruna could be used only within the country and was not used in foreign trade. In 1987 the official, or commercial, exchange rate was Kcs5.4 per US$ l; the tourist, or noncommercial, rate was Kcs10.5 per US$ l. The koruna was legally defined in terms of 123 milligrams of gold, which provided a historical basis for the commercial rate.
275:
837:
Agriculture also remained in private hands, and farming was still largely a family affair. The labor force as a whole was skilled and productive, and management was competent. This mixed system, containing elements of socialism and private enterprise, operated efficiently in 1947 and 1948 under a two-year plan in which goals were general and indicative rather than mandatory. The country received considerable assistance from the West through the UN, and most of its trade was with the West. Until prohibited by
669:
515:
703:
366:
Planners in postwar
Czechoslovakia, for example, were thus able to expand the country's heavy industrial base as they wished. In turn, research efforts, being centrally directed, can focus on areas deemed vital to the economy's goals. In general, central planning can make it possible for producers to take advantage of economies of scale, eliminating superfluous and wasteful activities. If planning is really effective, the system should result in virtually full employment of resources.
1092:
industrial enterprises. These enterprises were to receive only key planning figures from the central authorities; otherwise, they were to have increased autonomy in planning production, seeking profitable forms for their activities, and managing their own finances. The reforms represented a significant step beyond the modest "Set of
Measures" of 1981, which had retained strict central controls. This was a cautious response to the more ambitious reforms sponsored by General Secretary
1149:
889:"The gross industrial output increased by 93 percent during the five-year plan, reaching a level more than double the 1937 output. Machine building became the leading industry, its output increasing by a factor of 3.3 over the five years. Industrial growth was especially rapid in Slovakia. At the same time, there were disproportions in the development of individual branches of the national economy, and agriculture lagged behind the growing demands of industry and the population."
1231:, which neither reflected the cost of capital nor appreciably affected the flow of credit. Instead, beginning in the 1970s, interest rates were differentiated to accomplish objectives of the plan. Interest rates were low for enterprises modernizing a production process. Punitive rates were used if firms deviated from plan goals. In the mid-1980s, the greatest portion of investment credits went to the industrial sector, followed by agriculture, construction, and retail trade.
881:
an important supplier of machinery and arms to other communist countries. Foreign trade with non-communist countries dropped sharply (in part because of trade controls imposed in those countries); trade with communist countries increased from 40% of the country's total in 1948 to 70% a decade later. The economy failed to reach the ambitious goals of the first plan, although investment and growth were high. On the results of the first five-year plan, the
984:
gave its official approval to the new program, which came to be called the New
Economic Model (NEM). The implementation of the reform started in 1967 and it accelerated the political developments of 1968. The reform program was multifaceted, and portions of it were never implemented. Its principal object was to limit significantly the role of the central planning authorities while expanding the autonomy and responsibility of the enterprises:
542:
735:
617:
492:
938:
little to alter the situation. Targets set for the national economy in the Third Five-Year Plan (1961–65) quickly proved to be overly ambitious, particularly with regard to foreign trade. The plan was dropped after a recession in 1962, and annual plans covered the remainder of the period. National income actually declined in 1963. By 1965 it was only 1.9% higher than in 1960, in comparison with a 6.9% growth rate in the 1956–60 period.
1173:
801:
854:
176:, and did well in comparison to many richer western countries. Consumption of some goods like meat, eggs and bread products was even higher than the average countries in Western Europe, and the population enjoyed high macroeconomic stability and low social friction. Inhabitants of Czechoslovakia enjoyed a standard of living generally higher than that found in most other East European countries. Heavily dependent on
1075:(or Soviet) price, tied to a 5-year formula, caused the price of Soviet oil (16.4 million of the 16.6 million tons imported by Czechoslovakia in 1984) to continue to climb. In 1982 the decision of Western banks to restrict credit to Eastern Europe as a result of Poland's serious payment problems and the sizable debts of other East European countries impeded Czechoslovakia's foreign trade with the West.
643:
565:
767:
373:. Planners generally must base these assignments on the past performance of enterprises. Enterprise managers, knowing that planners tend to assess enterprise performance according to completion or non-completion of assigned tasks, may be tempted to understate and misrepresent the production potential of their organizations in order to obtain an assignment they can easily handle. Also, they may have little
255:, a large internal market, and relatively little dependence on foreign trade; the goal was to quickly develop heavy industry and defense production. Czechoslovakia, by contrast, was a small country that had already reached a high level of industrialization and was rather heavily dependent on foreign trade when the Soviet system was first imposed after World War II.
1255:
manifestations in other areas, such as shortages in the market and increased savings by the population. Although officials generally limited the rise in prices (causing price indexes to advance slowly), by the mid-1970s prices had to be adjusted upward more frequently. This trend continued into the 1980s, and major food price increases occurred in 1982.
316:
economy. Upon receiving their assignments, the various ministries further subdivided the plan into tasks for the industrial enterprises and trusts or groups of enterprises under their supervision. A parallel process took place for agriculture, in which the federal
Ministry of Agriculture and Food supervised the planning procedures for the
1018:
the performance of enterprises under their jurisdiction, but the division of authority between the larger unit or trust and its subordinate members was not clearly defined. In the spring of 1968, the government permitted enterprises to experiment with worker participation in management through the establishment of enterprise councils.
