Early Islamic philosophy

4581:"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency." 3528:"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency." 1732: 3857:"The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive. Nature proceeds in a similar way; however, it does not distinguish for its action is under all circumstances one and the same. It allows the leaves and fruit of the trees to perish, thus preventing them from realising that result which they are intended to produce in the economy of nature. It removes them so as to make room for others." 4095:

transformed into the essence adjacent to them, either above or below them. This is the case with the simple material elements; it is the case with palms and vines, (which constitute) the last stage of plants, in their relation to snails and shellfish, (which constitute) the (lowest) stage of animals. It is also the case with monkeys, creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception, in their relation to man, the being who has the ability to think and to reflect. The preparedness (for transformation) that exists on either side, at each stage of the worlds, is meant when (we speak about) their connection.

3909:"Look at the world of animals and birds. They have all that is necessary for defense, protection and daily life, including strengths, courage and appropriate tools Some of these organs are real weapons, For example, horns-spear, teeth and claws-knife and needle, feet and hoofs-cudgel. The thorns and needles of some animals are similar to arrows. Animals that have no other means of defense (as the gazelle and fox) protect themselves with the help of flight and cunning. Some of them, for example, bees, ants and some bird species, have united in communities in order to protect themselves and help each other." 1461:, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world—hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the 11941: 1530: 1112: 808: 667: 24: 1347:, the set of properties that make matter into a living human body. This seems to imply that the human soul cannot exist apart from the body. Indeed, Aristotle writes, "It is clear that the soul, or at least some parts of it (if it is divisible), cannot be separated from the body. And thus, those have the right idea who think that the soul does not exist without the body." In Aristotelianism, at least one psychological force, the 5086:. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Islamic principles of jurisprudence. Fiqh is the term for Islamic jurisprudence, made up of the rulings of Islamic jurists. A component of Islamic studies, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic law is derived from primary and secondary sources. 1427:

Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari", v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the

1655: 3290:." He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘ 11928: 2019: 3497:, is nothing else than the property of its being which has been established in it. So that is called true gold which has properly the being of gold and attains to the established determinations of the nature of gold. Now, each thing has properly being in some nature because it stands under the complete form proper to that nature, whereby being and species in that nature is." 1407:(The Incoherence of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism. They thereafter made their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Islamic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely, 2600:. Because of territorial disputes with the Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of 1480:(Avicenna), and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation 2468:"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empery of passion, and that arbitrator shall be 1600:, "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world 3595:(1126-1198 AD) explicitly rejected the thought of al-Ghazali and turned to an extensive evaluation of the thought of Aristotle. Averroes commented in detail on most of the works of Aristotle and his commentaries did much to guide the interpretation of Aristotle in later Jewish and Christian scholastic thought. 1509:

It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era

1634:

i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love", etc.

4491:

schooling as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills,

3582:

atomism, atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, and all else in the world is "accidental" meaning something that lasts for only an instant. Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment. Contingent events are not subject to

2612:

as formulated in Aristotle's Categories, De interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In the spirit of Aristotle, they believed that all rational argument can be reduced to a syllogism, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in

1354:

Wherefore the Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created

1351:, can exist apart from the body. However, according to many interpretations, the active intellect is a superhuman entity emanating from God and enlightening the human mind, not a part of any individual human soul. Thus, Aristotle's theories seem to deny the immortality of the individual human soul. 562:

The translation of Arabic works from this period into Hebrew and Latin in the Middle Ages had a significant impact upon Jewish philosophy as well as almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin Western world. The works of al-Fārābī, Avicenna, and Averroes were particularly influential

4365:. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things." 1426:

found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari", in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the

3013:

and an ontological argument. "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a

3197:

Usually Muslims call God (Allah) "Wajib al-Wujud". It can be said; In general, the difference between the "Islamic view" and other views is not in the principle of "realism", but in the image it presents of the real world based on it. In "Islamic philosophy", while admitting material existence,

4094:

We explained there that the whole of existence in (all) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum. The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be

1362:

commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will", and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to

1635:

Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views; just as the Jewish and Muslim Peripatetics stopped short in their respective Aristotelianism whenever there was danger of wounding orthodox religion.