271:, 7.5 percent; and various other productive services (including transport, catering, and retailing, among other activities), 21.6 percent. As of 1980 the socialist sector (state enterprises or cooperatives) generated 97.4 percent of the national income. Of the total workforce, almost 99.8 percent was employed in the socialist sector.
1046:
an overall increase in investment. Agriculture continued to be a weak area but had improved markedly. By 1975 the agricultural sector was almost self-sufficient in animal production, and self- sufficiency in crop production appeared to be an attainable goal. Rural wages rose, and mechanization progressed rapidly.
1201:, and the clearing agent for collection notices. It also supervised the other banking in the country and, in conjunction with specific ministries, formulated the financial plan for Czechoslovakia. The other banks, also state owned, were subordinate to the State Bank and relegated to special functions.
1009:
A more realistic system of prices was to replace the centrally determined system. Prices were to reflect actual costs, the supply and demand situation, and relevant world prices. Enterprises were to finance investments with their own resources and interest-bearing bank loans and would have to justify
880:
The targets of the First Five-Year Plan (1949–53) reflected the government's commitment to expansion of the producer goods sector of the economy. The goals were dramatically revised upwards after 1949, partly in response to the Korean War, to build up metallurgy and heavy industry. The country became
819:
emerged relatively undamaged. Industry, which was the largest sector of the economy, included large firms in light and heavy industry. During the war, the German occupation authorities had taken over all major industrial plants. After the war, the reconstituted
Czechoslovak government took control of
417:
The highly qualified professional people are laying roads, building bridges and operating machines, and the dumb clots—whose fathers used to dig, sweep or bricklay—are on top, telling the others where to lay the roads, what to produce and how to spend the country’s money. The consequence is the roads
311:
have been produced by their own planning commissions, although the central plan remained the most important. Most significant on a daily operational basis, however, were the short-term annual production objectives. In their final form, these more detailed annual plans have the force of law, no longer
1295:
The turnover tax, another major source of budget revenue, was originally employed in the Soviet Union as a simple and effective method of collecting most of the funds needed by the government without requiring extensive bookkeeping and estimating. It was introduced in
Czechoslovakia in 1953 and lost
1087:
The Eighth Five-Year Plan called for further "intensification" within the economy. The plan focused on raising the quality and technological level of production, lowering the cost of energy and materials in relation to output, increasing labor productivity, accelerating the pace of innovation at the
1078:
The poor performance of the economy in the early 1980s persuaded party leaders that some changes were needed. Therefore, in conjunction with the Seventh Five-Year Plan, in 1981 the government introduced a series of limited reforms called the "Set of Measures to Improve the System of Planned National
1045:
Performance was still gratifying during the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1971–75). During this period, net material product grew somewhat more slowly, averaging 5.7% yearly, but still exceeded the planned rate of 5.1% yearly. Wages, incomes, and personal consumption levels rose at respectable rates despite
377:
to overfulfill aspects of the current plan; such achievements might lead planners to assign a substantially more difficult or even unachievable task during the next planning period, resulting in poor performance evaluation for the enterprise. Such a disparity might call into question the validity of
1070:
The relatively favorable outcome of the Seventh Five-Year Plan was noteworthy, particularly because several international trends had had negative effects on the Czechoslovak economy during the period. A recession in developed Western countries dampened their markets for Czechoslovak exports; and in
1062:
At the beginning of the 1980s, the economy had substantial limitations, which were recognized by economists, political leaders, and even the public at large. The country had perhaps the oldest stock of plant and equipment in Eastern Europe, a stagnant resource base, and growing dependence on energy
1053:
The energy and trade problems Czechoslovakia faced in the late 1970s were also major factors in the slowdown in industrial growth. The terms on which Czechoslovakia conducted foreign trade had begun to deteriorate sharply by the mid-1970s. After 1974 the rapid rise of world oil prices was partially
1017:
Furthermore, the government consolidated enterprises into large production units resembling trusts or cartels managed by "branch directorates." These large production units formed an intermediate link between the enterprises and the ministries. The branch directorates had overall responsibility for
207:
that resulted. Economic growth rates lagged well behind Czechoslovakia's western European counterparts. Investments made in industry did not yield the results expected. Consumption of energy and raw materials was excessive. Czechoslovak leaders themselves decried the economy's failure to modernize
937:
During the early 1960s, industrial production stagnated and the agricultural sector also registered a relatively poor performance. Agriculture had been a weak part of the economy throughout the 1950s, consistently failing to reach planned output targets, and the minimal reforms of 1958–59 had done
836:
Foreign trade was still in private hands, however, and remained important in the economy. Exports of machinery and consumer goods paid for imports of materials for processing. The quality of Czechoslovak export products was comparable to that of products produced in other industrialized countries.