4693:'s scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work", al-Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries." During his debate with Avicenna on 4018:. It has male and female genders. It does not wither if all its branches are chopped but it dies when the head is cut off. The date-palm is therefore considered the highest among the trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then is born the lowest of animals. It evolves into an 3921:

and other distant corners of the world. They are close to animals by their habits, deeds and behavior. The human has features that distinguish him from other creatures, but he has other features that unite him with the animal world, vegetable kingdom or even with the inanimate

4100:

Plants do not have the same fineness and power that animals have. Therefore, the sages rarely turned to them. Animals are the last and final stage of the three permutations. Minerals turn into plants, and plants into animals, but animals cannot turn into anything finer than

5470:. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other 2472:, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Quran 4593:

to his Islamic faith. He believed that human beings are inherently flawed and that only God is perfect. He reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. In

4833:

manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would

1704:

Al-Farabi had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries, and was widely considered second only to Aristotle in knowledge (alluded to by his title of "the Second Teacher") in his time. His work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and

1510:

in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd.

4713:, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, 463:, "Muslim maritime, agricultural, and technological innovations, as well as much East Asian technology via the Muslim world, made their way to western Europe in one of the largest technology transfers in world history." This period starts with 1502:—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil 1371:

is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique,

2803:(980–1037) developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world. 1355:

by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter.

3438:

developed further arguments, with most falling into two broad categories: assertions of the "impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite" and of the "impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition".

1392:

of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which later, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to

3210:

as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." The book presents rational arguments for bodily

1487:" (Munk, "Mélanges", p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared—in order to make concessions to the orthodox— but also a necessity. 986:

because his answers were contrary to then-orthodox Islamic tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites. This new school was called

4272:) stated that the place of something is the two-dimensional boundary of the containing body that is at rest and is in contact with what it contains. Ibn al-Haytham disagreed with this definition and demonstrated that place ( 3073:). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of 5200:

5760: 4512:. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account. 1610:

attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.

3583:

natural physical causes, but are the direct result of God's constant intervention, without which nothing could happen. Thus nature is completely dependent on God, which meshes with other Asharite Islamic ideas on

3566:

philosophies are found very early in Islamic philosophy, and represent a synthesis of the Greek and Indian ideas. Islamic speculative theology in general approached issues in physics from an atomistic framework.

4787:"The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them." 2572:

and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of European logic during the

4704:

Al-Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both

1011:

of man emanates from his reason; humans could acquire knowledge before, as well as after, Revelation, by the sole light of reason. This fact makes knowledge obligatory upon all men, at all times, and in all

612:

presents a coherent vision of the creator, the cosmos and man. The main issues of Muslim theological dispute prove to be hidden under the wording of the qurʾānic message, which is closely tied to Muḥammad's

520:, a method or methodological approach to legal reasoning, interpretation, and argument based on independent inquiry and analogical deduction; within science and the philosophy of science, the development of 4981:

of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of

3590:

Other traditions in Islam rejected the atomism of the Asharites and expounded on many Greek texts, especially those of Aristotle. An active school of philosophers in Spain, including the noted commentator

2810:(980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of 2210:

All living beings roaming the earth and winged birds soaring in the sky are communities like yourselves.1 We have left nothing out of the Record.2 Then to their Lord they will be gathered all together.

1490:

Driven from the Islamic schools, Islamic philosophy found a refuge with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the

2935:(1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation. Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by 2185:

Allah's Messenger said, "There is none amongst the Muslims who plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, but is regarded as a charitable gift for him."

4872:. He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through " 3897:

that can gain the new features faster are more variable. As a result, they gain advantages over other creatures. The bodies are changing as a result of the internal and external interactions."