1049:
During the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1976–80), by contrast, economic performance was far less satisfactory; in the closing years of the period, the slowdown in economic growth became especially noticeable. Net material product grew by only 3.7% yearly on average, instead of the 4.9% called for by the
983:
By the early 1960s, several Czechoslovak economists had analyzed these problems and had remedies to offer. In October 1964, the party published a set of principles for major economic reform and, beginning in 1965, started implementing specific measures. In June 1966, the Thirteenth Party Congress
948:
Serious defects in the Soviet model for economic development had long been recognized by some Czechoslovak economists, and calls for decentralization had occurred as early as 1954. Economists and others had argued that it was inappropriate to apply the Soviet model to Czechoslovakia in a dogmatic
430:
ended up collapsing under the weight of accumulated economic inefficiencies, with various attempts at reform merely contributing to the acceleration of crisis-generating tendencies. It possessed poorly defined property rights, a lack of market clearing prices and overblown or distorted productive
348:
and enterprises. Upon receipt of their proposed tasks, individual enterprises drew up a draft plan with the assistance of their parent trust or ministry. After receiving feedback concerning the plan, the ministries consulted again with the Central Planning Commission and, assembling all the draft
315:
In formulating the various plans, the Central Planning Commission converted the directives of the ministries into physical units, devised assignments for key sectors of the economy, and then delivered this information to the appropriate ministries, which oversee various functional branches of the
1254:
Imposition of the Soviet model introduced a chronic inflationary bias into the Czechoslovak economy, although the inflation was not necessarily reflected in prices. Control of prices (only private food produce, especially fruit and vegetables, were priced freely) repeatedly produced inflationary
1219:
to meet the economy's needs. The central authorities controlled most investments directly, and the national plan regulated production. The State Bank acted as a supervisory agent in extending credit to the enterprises, ensuring that the investments met plan goals. The bulk of bank credit was for
1032:
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Czechoslovak economy continued to grow at a respectable rate throughout the period. From 1966 to 1970, the period of the Fourth Five-Year Plan, net material product grew at an average annual rate of 6.9%, well exceeding the planned yearly increase of 4.1 to
1066:
Economic planners set relatively modest growth targets for the Seventh Five-Year Plan (1981–1985), revising their goals downward two years into the plan. "Intensification" of the economy—focusing on efficient use of resources rather than simply quantitative growth—was the keynote of government
1041:
Economic "normalization" resulted in a reversion to mandatory central planning and price controls. Only a few modifications of the central planning system remained, including devolution of some aspects of planning to the consolidated production units and modification of some plan indicators to
365:
Advocates of this centralized system of managing the economy contend that it has a number of advantages. In a centrally planned system, authorities can distribute resources and production targets as they choose, balancing the needs of consumption and investment on the basis of long-term goals.
352:
The norms included in the instructions to the enterprises usually specified the volume and kinds of production required, inputs available, a production schedule, job categories and wage rates, and a description of the centrally funded investment planned. National and republic budget levies and
1091:
In the mid-1980s, Czechoslovak leaders acknowledged the persisting weaknesses in the country's economy and its need to modernize more rapidly. Although the government announced no major reforms in conjunction with the Eighth Five-Year Plan, in 1987 an experiment was begun involving about 120
298:
Government ministries prepared general directives concerning the desired development of the economy. They passed these along to the economic advisory body, the Central Planning Commission, which in turn prepared the long-term targets of the economy. These were expressed in extensive economic
904:
The Second Five-Year Plan then encompassed the years 1956–60. During that period, investment continued at a high rate, although real wages and the supply of consumer goods also increased substantially, and national income grew by 6.9%. In the late 1950s, however, economic leaders noted that
341:-style liquidation of rich peasants occurred in countries such as Czechoslovakia. Because Czechoslovakia was more industrialized than the Soviet Union, it was in a position to furnish most of the equipment and fertilizer inputs needed to ease the transition to collectivized agriculture.
1263:
In addition to the banking system, another major financial tool for implementing economic policies and the annual plan was the central and republic government budgets. The Czechoslovak government published little budget information. Western observers believed that small surpluses of
1063:
and material imports. To reduce requirements for energy and raw materials and to increase the competitiveness of Czechoslovak exports, domestic production needed to become more efficient. Furthermore, consumption standards continued to be well below those found in Western Europe.
251:(Komunistická strana Československa—KSČ). This structure gave the party firm control over the government and the economy. It is generally referred to as the Soviet model and was first applied in the Soviet Union, which was initially an agrarian nation with extensive
463:. Overall, the inefficiency of systems without competition or market-clearing prices became costly and unsustainable, especially with the increasing complexity of world economics. While most western European economies essentially began to approach the per capita
349:
plans, formulated an operational plan that could achieve the central directives. The appropriate parts of the assignments were then dispatched once again to the trusts and enterprises. This time, their acceptance by the enterprises and trusts was mandatory.
945:, and unrealistic plan goals. By this time, however, reform-minded economists had reached the conclusion that much of the blame lay in deficiencies of the Soviet model. They began to prepare additional reform measures to improve the economy's efficiency.
211:
The differing statistical concepts and procedures used by socialist and non-socialist economists make an assessment of the status of the Czechoslovak economy complicated. Foreign trade statistics are particularly difficult to assess because a variety of
975:
Prices were also a problem, based as they were on often conflicting policies; prices reflected neither scarcity nor cost, bore little rational relationship to one another in the domestic market, and had become increasingly divorced from world
1224:, largely utilized to finance the purchase of materials and the sale of finished products. The powers of the State Bank appeared to be somewhat limited, however, since credit was extended according to guidelines for planned production.
389:
made these systems unreliable in Czechoslovakia, abortion became the most common form of contraception . Many premium goods could be bought only in special stores using foreign currency generally inaccessible to most citizens, such as
832:
in which the Soviets possessed the controlling interest. Using that control vehicle, several enterprises were required to sell products at below Western market prices to the Soviets, such as uranium mined in Czechoslovakia.
893:
By the end of the plan period, serious inflationary pressures and other imbalances had developed, requiring a currency conversion in 1953 that wiped out many people's savings and provoked outbreaks of civil disorder.
402:. A saying in Czechoslovakia was "if you do not steal form the state, you are robbing your own family." Private car ownership remained low by Western standards. The wait list for the distribution of Czechoslovak
1287:
Central authorities set prices on over 1.5 million kinds of goods. State enterprises were theoretically autonomous financial entities that covered costs and profits from sales. Because the government set
1013:
Finally, a revised wage and salary system was to eliminate egalitarianism in the wage structure and substitute a system based on individual work performance and on results obtained by the employing enterprise.
258:
In the mid-1980s, Czechoslovakia had a highly industrialized economy, a fact reflected in the 1985 official statistics concerning production of the net material product of the country (the official measure of
413:, so many workers were dismissed from established professions in such purges that they often had to be replaced by hastily trained younger workers free of questionable class origins. A Czechoslovak noted:
336:
and elsewhere attempted to establish an ordered socialist system in rural agriculture. Because of the need to conceal the assumption of control and the realities of an initial lack of control, no Soviet
1006:
As a means of earning much- needed hard currencies, exports to Western countries were to be stimulated through incentives encouraging enterprises to make their products competitive on world markets.
1071:
1981 the Soviet Union announced its intention to scale back oil exports to Eastern Europe, including Czechoslovakia, by 10%. Although in 1983 and 1984 worldwide prices for oil began to drop, the
808:
In 1929, compared to 1913, the gross domestic product increased by 52% and industrial production by 41%. In 1938, Czechoslovakia was in 10th place worldwide in terms of industrial production.
467:
levels of the United States, Eastern Bloc countries such as Czechoslovakia did not. Its per capita GDP fell significantly below comparable western European counterparts on an exchange basis:
418:
look like plowed fields, we make things we can’t sell and the bridges can’t be used for traffic…. Then they wonder why the economy is going downhill like a ten-ton lorry with the brakes off.
1029:
and the reform experiment came to an end. The next two years saw the gradual dismantling of most of the program. By the early 1970s, almost all traces of the reform measures had vanished.
845:
to rebuild Europe. By 1948 Czechoslovak production approximated pre-war levels, with agricultural output being somewhat lower and industrial output somewhat higher than earlier levels.
959:
The pressure for greater investment and defense production during the 1950s had caused private consumption to grow more slowly than net material product. The result had been a chronic
873:
nearly all sectors; many experienced managers had been replaced by politically reliable individuals that sometimes had little experience in the areas they were assigned to manage.
1284:. The planning authorities redistributed these budget funds according to the plan guidelines, using the budget to encourage certain sectors through subsidies or investment funds.
1215:
The main function of the banking system was to act as the government's agent in implementing the financial plan, an important part of which consisted of expanding and contracting
956:
The model emphasized extensive development, such as building new factories, rather than intensive investment in which production processes were modernized and efficiency improved.
216:
methods were employed to calculate trade turnover value. Data calculated on the basis of non-socialist concepts will be identified here by the use of such Western terms as
2746:
2721:
1021:
Czechoslovak reformers did not intend to permit free play of market forces. They had implemented only a portion of their program by August 1968, when Soviet and other
897:
The years 1954 and 1955 were covered by yearly plans only; the scheduling change was part of an effort by the members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (
865:
assumed complete political and economic control in February 1948, it began immediately to transform the Czechoslovak economy into a miniature version of that of the
1883:
244:, consumption and investment, and other economic variables, in most communist economies, these variables are decided by a national plan that has the force of law.
2685:
2468:
58:
1000:
Profit, rather than fulfillment of planned quantitative output targets, was to become the main criterion for evaluating the economic performance of enterprises.
2701:
1326:
111:
953:
The country was already industrialized, had few natural resources and a small internal market, and remained dependent on foreign trade in significant ways.
941:
Many factors contributed to the economy's poor performance, including adverse weather for agriculture, cancellation of orders by China resulting from the
2337:
17:
155:
979:
The system appeared to stifle innovation and to offer no basis for selecting between investment and production alternatives or for judging efficiency.
303:--in general plans covering periods fifteen to twenty years into the future and in the well-known five-year plans. Since 1969, economic plans for the
285:
became one of the most widely produced trams in the world, exported to the Soviet Union, Germany, Yugoslavia, and Romania. Depicted here is a tram in
2622:
107:
2772:
2305:
369:
As critics have pointed out, however, certain aspects of the system interfere with its effective functioning. One problem is the assignment of
1003:
Producers were to be increasingly exposed to foreign competition, so that they would seek to increase their own productivity and lower prices.
2453:
2524:
2320:
1153:
357:, profit targets and limitations, and plans for the introduction of new products and technology were also set forth in the instructions.