6209:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Between Cordoba and Nīsābūr: The Emergence and Consolidation of Ashʿarism (Fourth–Fifth/Tenth–Eleventh Century)" 5181:

in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in

4838:

the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a

2476:) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be with you and the blessings of God!" 743:(his daily utterances and discourses), during which philosophy was defined by Muslims as consisting in acceptance or rejection of his message. Together the sira and hadith constitute the 6939: 3198:"non-material" and abstract existence is also proven, and the existence of the Supreme Being or this title is defined as the essence of existence, which is the axis of the whole world. 8514:

Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 42 & 60,

4308:) is the largest in magnitude (volumetric) with respect to other geometric solids that have equal surface areas. For instance, a sphere that has an equal surface area to that of a 5752: 3629:

Do the disbelievers not realize that the heavens and earth were ˹once˺ one mass then We split them apart? And We created from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?

8488:

Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 95-101,

7414:

Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 209-210,

3704:(Algazel). They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states: 3811:

to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming into new species. Animals that survive to breed can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring."

6668:

Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 80-81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)",

5446:, the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally known that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: 3783:. He speculated on the influence of the environment on animals, considered the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and first described the 1967:

by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then, and several scholars in the 12th century commented on his strong influence at the time:

7745: 1059:. Ashʿarītes still taught the use of reason in understanding the Quran, but denied the possibility to deduce moral truths by reasoning. This position was opposed by the 4784:"The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones." 4312:, would be larger in (volumetric) magnitude than the cylinder; hence, the sphere occupies a larger place than that occupied by the cylinder; unlike what is entailed by 3271:

of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final

2901:

school in the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as

6878: 2552:. The works of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the 4558:, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the 3515:(Alhacen) reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. In his 1331:

of the world. To assert that God's knowledge extends only to the general laws of the universe, and not to individual and accidental things, is tantamount to denying

2734:

refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term

4300:. Ibn al-Haytham's mathematization of place rested on several geometric demonstrations, including his study on the sphere and other solids, which showed that the 1971:"People nowadays that truth is whatever says, that it is inconceivable for him to err, and that whoever contradicts him in anything he says cannot be rational." 4766:(11th century), which was the first book dealing with experimental medicine. It laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new 4626:

have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences."

3757:"God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city." 8797: 3684:, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His reasoning was adopted by many, most notably; Muslim philosopher, 3181:

More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of investigation in

3732:

Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by

536:, as well as early formulations of empiricist epistemologies; commentaries and developments in Aristotelian logic, as well as innovations in non-Aristotelian 8229: 471:(Ibn Rushd) at the end of 12th century. The death of Averroes effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the 1327:

Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the

883:. Kalām in Islamic practice relates to the discipline of seeking theological knowledge through debate and argument. A scholar of kalām is referred to as a 7811: 7094: 9045: 2750:(Alkindus) (805–873), who produced a summary on earlier logic up to his time. The first writings on logic with non-Aristotelian elements was produced by 1422:

Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the Persian

1265:

with other ideas introduced through Islam. They were considered by many as highly unorthodox and a few even described them as non-Islamic philosophers.

8654:

Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists",

6444: 3784: 416: 7859: 8761:

Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996),

7148: 289: 1435:'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. 563:

in the fields of natural philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, logic, and ethics, directly and indirectly influencing the work of thinkers such as

4796:"The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man." 3369: 3286:, whereas Ibn al-Nafis on the other hand rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few 7932: 5582: 2355:. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics, including: 1004:

Man is a free agent. It is on account of these two principles that the Mu'tazilities designate themselves the "Partisans of Justice and Unity".

8570: 8190: 5217:

claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali.

8525: 8499: 7961: 7425: 7153: 6952: 6679: 9018: 5044:

to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology. He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of

4577:

He held that the criticism of existing theories — which dominated this book — holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge:

4332:), although his effort was admirable from a philosophical standpoint, it was unconvincing from the scientific and mathematical viewpoints. 1453:. Averroes' philosophy was considered controversial in Muslim circles. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of 7994:

Nader El-Bizri (2007), "In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place",

7557: 5881: 3387:

terms when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."

1090:, the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among classical Muslim philosophers are characterized by "a rich color of 9882: 6073: 1903: 309: 7910:"Ikhwan as-Safa and their Rasa'il: A Critical Review of a Century and a Half of Research", by A. L. Tibawi, as published in volume 2 of 6897: 6577: 6007: 5706:(1989). The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. London: The Warburg Institute, University of London. pp. 25–29. 10725: 6183: 2617:

Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "Avicennian logic" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic.

1934: 1431:

give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in

88: 6498:"Persecution and the Art of Commentary: Rabbi Moses Narboni's Analysis of al-Ġazālī's Maqāṣid al Falāsifah (Aims of the Philosophers)" 4606:

and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative sciences:

1048:) rather than co-eternal with God, which would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology. 11003: 9524: 6404:"This intellect is separate, unaffected, and unmixed In separation, it is just what it is, and this alone is immortal and eternal" ( 4818: 1551: 1519: 1133: 825: 688: 296: 60: 41: 5620: 5248:, and became an influential best-seller throughout Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. These translations later inspired 4793:"The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect." 2128:

Perhaps due to resource scarcity in most Islamic nations, there was an emphasis on limited (and some claim also sustainable) use of

9156: 1483: 945:, which until then had been accepted in faith on the authority of divine revelation. One of the first debates was that between the 7304: 3009:, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a 997:, which means "to separate oneself" or "to dissent") that lasted from the 8th to 10th centuries. Its principal dogmas were three: 9081: 9076: 7072: 5305: 4923: 3558: 3259:, developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and in particular, the 1423: 1394: 329: 284: 7743: 7591: 67: 8207: 8007:

El-Bizri (2007) and handouts of El-Bizri's lectures at the Dept. of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge

5525:, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory. 4316:'s definition of place: that this sphere and that cylinder occupy places that are equal in magnitude. Ibn al-Haytham rejected 3966: 3745: 304: 11640: 9151: 9128: 8977: 8169: 7121: 6519: 6467: 6236: 6125: 3426:

presented a detailed argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Muslim and Arab Jewish philosophers like

1731: 409: 275: 8414: 7875: 7672: 3718:

The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:

9234: 8165: 6875: 6546: 6267:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Ḥanafī Theological Tradition and Māturīdism" 5791: 4756:, and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical 3672:

and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the

2581: 2000: 1203:, all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. Another trend, represented by the 9484: 4171:

from the observer's point of view. Much of his thought on phenomenology was not further developed until the 20th century.

586:

Early Islamic philosophy can be divided into clear sets of influences, branches, schools, and fields, as described below.

74: 8360: 7035: 6024:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology" 5283:, and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in "different variations and to different degrees in the books of 5144: 3140: 1819: 1403: 3348:. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all 10209: 9458: 9392: 7271: 2054: 11266: 8795: 4022:. This is not the statement of Darwin. This is what Ibn Maskawayh states and this is precisely what is written in the 1401:(1140) among the Jews. It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Al-Ghazali in his work, 11966: 11291: 8957: 8938: 8912: 8874: 8849: 8824: 8774: 8749: 8728: 8703: 8679: 8642: 8605: 8549: 8456: 8388: 8319: 8108: 8080: 7676: 7625: 7533: 7460: 7224: 7017: 6925: 6827: 6802: 6777: 6728: 6302: 6059: 5993: 5934: 5711: 1577: 1159: 847: 714: 266: 107: 56: 7336:

For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri,

6699: 5213:

and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the

4643: 2889:(Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in 2778:. He is also credited for categorizing logic into two separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being " 1559: 1141: 696: 11823: 9011: 6100: 5909: 4167:, linking the domains of science and religion, led to a philosophy of existence based on the direct observation of 596: 402: 169: 8434:

On the Sources of Islamic Law and Practices, The Journal of law and religion Souaiaia yr:2005 vol:20 iss:1 pg:123

8271:

Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)",

5008:

elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as

4876:

familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "

4670:, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops 11853: 9875: 9239: 8239: 6339:

Teísmos: Aportações Filosóficas do Leste e Oeste / Theisms: Philosophical Contributions from the East to the West