240:. The main difference is that while in market economies, decisions by individual consumers and producers tend automatically to regulate
2352:
2265:
1838:
2645:
2517:
2438:
1133:
119:
91:
70:
2874:
2670:
247:
In Czechoslovakia, like in most socialist countries, the centralized economic structure paralleled that of the government and the
2680:
2529:
1999:
1122:
988:
The central planning authorities were to concern themselves only with overall long-term planning and to provide general guidance.
87:
2726:
2584:
2574:
2377:
2280:
1026:
148:
115:
2675:
2534:
2079:
1647:
2864:
2711:
2615:
1111:
123:
83:
75:
344:
The ministries provided more detailed instructions concerning fulfillment of the assignments and passed them along to the
2869:
2650:
2433:
2187:
2177:
1010:
their investments in terms of need, effectiveness, and cost so that widespread waste of investment resources would cease.
127:
79:
966:
Plants and construction firms held large inventories of materials to compensate for irregular deliveries from suppliers.
2859:
2665:
2101:
1791:
1773:
1755:
1737:
1719:
1683:
1665:
1425:
862:
381:
Producer goods were favored over consumer goods, causing consumer goods to be lacking in quantity and quality in the
248:
141:
2589:
2549:
2458:
2182:
1958:
1337:
969:
Completion of most investment projects required an inordinate amount of time, freezing funds in unproductive uses.
2608:
2539:
2443:
2410:
2372:
2197:
2157:
1913:
267:
accounted for 59.7 percent of the value of the net material product; construction, 11.2 percent; agriculture and
50:
2448:
2212:
2122:
2107:
1933:
1923:
1831:
1701:
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2152:
2112:
2069:
2029:
2009:
1983:
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1177:
426:, Czechoslovakia effectively missed the information and electronics revolution of the 1970s and 1980s. The
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At the head of the country's banking system was the State Bank of Czechoslovakia. The State Bank was the
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Growth rates in Czechoslovakia, as throughout the Eastern Bloc, experienced relative decline. Meanwhile,
99:
95:
997:
State subsidies would gradually end; enterprises that could not operate at a profit would have to close.
29:"Economy of Czechoslovakia" redirects here. For the economies of Czechoslovakia's successor states, see
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of Czechoslovakia possessed serious structural problems. Like the rest of the Eastern Bloc economies,
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emphasize efficiency, productivity, quality, and innovation rather than simply gross output targets.
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provided a mandatory guide for institutions and managers to follow in nearly all economic activity.
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operated within the framework of the financial plan. Major elements of the financial plan included
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Inadequate investment in agriculture had contributed to the latter's chronically poor performance.
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provided a small part of revenues. Other minor revenue sources included agricultural taxes and
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The Commercial Bank of Czechoslovakia was primarily the bank for foreign currency transactions.
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Individual enterprises were to become financially viable, realizing a profit from their sales.
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The Czechoslovak economy, like most economies in socialist countries, differed markedly from
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Enterprises and their associations would be free to determine short-term production targets.
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to consumption and investment, foreign and domestic financing of investment, and wage and
8:
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countries, including Czechoslovakia. In addition, the Soviets reorganized enterprises as
177:
34:
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Black, Cyril E.; English, Robert D.; Helmreich, Jonathan E.; McAdams, James A. (2000),
220:; Czechoslovak statistics will be called official data or identified by such terms as
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Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism
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On the results of the Second Five-Year Plan, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia claims:
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and other Western European nations experienced increased economic growth in the
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901:) to correlate and integrate their planning by using common planning periods.
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Directorate of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency (March 1985).
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in 1947, Czechoslovakia intended to participate in the United States
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that resulted. Because periodic shortages of birth control pills and
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Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945–1989: Judgements on the Street
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began to transfer large amounts of industrial and other assets from
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were created that were often supplied by goods stolen from the
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The East European economy in context: communism and transition
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Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union
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Rebirth: A Political History of Europe since World War II
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capacities in relation to analogous market economies.
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nevertheless had one of the Eastern Bloc's smallest
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Collectivization in the People's Republic of Poland
1193:, the government's financial agent, the country's
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1676:Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after
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1728:Hardt, John Pearce; Kaufman, Richard F. (1995),
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1180:was located in the former Prague head office of
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1573:Ekonomika ČSSR v letech padesátých a šedesátých
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1640:A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change
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1156:of the State Bank of Czechoslovakia dated 1989
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320:and state farms. Agricultural farms had been
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1730:East-Central European Economies in Transition
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820:these plants. Immediately after the war, the
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203:to be lacking in quantity and quality in the
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933:became the world's largest footwear company
2773:Wage reform in the Soviet Union, 1956–1962
2666:Economy of the People's Republic of Poland
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1100:Data on late 1987 to 1989 need to be added
199:were favored over consumer goods, causing
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2798:Economic System of Socialism (GDR, 1970s)
2768:New Economic Policy (Soviet Union, 1920s)
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1207:Three additional banks—two of which were
1134:Foreign trade of Communist Czechoslovakia
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1638:Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2007),
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312:being merely guides or recommendations.
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394:stores in Czechoslovakia. As a result,
172:was prosperous by the standards of the
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1766:The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
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1418:Eastern Europe, Central Europe, Europe
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2712:Collectivization in the Soviet Union
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1176:From its establishment in 1950, the
1112:Industry of Communist Czechoslovakia
324:according to a process pioneered by
2651:Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia
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795:
585:Similar results occur for GDP on a
24:
18:Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia
1606:
459:("thirty glorious years") and the
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2803:Perestroika (Soviet Union, 1980s)
1800:
1327:"USSR: The Food Supply Situation"
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249:Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
2793:New Economic System (GDR, 1960s)
1884:Democratic Republic of the Congo
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51:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
1714:, Taylor & Francis Group,
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409:In addition, because of large
294:Plans and their implementation
13:
1:
2661:Goulash (Hungarian) Communism
2525:Confederate States of America
1848:Economic histories by country
1811:Blinken Open Society Archives
1311:
869:. By 1952 the government had
31:Economy of the Czech Republic
1381:Bideleux & Jeffries 2007
1366:Bideleux & Jeffries 2007
1227:The central authorities set
1178:State Bank of Czechoslovakia
1139:Financial system and banking
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1057:
848:
361:Advantages and disadvantages
188:to non-socialist countries.
7:
2865:Economies by former country
2742:Collectivization in Romania
2722:Collectivization in Ukraine
2707:Collectivization in Hungary
2656:Economy of the Soviet Union
2585:Scotland in the Middle Ages
2454:Mongolian People's Republic
1710:Frucht, Richard C. (2003),
1299:
1143:
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328:in the late 1920s by which
10:
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2870:Former communist economies
2727:Land Reforms (Afghanistan)
2535:England in the Middle Ages
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857:Czechoslovakia after WW II
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730:
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428:party-state planned system
228:Functioning of the economy
28:
2860:Economy of Czechoslovakia
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2752:Systematization (Romania)
2717:Battle for trade (Poland)
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2686:Economy of SFR Yugoslavia
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1992:
1854:
1764:Pearson, Raymond (1998),
883:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
691:$ 8,895 (Czech Republic)/
406:cars was up to 15 years.
309:Slovak Socialist Republic
112:Health and social welfare
2737:Three Year Plan (Poland)
1746:Maddison, Angus (2006),
1674:Crampton, R. J. (1997),
1631:
1549:Hardt & Kaufman 1995
1537:Hardt & Kaufman 1995
1522:Hardt & Kaufman 1995
1510:Hardt & Kaufman 1995
1498:Hardt & Kaufman 1995
1420:, Westview Press, 1991,
1036:
916:
305:Czech Socialist Republic
170:Communist Czechoslovakia
2778:New Course (GDR, 1950s)
2761:Pre-dissolution reforms
2646:Economy of East Germany
1782:Turnock, David (1997),
208:with sufficient speed.
45:Part of a series on the
2819:Eastern Bloc economies
2632:Eastern Bloc economies
2266:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1416:Graubard, Stephen R.,
1306:Eastern Bloc economies
1268:were more common than
1185:
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934:
858:
805:
465:Gross Domestic Product
455:("economic miracle"),
420:
290:
218:gross national product
2459:Serbia and Montenegro
2420:Former industrialized
1807:RFE Czechoslovak Unit
1692:Dale, Gareth (2005),
1175:
1151:
1096:in the Soviet Union.
924:
856:
830:joint-stock companies
803:
595:Per Capita GDP (1990
473:Per Capita GDP (1990
422:Like the rest of the
415:
277:
2671:Economy of Lithuania
2478:Historical economies
1250:Inflation and prices
387:intrauterine devices
224:or national income.
222:net material product
108:Government structure
2681:Economy of Moldavia
2321:Republic of Ireland
2000:Antigua and Barbuda
1750:, OECD Publishing,
1621:The Free Dictionary
1343:on 23 January 2017.
1152:Obverse of the 100
1027:invaded the country
943:Sino-Soviet dispute
214:currency conversion
186:international debts
35:Economy of Slovakia
1660:, Westview Press,
1186:
1182:Živnostenská Banka
1158:
935:
859:
806:
804:The First Republic
693:$ 7,762 (Slovakia)
383:shortage economies
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168:In the mid-1980s,
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2676:Economy of Latvia
2598:
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2550:Habsburg monarchy
2518:Republic of China
1748:The world economy
1649:978-0-415-36626-7
1589:Black et al. 2000
1290:production quotas
1094:Mikhail Gorbachev
961:inflationary bias
949:manner, because:
815:the Czechoslovak
788:
787:
583:
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457:Trente Glorieuses
453:Wirtschaftswunder
371:production quotas
265:industrial sector
263:production). The
253:natural resources
242:supply and demand
166:
165:
16:(Redirected from
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2824:Shortage economy
2812:Related concepts
2695:Collectivization
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2540:Ethiopian Empire
2495:Byzantine Empire
2444:Empire of Brazil
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1617:"Czechoslovakia"
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1259:Budget and taxes
875:Central planning
796:Before socialism
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1988:
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1732:, M.E. Sharpe,
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683:
678:
675:Czechoslovakia
662:
661:
658:
655:
652:
636:
635:
632:
629:
626:
610:
609:
606:
603:
600:
581:
580:
577:
574:
558:
557:
554:
551:
535:
534:
529:
524:
521:Czechoslovakia
508:
507:
504:
501:
485:
484:
481:
478:
436:
433:
362:
359:
339:dekulakization
295:
292:
229:
226:
201:consumer goods
197:producer goods
164:
163:
161:
160:
153:
146:
138:
135:
134:
66:
63:
62:
54:
53:
47:
46:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2887:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
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2858:
2857:
2855:
2840:
2837:
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2810:
2804:
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2799:
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2776:
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2715:
2713:
2710:
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2700:
2699:
2697:
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2687:
2684:
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2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
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2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2621:
2619:
2614:
2612:
2607:
2606:
2603:
2591:
2590:Tamil Country
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2565:Mongol Empire
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2467:
2465:
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2427:
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2404:
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2397:
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2336:
2334:
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2329:
2326:
2322:
2319:
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2314:
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2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
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2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2080:United States
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1837:
1835:
1830:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1819:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1795:
1793:0-415-08626-4
1789:
1786:, Routledge,
1785:
1780:
1777:
1775:0-312-17407-1
1771:
1768:, Macmillan,
1767:
1762:
1759:
1757:92-64-02261-9
1753:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1739:1-56324-612-0
1735:
1731:
1726:
1723:
1721:0-203-80109-1
1717:
1713:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1696:, Routledge,
1695:
1690:
1687:
1685:0-415-16422-2
1681:
1678:, Routledge,
1677:
1672:
1669:
1667:0-8133-3664-3
1663:
1659:
1654:
1651:
1645:
1642:, Routledge,
1641:
1636:
1635:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1603:, p. 211
1602:
1601:Crampton 1997
1597:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1563:, p. 185
1562:
1561:Maddison 2006
1557:
1550:
1545:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1523:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1492:
1485:, p. 272
1484:
1483:Crampton 1997
1479:
1477:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1455:, p. 204
1454:
1449:
1443:, p. 252
1442:
1441:Crampton 1997
1437:
1435:
1427:
1426:0-8133-1189-6
1423:
1419:
1413:
1407:, p. 851
1406:
1401:
1394:
1389:
1383:, p. 474
1382:
1377:
1375:
1368:, p. 473
1367:
1362:
1356:, p. 144
1355:
1350:
1339:
1335:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1297:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1256:
1247:
1245:
1244:price changes
1241:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1225:
1223:
1218:
1210:
1209:savings banks
1206:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1165:
1163:
1155:
1150:
1135:
1128:Foreign trade
1124:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1095:
1089:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1068:
1064:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1034:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
986:
985:
978:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
958:
955:
952:
951:
950:
946:
944:
939:
932:
928:
923:
914:
913:
909:
906:
902:
900:
895:
891:
890:
886:
884:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
855:
846:
844:
843:Marshall Plan
840:
834:
831:
827:
823:
818:
814:
809:
802:
783:
780:
777:
774:
761:
755:
750:
745:
742:
729:
723:
718:
713:
710:
697:
689:
684:
679:
676:
663:
659:
656:
653:
650:
637:
633:
630:
627:
624:
611:
607:
604:
601:
598:
594:
590:
588:
578:
575:
572:
559:
555:
552:
549:
536:
530:
525:
522:
509:
505:
502:
499:
486:
482:
479:
476:
472:
468:
466:
462:
461:post-war boom
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
432:
429:
425:
419:
414:
412:
411:social purges
407:
405:
401:
400:public sector
397:
396:black markets
393:
388:
384:
379:
376:
372:
367:
358:
356:
350:
347:
342:
340:
335:
331:
327:
326:Joseph Stalin
323:
322:collectivized
319:
313:
310:
306:
302:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
270:
266:
262:
256:
254:
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
225:
223:
219:
215:
209:
206:
202:
198:
194:
189:
187:
183:
179:
178:foreign trade
175:
171:
159:
154:
152:
147:
145:
140:
139:
137:
136:
131:
129:
125:
121:
120:Resource base
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
92:Foreign trade
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
72:
65:
64:
60:
56:
55:
52:
49:
48:
44:
43:
40:
36:
32:
27:
19:
2834:Stakhanovite
2580:Roman Empire
2545:Feudal Japan
2513:Ming dynasty
2508:Song dynasty
2464:Soviet Union
2439:East Germany
2243:
2183:Saudi Arabia
2100:
1959:South Africa
1861:
1783:
1765:
1747:
1729:
1711:
1693:
1675:
1657:
1639:
1620:
1596:
1568:
1556:
1544:
1539:, p. 16
1524:, p. 11
1517:
1512:, p. 10
1505:
1500:, p. 17
1470:, p. 41
1468:Turnock 1997
1448:
1417:
1412:
1400:
1395:, p. 85
1388:
1361:
1349:
1338:the original
1333:
1320:
1294:
1286:
1278:Income taxes
1274:turnover tax
1262:
1253:
1233:
1226:
1214:
1191:central bank
1159:
1154:KÄŤs banknote
1099:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1077:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1031:
1020:
1016:
982:
947:
940:
936:
911:
910:
907:
903:
896:
892:
888:
887:
879:
871:nationalized
867:Soviet Union
860:
835:
826:Eastern Bloc
822:Soviet Union
813:World War II
810:
807:
709:Soviet Union
584:
438:
435:Growth rates
424:Eastern Bloc
421:
416:
408:
380:
368:
364:
351:
343:
334:Eastern Bloc
314:
300:
297:
257:
246:
231:
210:
190:
174:Eastern Bloc
167:
104:Demographics
69:
68:
39:
26:
2555:Inca Empire
2503:Han dynasty
2411:New Zealand
2373:Switzerland
2338:Netherlands
2198:South Korea
2178:Philippines
2158:North Korea
1914:Ivory Coast
1551:, p. 1
1453:Frucht 2003
1405:Frucht 2003
1354:Frucht 2003
1117:Agriculture
1023:Warsaw Pact
318:collectives
88:Agriculture
2854:Categories
2469:Yugoslavia
2213:Tajikistan
2123:East Timor
2108:Azerbaijan
2102:Arab world
1934:Mozambique
1924:Madagascar
1813:, Budapest
1703:0714654086
1312:References
1240:allocation
116:Mass media
2639:Economies
2422:economies
2406:Australia
2333:Lithuania
2193:Singapore
2168:Palestine
2133:Indonesia
2060:Nicaragua
2005:Argentina
1428:, p. 130
1393:Dale 2005
1083:1986–1989
1058:1980–1985
861:When the
849:1948–1960
784:$ 12,210
660:$ 16,320
634:$ 16,881
579:$ 16,800
556:$ 26,100
506:$ 19,200
375:incentive
355:subsidies
283:ÄŚKD Tatra
261:aggregate
100:Education
96:Transport
2560:Iroquois
2383:Scotland
2358:Slovakia
2348:Portugal
2271:Bulgaria
2218:Thailand
2173:Pakistan
2163:Mongolia
2153:Malaysia
2113:Cambodia
2070:Paraguay
2030:Colombia
2010:Barbados
1993:Americas
1984:Zimbabwe
1894:Ethiopia
1879:Botswana
1300:See also
1270:deficits
1266:revenues
1144:Currency
1106:Industry
885:claims:
657:$ 10,643
631:$ 11,235
307:and the
279:Tatra T3
269:forestry
124:Religion
84:Industry
76:Politics
2839:Comecon
2829:Sovkhoz
2399:Oceania
2316:Ireland
2311:Hungary
2301:Germany
2291:Estonia
2286:Denmark
2276:Croatia
2261:Belgium
2256:Austria
2251:Albania
2228:Vietnam
2085:Uruguay
2050:Jamaica
2040:Ecuador
1969:Tunisia
1954:Somalia
1949:Senegal
1939:Nigeria
1929:Morocco
1899:Eritrea
1869:Algeria
1073:Comecon
1025:troops
976:prices.
899:Comecon
817:economy
791:History
781:$ 8,739
778:$ 2,397
757:$ 6,471
752:$ 5,596
747:$ 2,480
741:Hungary
725:$ 6,871
720:$ 6,058
715:$ 2,834
686:$ 7,041
681:$ 3,501
654:$ 3,502
628:$ 3,706
623:Austria
589:basis:
576:$ 1,300
553:$ 1,800
548:Finland
532:$ 3,100
527:$ 1,800
503:$ 1,800
498:Austria
445:Austria
441:Germany
182:country
128:Society
80:Economy
71:History
2570:Muisca
2499:China
2368:Sweden
2353:Russia
2343:Norway
2306:Greece
2296:France
2245:Europe
2237:Europe
2223:Turkey
2208:Taiwan
2143:Israel
2065:Panama
2055:Mexico
2020:Canada
2015:Brazil
1979:Zambia
1974:Uganda
1944:Rwanda
1909:Guinea
1874:Angola
1863:Africa
1855:Africa
1790:
1772:
1754:
1736:
1718:
1700:
1682:
1664:
1646:
1424:
1217:credit
1162:koruna
1033:4.4%.
929:, the
925:Under
839:Stalin
811:After
770:
738:
706:
672:
646:
620:
568:
545:
518:
495:
449:France
346:trusts
234:market
180:, the
2388:Wales
2363:Spain
2328:Italy
2203:Syria
2148:Japan
2128:India
2118:China
2045:Haiti
2025:Chile
1964:Sudan
1919:Kenya
1904:Ghana
1889:Egypt
1632:Notes
1341:(PDF)
1330:(PDF)
1197:, an
1037:1970s
917:1960s
773:Spain
649:Italy
608:1990
605:1973
602:1950
571:Italy
483:1990
480:1938
404:Ĺ koda
392:Tuzex
301:plans
2138:Iran
2094:Asia
2075:Peru
2035:Cuba
1788:ISBN
1770:ISBN
1752:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1716:ISBN
1698:ISBN
1680:ISBN
1662:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1422:ISBN
1234:The
1160:The
931:BaĹĄa
287:Riga
191:The
33:and
863:KSÄŚ
587:PPP
281:by
236:or
2856::
1809:,
1619:.
1608:^
1579:^
1529:^
1490:^
1475:^
1460:^
1433:^
1373:^
1332:.
1276:.
1102:.
599:)
597:$
477:)
475:$
447:,
443:,
2624:e
2617:t
2610:v
1840:e
1833:t
1826:v
1623:.
1184:.
289:.
157:e
150:t
143:v
37:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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