4618:'s words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation ( 4403:

entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at

2302: 2137: 2070:. While he had very little influence in the Islamic world, which was then dominated by Avicennian philosophy and 918:), began to be investigated beyond the scope of Muhammad's beliefs. This period is characterized by emergence of 245: 178: 11461: 4113:, discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the 3065:(or those particularly influenced by Thomist scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence ( 2852:

in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine. Ibn Sina contributed inventively to the development of

2702:

refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Some Islamic scholars argued that

1445:, closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. He was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against 11879: 11039: 8351: 7808: 7091: 6648: 4501: 3935: 2823: 1927: 1665:

Al-Farabi (Alfarabi) was a founder of his own school of Islamic philosophy but which was later overshadowed by

1614:

To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (

1555: 1137: 829: 692: 626: 255: 230: 45: 9565: 7767:

Jan Z. Wilczynski (December 1959), "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin",

3260: 751:("backing") to determine the likely truth of the report of any given saying of Muhammad. Key figures are Imam 10453: 10038: 9791: 9781: 9736: 9372: 7856: 4190: 4042:. The one higher to angels is indeed none but God. Everything begins from Him and everything returns to Him." 2418: 2343:

standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the

2250: 250: 164: 8026:

Smith, A. Mark (2005), "The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications",

7899:

The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity

11858: 11763: 11411: 10128: 6975:

Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West",

5374: 4884:; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts." 4505: 4180: 3341: 2727: 6574: 4674:

as a scientific method in the field. He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into

3395:

While ancient Greek philosophers believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, early

547:; and developments in research practice and methodology, including, within medicine, the first documented 11971: 11662: 11376: 10005: 9344: 9136: 9118: 9071: 9050: 9004: 6866: 4014:. The evolution of vegetation culminates with a tree which bears the qualities of an animal. This is the 3604: 2698:, there was a logical debate among Islamic philosophers, logicians and theologians over whether the term 2513: 1828: 1697:

theology is also more than just metaphysics as rhetoric. In his attempt to think through the nature of a

1021: 152: 8010: 3235:

argument on spiritual resurrection (as opposed to bodily resurrection), which was earlier criticized by

2526:

placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in

11529: 11198: 10504: 10280: 9868: 9636: 9417: 8448: 8311: 8130: 8035: 6839:

L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century",

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philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the

5354: 4144: 3163: 3159: 2928: 2160: 2090: 642: 498: 261: 9914: 7044: 81: 11735: 9947: 9937: 9841: 9651: 7953: 7924: 5579: 5539: 5366: 4293: 4069:

by the 19th century. These works likely had an influence on 19th-century evolutionists, and possibly

3618: 3547: 2278: 1920: 1895: 1079:

and independently from divine revelation. He shared this conviction with his teacher and predecessor

392: 1055:

developed as a response to the Muʿtazila, founded by the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian

11838: 11401: 10651: 10491: 10488: 10214: 10048: 10033: 9831: 8519: 8493: 7820: 7419: 7062: 6938:

Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), "The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study",

6673: 5326: 4630:

Ibn al-Haytham described his search for truth and knowledge as a way of leading him closer to God:

4354: 3779:(c. 776–869) was the first of the Muslim biologists and philosophers to develop an early theory of 3473:"The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it." 3155: 3039: 2932: 2827: 2755: 2605: 2172: 1837: 1540: 1122: 677: 124: 8567: 5847:

Al-Shafi'i, al-Risala, Bulaq, 1321; ed. Sheikh Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, Cairo, 1940 (ed. Shakir), 55

5153: 4573:"Truth is sought for itself the truths, are immersed in uncertainties not immune from error..." 3523:"Truth is sought for itself the truths, are immersed in uncertainties not immune from error..." 11416: 11357: 11310: 11168: 11131: 10499: 10414: 10404: 10328: 10194: 10166: 9468: 9377: 9300: 6894: 6286: 6220: 6043: 5977: 4701:, referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist. 4683: 4634:"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the 4349:(1021). His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the way the 4066: 3533:"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the 2815: 2086:, for which Ibn Rushd is considered as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe. 1631: 1544: 1126: 1080: 1056: 818: 681: 646: 34: 8523: 8497: 7480:

Craig, William Lane (June 1979), "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past",

7423: 7143: 6677: 5958:"Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Origins of Kalām" 5002:). A significant fraction (one third, in fact) of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many 11549: 11481: 10561: 10399: 9977: 9952: 9942: 9801: 9751: 9746: 9712: 9580: 9407: 9397: 9229: 7549: 6948: 5873: 5409:

view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the

5259: 4814: 4718: 3333: 3175: 2819: 2763: 2640:. Other important developments in early Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict 2626: 2535: 2426: 1878: 1852: 1064: 506: 6266: 6208: 6023: 5517:

is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist

1689:", and "at the level of philosophy, Alfarabi unites theory and practice in the sphere of the 485:

and North Africa, though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular

11786: 11725: 11705: 11539: 11451: 11431: 11421: 11054: 10903: 10536: 10468: 10376: 10343: 10171: 10151: 9957: 9836: 9585: 9504: 8967: 8633: 8407:, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ( 8235: 8215: 7642: 6294: 6095: 6051: 5985: 5957: 5904: 5334: 5322: 5276: 4762: 4745: 4671: 4638:

and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge."

4590: 4547: 4152: 3537:

and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge."

3092:), which is without description or definition, and particularly without quiddity or essence ( 3010: 3006: 2988: 2975: 2298: 2230: 1809: 1778: 650: 8619:

Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature

7729:

Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism",

6445:"Why Is Philosophy Bad for the Soul? Commentary on Al-Ġazālī's Critique of the Philosophers" 6228: 6145: 2448:

Another reason the Islamic world flourished during the Middle Ages was an early emphasis on

11803: 11758: 11720: 11667: 11596: 11352: 11148: 11059: 10882: 10852: 10593: 10121: 9967: 9962: 9816: 9692: 9626: 9575: 9570: 9499: 9489: 8696:

The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought

6819: 6794: 6769: 6746:

Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam",

5423: 5390: 5280: 4714: 4455:

until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the

4010:). It is a stone which has in it branches like those of a tree. After mineral life evolves 3862: 3850: 3677: 3420: 3356:

contact with even their own bodies. He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have

3084:) when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the 2992: 2912: 2838: 2490: 2481: 2457: 1428: 451:, and the achievements of this period had a crucial influence in the development of modern 334: 7244:

For recent discussions of this question see: Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism",

5341:, another acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, 4324:(13th century) tried to defend the Aristotelian conception of place in a treatise titled: 447:) and lasting until the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE). The period is known as the 8: 11944: 11899: 11889: 11848: 11796: 11781: 11710: 11690: 11672: 11504: 11471: 11332: 11319: 11126: 10923: 10834: 10789: 10695: 10581: 10394: 10242: 9776: 9707: 9687: 9646: 9123: 9088: 8100: 8072: 7894: 7629: 7392: 6497: 6326: 5600: 5438:

Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam, i.e. the

5245: 5122: 4936: 4826: 4497: 4484: 4460: 4309: 4264: 4204: 3669: 3396: 3365: 3001: 2964: 2952: 2920: 2853: 2849: 2669: 2641: 2637: 2149: 1771: 1678: 1335:. One other part of Aristotle's theory shocked the faith of the Mutakallamin — the 1087: 1041: 930:

was discouraged due to a lack of participants. During this period, traditions similar to

780: 552: 512:

Intellectual innovations, achievements, and advancements of this period included, within

339: 186: 10656: 7378: 5690: 3505:

emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion and emphsized the process of

439:

is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the

11894: 11863: 11843: 11791: 11773: 11748: 11743: 11695: 11682: 11649: 11544: 11446: 11381: 11337: 11281: 11121: 10950: 10844: 10752: 10556: 10435: 10426: 10389: 10384: 10290: 10285: 10262: 10181: 9995: 9922: 9786: 9641: 9402: 9174: 9027: 8047: 7786: 7292: 7172:

Steve A. Johnson (1984), "Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for God's Existence",

6992: 6473: 6459: 6362: 5659: 5580:

History of Europe - Middle Ages - Reform and renewal - Christianity, Judaism, and Islam

5556: 5551: 5534: 5428: 5362: 5272: 4974: 4757: 4694: 4508:, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future 4468: 4374: 4216: 4186: 4148: 4118: 3961: 3740: 3357: 3317: 3136: 2695: 2588:"For the Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal patterns of 2501: 2485: 2294: 1964: 1868: 1204: 1184: 872: 630: 473: 448: 431: 347: 147: 7189:

Morewedge, P. (1970), "Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and the Ontological Argument",

7069: 5826: 5601:"The Golden and Dark Ages of Islamic Jurisprudence: Analyzing the Orientalist Thought" 4635: 4280:) between the inner surfaces of the containing body. He showed that place was akin to 4219:(8th–15th centuries) as well as modern times (20th–21st centuries), and is related to 3534: 11932: 11833: 11828: 11813: 11753: 11715: 11700: 11657: 11228: 11188: 11106: 11034: 11017: 10995: 10623: 10598: 10409: 10229: 9972: 9702: 9621: 9545: 8973: 8953: 8934: 8918: 8908: 8870: 8845: 8820: 8770: 8745: 8724: 8699: 8675: 8638: 8601: 8545: 8452: 8384: 8315: 8104: 8076: 8051: 7790: 7621: 7588: 7529: 7456: 7117: 7013: 6921: 6823: 6798: 6773: 6724: 6515: 6477: 6463: 6354: 6308: 6298: 6242: 6232: 6175: 6121: 6117: 6065: 6055: 5999: 5989: 5930: 5926: 5830: 5724:

Toomer, G. J. (1 December 1964). "Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik. Matthias Schramm".

5707: 5686: 5663: 5642:

El-Bizri, Nader (September 2005). "A philosophical perspective on Alhazen's optics".

5612: 5350: 5269: 5126: 5045: 4892: 4790:"The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused." 4603: 4586: 4532: 4452: 4408: 4350: 4243:(Alhazen; died c. 1041) presented a thorough mathematical critique and refutation of 4200: 3866: 3846: 3820: 3788: 3689: 3400: 3361: 2865: 2861: 2649: 2449: 2390: 2145: 1908: 1883: 1873: 1759: 1740: 1682: 1623: 1219: 1212: 899: 732: 576: 235: 8204: 3380: 2306: 1304:, were also important philosophers, though the latter did not identify himself as a 11884: 11818: 11808: 11509: 11456: 11406: 11386: 11347: 11342: 11183: 11111: 10829: 10740: 10631: 10603: 10588: 10551: 10257: 10237: 10204: 10109: 10071: 9826: 9796: 9771: 9756: 9616: 9382: 9217: 8866: 8841: 8766: 8720: 8597: 8380: 8039: 7778: 7600: 7489: 7228: 7198: 6984: 6627: 6505: 6455: 6346: 6290: 6270: 6224: 6212: 6165: 6113: 6109: 6047: 6027: 5981: 5961: 5922: 5918: 5822: 5733: 5651: 5130: 4830: 4706: 4555: 4493: 4412: 4388: 4336: 4320:'s philosophical concept of place on mathematical grounds. Later, the philosopher 3841:

ideas related to evolution, which has led several scholars to compare his ideas to

3800: 3661: 3373: 3329: 3248: 3128: 2984: 2924: 2779: 2531: 2238: 2226: 2191: 2156: 1626:. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" ' 1596: 1503: 1348: 1344: 1017: 876: 752: 618: 440: 354: 142: 8159: 6350: 4905:"from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a 1276:, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The philosophers 625:

recognize that some instances of theological thought were already developed among

11590: 11559: 11524: 11489: 11367: 11218: 11116: 11074: 10985: 10973: 10958: 10933: 10908: 10678: 10546: 10541: 10458: 10443: 10116: 10000: 9811: 9806: 9761: 9222: 9207: 9202: 8863: