682:, the idea of using alms for the manumission of slaves appears to be unique to the Qur'an (assuming the traditional interpretation of verses and ). Similarly, the practise of freeing slaves in atonement for certain sins appears to be introduced by the Qur'an. Brockopp adds that: "Other cultures limit a master's right to harm a slave but few exhort masters to treat their slaves kindly, and the placement of slaves in the same category as other weak members of society who deserve protection is unknown outside the Qur'an. The unique contribution of the Qur'an, then, is to be found in its emphasis on the place of slaves in society and society's responsibility toward the slave, perhaps the most progressive legislation on slavery in its time."
936:) argues that Islam in its 7th-century origins was, for its time and place, "remarkably modern...in the high degree of commitment, involvement, and participation expected from the rank-and-file members of the community". This because, he argues, that Islam emphasized the equality of all Muslims. Leadership positions were open to all. However, there were restraints on the early Muslim community that kept it from exemplifying these principles, primarily from the "stagnant localisms" of tribe and kinship. Dale Eickelman writes that Bellah suggests "the early Islamic community placed a particular value on individuals, as opposed to collective or group responsibility".
639:
920:
between adults and children, devoid of any real emotional relationship, as a cause of confusion where lineage was concerned and thus a possible source of problems regarding marriage between members of the same family and regarding inheritance. But a child that was not born into a family can still be raised by a foster family but the child must retain his identities, such as his last name and lineage. The prophet has stated that a person who assists and aids an orphan, is on the same footing in heaven to the prophet himself."
814:(evil behaviour). If they do that, then abandon their beds and beat them with a beating that is not harmful. And if they obey you then you have no cause against them. Indeed you have rights over your women, and your women have rights over you. As for your rights over your women, then they must not allow anyone whom you dislike to treat on your bedding (furniture), nor to admit anyone in your home that you dislike. And their rights over you are that you treat them well in clothing them and feeding them."
482:(622). It effectively established the first Islamic state. The Constitution established: the security of the community, religious freedoms, the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations within Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict, parameters for exogenous political alliances, a system for granting protection of individuals, a judicial system for resolving disputes, and also regulated the paying of
1072:
social arrangements, in which poverty and the poor have important roles, show signs of newness. The Qur'an told that the guidance comes to a community that regulates its flow of money and goods in the right direction (from top down) and practices generosity as reciprocation for God's bounty. In a broad sense, the narrative underlying the Qur'an is that of a tribal society becoming urbanized. Many scholars, such as
1557:. Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina with the first treaty being written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so called 'Constitution of Medina'." in
1569:, IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Wellhausen bases this judgement on three considerations; first Muhammad is very diffident about his own position, he accepts the pagan tribes within the
1284:
private and not a public affair. By an exquisite irony, Islam reduced the status of
Christians to that which the Christians had earlier thrust upon the Jews, with one difference. The reduction in Christian status was merely judicial; it was unaccompanied by either systematic persecution or a blood lust, and generally, though not elsewhere and at all times, unmarred by vexatious behavior.
1326:. A contemporary Armenian chronicle similarly describes the conquests in terms of looting, burning, enslavement, and destruction. Like John bar Penkaye, he expresses a favorable view of Muawiyah. The author describes rebellions and civil wars breaking out not long after the conquest, demonstrating that "imperial rivalries" were not ended with the arrival of the Arab armies.
1011:
Arabia exemplified "heedlessness", it was not entirely without merit. Muhammad approved and exhorted certain aspects of the Arab pre-Islamic tradition, such as the care for one's near kin, for widows, orphans, and others in need and for the establishment of justice. However, these values would be re-ordered in importance and placed in the context of strict
775:, including "her economic independence, her initiating of her marriage, and not even needing a male guardian to act as an intermediary (as was to be required by Islam), her marriage to a man many years younger than herself, and her remaining with him in a monogamous marriage (Muhammad had no other wife until after her death), all from pre-Islamic era."
1112:, "voluntary alms". This coherent and highly appealing view of the economic universe had much to do with Islam's early and lasting success. Since the poor were at the heart of this economic universe, the teachings of the Qur'an on poverty had a considerable, even a transforming effect in Arabia, the Near East, and beyond.
862:. Men were amassing considerable personal wealth and wanted to be sure that this would be inherited by their actual sons, and not simply by an extended family of their sisters' sons." Muhammad, however, by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards".
1047:
writes on poverty and economics in the Qur'an that the Qur'an provided a blueprint for a new order in society, in which the poor would be treated more fairly than before. This "economy of poverty" prevailed in
Islamic theory and practice up until the 13th and 14th centuries. At its heart was a notion
881:
Others argue that this perspective is based solely on
Islamic records of pre-Islamic Arabs, written centuries after Islam's emergence, and that pre-Islamic Arabs were less misogynistic than the above view gives them credit for. Many scholars view the monodimensional depiction of pre-Islamic Arabia as
877:
were dedicated to custom and tradition and resisted changes brought by the new religion." Haddad and
Esposito state that in this view "the inequality of Muslim women happened because of the preexisting habits of the people among whom Islam took root. The economics of these early Muslim societies were
826:
wrote that "Compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work." Leila Ahmed argues that examples of
805:
paid to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife as part of her personal property' Under
Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a "status" but rather as a "contract". The essential elements of the marriage contract were now an offer by the man, an acceptance by the woman, and the
623:
William
Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad was both a social and moral reformer. He asserts that Muhammad created a "new system of social security and a new family structure, both of which were a vast improvement on what went before. By taking what was best in the morality of the nomad and adapting
559:
According to some scholars, Muhammad's condemnation of infanticide was the key aspect of his attempts to raise the status of women. A much-cited verse the Qur'an that addresses this practice is: "When the sun shall be darkened when the stars shall be thrown down when the mountains shall be set moving
1292:
Some even among the
Christians of Syria and Egypt preferred the rule of Islam to that of Byzantines... The people of the conquered provinces did not confine themselves to simply accepting the new regime, but in some cases actively assisted in its establishment. In Palestine the Samaritans, according
650:
The Qur'an makes numerous references to slavery (, , ), regulating but thereby also implicitly accepting this already existing institution. Lewis states that Islam brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching consequences. "One of these was the presumption of freedom;
886:
argues that this trend has worsened in the modern era, as "modern Arab histories refuse to admit, even at the level of pure analysis, that customs expressing female sexual self-determination" existed in pre-Islamic Arabia and were subsequently outlawed in
Islamic times. However she also argues that
1283:
The conquests destroyed little: what they did suppress were imperial rivalries and sectarian bloodletting among the newly subjected population. The
Muslims tolerated Christianity, but they disestablished it; henceforward Christian life and liturgy, its endowments, politics and theology, would be a
919:
The Quran also replaced the pre-Islamic custom of adoption (assimilation of an adopted child into another family in a legal sense) by the recommendation that believers treat children of unknown origin as "their brothers in the faith and clients". Adoption was viewed "as a lie, as an artificial tie
890:
Under the customary tribal law existing in Pre-Islamic Arabia women, as a general rule, had virtually no legal status; fathers sold their daughters into marriage for a price, women had little or no property or succession rights. Upper-class women usually had more rights than tribal women and might
427:
and its ethical doctrines, stood on an incomparably higher level than the paganism it replaced. He had provided that religion with a revelation which was to become in the centuries to follow the guide to thought and conduct of countless millions of
Believers. But he had done more than that; he had
872:
Haddad and Esposito state that "although Islam is often criticized for the low status it has ascribed to women, many scholars believe that it was primarily the interpretation of jurists, local traditions, and social trends which brought about a decline in the status of Muslim women. In this view,
696:
To evaluate the effect of Islam on the status of women, many writers have discussed the status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia, and their findings have been mixed. Some writers have argued that women before Islam were more liberated, drawing most often on the first marriage of Muhammad and that of
1071:
Unlike pre-Islamic Arabian society, the Qur'anic idea of economic circulation as a return of goods and obligations was for everyone, whether donors and recipients know each other or not, in which goods move, and society does what it is supposed to do. The Qur'an's distinctive set of economic and
1010:
These changes lay in the reorientation of society as regards to identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values. From the viewpoint of subsequent generations, this caused a great transformation in the society and moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula. For Muhammad, although pre-Islamic
602:
Though the belief that pre-Islamic Arabs regularly practised female infanticide has become common among both Muslims and Western writers, few surviving sources are referencing the practice before Islam. An inscription in Yemen forbidding the practice, dating to approximately 400 BC, is the sole
403:
conquered. He thinks that one such area of tension was a consequence of what he sees as the egalitarian nature of Islamic doctrine. Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents." Lewis however notes that the
1345:
states that "Not merely did the Qur'an urge men to show care and concern for the needy, but in its teaching about the Last day it asserted the existence of a sanction applicable to men as individuals in matters where their selfishness was no longer restrained by nomadic ideas of dishonour."
651:
the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances," Lewis continues. The position of the Arabian slave was "enormously improved": the Arabian slave "was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human being with a certain religious and hence a
715:
theoretical framework and argues that the position of women is mostly influenced by the extent of urbanization, industrialization, polarization and political ploys of the state managers rather than culture or intrinsic properties of Islam; Islam, Moghadam argues, is neither more nor less
764:
was an important advance on the various loosely defined arrangements which had previously been both possible and current; it was only by this provision (backed up by severe punishment for adultery), that the family, the core of any sedentary society could be placed on a firm footing."
1538:
The Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called "Constitution of Medina." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 41, No. 1. 1978), page
1338:
and tribal feuds, which was common among Arabs, by encouraging compensation in money rather than blood. In case the aggrieved party insisted on blood, unlike the pre-Islamic Arab tradition in which any male relative could be slain, only the culprit himself could be executed.
1317:
describes the Arab conquest as a bloody campaign involving severe destruction and widespread slavery, followed by famine and plague, which he interprets as divine punishment upon his people. His view of Arab rulers is mixed, with positive descriptions of the caliph
806:
performance of such conditions as the payment of dowry. The woman's consent was imperative, either by active consent or silence. Furthermore, the offer and acceptance had to be made in the presence of at least two witnesses. According to a hadith collected by
1309:
welcomed the Arabs due to displeasure with the Byzantine Empire, other Copts, Greek Orthodox Egyptians, and Jews were fearful of them. He states that the taxes of Egyptian Christians and Jews tripled after the conquest, to the point that few could afford it.
869:, stating that instead, it was a social habit picked up with the expansion of Islam, the vast majority of Islamic scholars disagree, interpreting the Qur'anic verses 24:31 and 33:59 as requiring female modest dress, including a veil covering the head.
677:
Although there are many common features between the institution of slavery in the Qur'an and that of neighbouring cultures, however, the Qur'anic institution had some unique new features. According to Jonathan Brockopp, professor of History and
878:
not favourable to a comfortable life for women. More important, during Islam's second and third centuries the interpretation of the Qur'an was in the hands of deeply conservative scholars, whose decisions are not easy to challenge today."
943:), established by Muhammad, is flexible in social, religious, and political terms and includes a diversity of Muslims who share a general sense of common cause and consensus concerning beliefs and individual and communal actions.
797:.() The institution of marriage, characterized by unquestioned male superiority in the pre-Islamic law of status, was redefined and changed into one in which the woman was somewhat of an interested partner. 'For example, the
1293:
to tradition, gave such effective aid to the Arab invaders that they were for some time exempted from certain taxes, and there are many other reports in the early chronicles of local Jewish and Christian assistance.
1577:
see Wellhausen, Excursus, p. 158. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within 5 months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration."
792:
According to Islamic sources, no limitations were set on men's rights to marry or to obtain a divorce in pre-Islamic tradition. Islamic law, however, restricted polygamy to four wives at one time, not including
1068:, alms giving. Some of the recipients of charity appear only once in the Qur'an, and others—such as orphans, parents, and beggars—reappear constantly. Most common is the triad of kinsfolk, poor, and travelers.
1052:, generosity, and poverty markedly different from "the Christian notion of perennial reciprocity between rich and poor and the ideal of charity as an expression of community love." The Qur'an prohibits
1124:
to Medina, Muhammad found only one well to be used. The Muslims bought that well, and consequently it was used by the general public. After Muhammad's declaration that "water" was a better form of
1094:) maintains that Muhammad did not permit the construction of any buildings in the market of Medina other than mere tents; nor did he permit any tax or rent to be taken there. This expression of a "
887:
these weren't caused by Islam itself rather it was influence of patriarchal culture of the people who developed Islamic law, she believes Islam in itself is neutral in regards to women's rights.
760:... build up a new system of marriage, family and inheritance; this system treated women as an individual too and guaranteed social security to her as well as to her children. Legally controlled
1098:"—involving the circulation of goods within a single space without payment of fees, taxes, or rent, without the construction of permanent buildings, and without any profiting on the part of the
873:
Muhammad granted women rights and privileges in the sphere of family life, marriage, education, and economic endeavours, rights that help improve women's status in society." However, "the Arab
467:
within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community-the
842:
Watt states that Islam is still, in many ways, a man's religion. However, he states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of
451:, was drafted by Muhammad in 622. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims,
827:
women inheriting from male relatives in pre-Islamic Mecca and other Arabian trade cities are recorded in Islamic sources. However, its practice varied between tribes and was uncertain.
756:
states that the general improvement of the status of Arab women included the prohibition of female infanticide, and recognizing women's full personhood. Gerhard Endress states: "The
556:'s reforms consist of "regulations or moral guidance that limit or redefine rather than prohibit or replace existing practices." He cites slavery and women's status as two examples.
882:
an intentional choice on the part of Islamic scholars, who sought to present the era as deeply regressive in order to present Islam as tolerant by comparison. The Moroccan scholar
595:" Some historians believe it was once common, but had been in steep decline in the decades leading up to Islam, while others believe it occurred with some regularity as a means of
1166:. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea-route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by
1853:
834:, women were also granted the right to live in the matrimonial home and receive financial maintenance during marriage and a waiting period following the death and divorce.
1006:
The reverence of and compliance with ancestral traditions, a practice challenged by Islam — which instead assigned primacy to submitting to God and following revelation.
399:
Bernard Lewis believes that the advent of Islam was a revolution which only partially succeeded due to tensions between the new religion and very old societies that the
1252:. Esposito argues that the conquest provided greater local autonomy and religious freedom for Jews and some of the Christian Churches in the conquered areas (such as
1128:(charity), many of his companions sponsored the digging of new wells. During the Caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered.
822:
John Esposito states that "women were given inheritance rights in a patriarchal society that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives." Similarly,
778:
However, other records state that in pre-Islamic Arabia inheritance and status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia was not secured, but was limited to upper classes.
810:, "And indeed I order you to be good to the women, for they are but captives with you over whom you have no power than that, except if they come with manifest
2080:
Hsu, Shiu-Sian. "Modesty." Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Ed. Jane McAuliffe. Vol. 3. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003. 403-405. 6 vols.
1139:) and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to
846:
and improved things considerably. Watt explains the historical context surrounding women's rights at the time of Muhammad: "It appears that in some parts of
973:
The division of Arabs into varying tribes (based upon blood and kinship). This categorization was confronted by the ideal of a unified community based upon
560:
when the pregnant camels shall be neglected when the savage beasts shall be mustered when the seas shall be set boiling, when the souls shall be coupled,
1939:
The Quran gave women rights of inheritance and divorce centuries before women in other cultures, including the West, were accorded such legal status.
1553:. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement was shortly after the hijra and the document was amended at a later date specifically after the
1080:, have characterized both the Qur'an and Islam as highly favorable to commerce and to the highly mobile type of society that emerged in the medieval
315:
188:
999:
The focus on achieving fame or establishing a legacy, which was replaced by the concept that mankind would be called to account before God on the
746:(Islamic law) provided women with several rights. John Esposito states that the reforms affected marriage, divorce, and inheritance. According to
404:
equality in Islam was restricted to free adult male Muslims, but even that "represented a very considerable advance on the practice of both the
1228:
and 'Amr ibn al-'As, defeated both empires, making the Islamic state the dominant power in the region. Within only a decade, Muslims conquered
750:, there were cultures, in the West and elsewhere, where women were not accorded the rights of inheritance and divorce until centuries later.
513:
666:. Due to these reforms the practice of slavery in the Islamic Empire represented a "vast improvement on that inherited from antiquity, from
603:
mention of it in pre-Islamic records. However there's lack of information about that period so nothing can be said with certainty. Among
459:. The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (
208:
697:
Muhammad's parents, but also on other points such as worship of female idols at Mecca. Other writers, on the contrary, have argued that
2195:
2156:
854:
system was in the process of being replaced by a patrilineal one at the time of Muhammad. Growing prosperity caused by a shifting of
548:
shook the very foundations of Arabian society... Muhammad proclaimed a sweeping program of religious and social reform that affected
544:. He states that Muhammad's "insistence that each person was personally accountable not to tribal customary law but to an overriding
195:
2043:
1349:
Islam teaches support for the poor and the oppressed. In an effort to protect and help the poor and orphans, regular almsgiving —
909:
The Qur'an rejected the pre-Islamic idea of children as their fathers' property and abolished the pre-Islamic custom of adoption.
428:
established a community and a well organized and armed state, the power and prestige of which made it a dominant factor in Arabia.
2216:"Community and Society in the Qur'an," in Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 1, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, pp. 385.
1189:
Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Muhammad, who eventually united many of the independent nomadic
228:
183:
1561:: Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani.
1048:
of property circulated and purified, in part, through charity, which illustrates a distinctively Islamic way of conceptualizing
607:
Muslim sources, there are some individual named as having partaken in, observed, or intervened in cases of infanticide, such as
476:
The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the
203:
2207:"Social Sciences and the Qur'an," in Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, vol. 5, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, pp. 66-76.
2682:
2659:
2630:
2611:
2590:
2540:
2518:
2115:
1932:
1627:
308:
174:
1760:"The Merits of the Helpers in Madinah (Ansaar)' of Sahih Bukhari translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui - Hadith (Hadis) Books"
1910:
1791:
2361:
1301:, written in the early days of the conquest, describe churches being "pulled down" and "much destruction and plunder".
1759:
2472:
2140:
1643:
165:
2354:
Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam
904:
301:
144:
77:
624:
it for settled communities, he established a religious and social framework for the life of many races of men."
2711:
1849:
1820:
1657:
1039:
1035:
752:
580:
154:
129:
1458:
Nancy Gallagher, Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures, Infanticide and Abandonment of Female Children
969:. According to Kelsay, this challenge was directed against these main characteristics of pre-Islamic Arabia:
787:
149:
63:
552:
and practices, business contracts and practices, male-female and family relations". Esposito holds that the
2399:
1026:
and of the Last Judgment", the pre-Islamic tribal practices of the Arabs by no means completely died out.
1732:
Kropp, Manfred (July 1997). "Free and bound prepositions: a new look at the inscription Mafray/Qutra 1".
51:
2701:
160:
1644:"32. The Book of Marriage from Sahih Muslim translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui - Hadith (Hadis) Books"
2706:
2561:
2489:
1975:
1237:
291:
986:
The acceptance of the worship of a multitude of deities besides Allah - a view challenged by strict
2550:
1883:
1604:
1376:
1245:
1241:
633:
73:
23:
2576:
1364:
1298:
1269:
1249:
698:
2569:
1670:
al-Hibri, Azizah (1982). "A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess?".
1120:
Social welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. Upon his
912:
A. Giladi holds that Quran's rejection of the idea of children as their fathers' property was a
742:
writes that under the Arabian pre-Islamic law of status, women had virtually no rights, whereas
2555:
2243:
2232:
2174:
1261:
1217:
1210:
1023:
865:
While the art historian Jonathan Bloom believes that the Qur'an does not require women to wear
772:
517:
444:
438:
1297:
However, contemporary records of the conquests paint a more ambiguous picture. The letters of
1276:
1167:
1073:
662:
and had obligations as well as rights to the slave owner, an improvement over slavery in the
638:
962:
233:
8:
2377:
2040:
1697:
Giladi, Avner (May 1990). "Some Observations on Infanticide In Medieval Muslim Society".
1225:
238:
85:
2671:
2507:
1741:
1714:
1184:
1049:
916:
influence and was a response to the challenge of structural changes in tribal society.
900:
823:
708:
604:
584:
483:
345:
246:
46:
2247:
2178:
1135:. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by
2678:
2655:
2626:
2607:
2586:
2580:
2565:
2536:
2514:
2468:
2357:
2136:
2111:
2055:
1928:
1845:
1718:
1683:
1623:
1170:, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes, Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come."
1091:
958:
847:
843:
679:
509:
405:
134:
486:(the payment between families or tribes for the slaying of an individual in lieu of
2058:(1999). A paper using the material on this interview was published in The Coracle,
1706:
1679:
1314:
1190:
929:
757:
671:
568:
when the scrolls shall be unrolled...", though a hadith links the term used to the
549:
253:
41:
1302:
2601:
2047:
1795:
1206:
913:
883:
747:
663:
569:
352:
277:
31:
2059:
1902:
1554:
1044:
952:
851:
739:
691:
488:
409:
260:
2421:
1710:
2695:
2528:
1574:
1481:, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 665-691
1257:
1221:
1121:
1077:
859:
652:
596:
505:
376:
329:
272:
771:
argues that the independence and financial success of Muhammad's first wife
1253:
1233:
1140:
1019:
729:
667:
659:
608:
464:
364:
139:
90:
1523:
Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina."
2051:
1474:
1229:
1202:
1095:
855:
807:
802:
768:
533:
380:
219:
2623:
Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades
1745:
415:
Bernard Lewis writes about the significance of Muhammad's achievements:
1401:
1360:
1319:
1012:
794:
717:
576:
545:
424:
2108:
Secular and Islamic Feminist Critiques in the Work of Fatima Mernissi
1213:
between the two made the empires unpopular amongst the local tribes.
1099:
1081:
420:
384:
2008:
1988:
1059:
965:, and challenge those ideas in society which opposed submission to
811:
761:
725:
721:
702:
537:
529:
460:
456:
341:
337:
2599:
1559:
The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World
1351:
1869:, American Ethnologist, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov. 1995), pp. 1078-1079
1323:
1163:
874:
733:
712:
360:
1305:, writing in Egypt around the year 690, states that while some
1136:
1108:
1103:
1086:
988:
743:
612:
525:
478:
400:
388:
356:
108:
98:
2133:
Beyond the Veil: Male-female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society
1880:
Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East
1867:
Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East
1322:
and negative descriptions of others, including Muawiyah's son
2191:
1306:
1155:
1154:(Umar ibn al-Khattab) ordered the construction of a canal in
1144:
1132:
1064:
993:
975:
798:
643:
553:
541:
521:
469:
368:
333:
1989:"Sahih al-Bukhari » Book of Wedlock, Marriage (Nikaah)"
1923:
Karen Armstrong (2005). "Muhammad". In Lindsay Jones (ed.).
1018:
Although Muhammad's preaching produced a "radical change in
701:
was poor, citing practices of female infanticide, unlimited
579:
in this time period is uncertain. Donna Lee Bowen writes in
351:
A number of historians stated that changes in areas such as
1356:
1335:
1265:
1159:
1151:
1054:
866:
508:
sees Muhammad as a reformer who condemned practices of the
372:
120:
2342:
Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, extended edition, p.36
2333:
Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, extended edition, p.35
966:
452:
2575:
2263:
Michael Bonner, "Poverty and Economics in the Qur'an",
2157:"Women in Pre-Islamic Arabia | World Civilization"
1131:
In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and
658:
Lewis states that in Muslim lands slaves had a certain
599:
among destitute families both before and after Islam.
589:
2649:
1573:, and maintains the Jewish clans as clients of the
1565:. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen.
2670:
2506:
961:, was sent by God to remind human beings of their
1907:Marriage in Islamic Law: The Modernist Viewpoints
2693:
2620:
2465:The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity
1355:— was made obligatory for Muslims. This regular
1022:based on the sanctions of the new religion, and
2504:
1922:
1143:, and the Abi Musa Canal to providing water to
2527:
2101:
2099:
1734:Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
423:he had brought a new religion which, with its
1951:
1949:
1947:
1313:Writing around the same time in Mesopotamia,
891:own property or even inherit from relatives.
336:between 610 and 661, including the period of
309:
2668:
1699:International Journal of Middle East Studies
2600:Jonathan M. Bloom, Sheila S. Blair (1974).
2585:. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
2224:
2222:
2096:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1395:
1393:
1391:
566:) shall be asked for what sin she was slain
2603:Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power
2553:, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs (Ed.),
2009:"Jami' at-Tirmidhi - The Book on Suckling"
1966:
1964:
1944:
992:(Islamic monotheism), which dictates that
957:Muslims believe that Muhammad, like other
316:
302:
2259:
2257:
2093:, Oxford University Press US, 2004, p.163
2089:Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, John L. Esposito,
1836:
1834:
1832:
817:
432:
371:improved on what was present in existing
2219:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2130:
2021:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1809:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1776:. Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 229
1669:
1617:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1388:
996:has no partner in worship nor any equal;
637:
2351:
1961:
1800:
1622:. Oxford University Press. p. 30.
1620:Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1450:
939:The Islamic idea of community (that of
923:
711:analyzes the situation of women from a
16:Changes in Islam between 610 and 661 AD
2694:
2436:
2400:"John bar Penkaye History, Chapter 15"
2254:
2105:
1829:
1696:
837:
720:than other world religions especially
655:and with certain quasi-legal rights."
2646:Translated by Muhammad Yunus Qureshi.
2639:
2356:. The Darwin Press, Inc. p. 82.
2297:
2163:
1889:
1779:
1731:
1585:
1399:
583:that it was "common enough among the
419:He had achieved a great deal. To the
2265:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
2062:, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.
1927:(2nd ed.). Gale. p. 6224.
1461:
1447:
1173:
699:women's status in pre-Islamic Arabia
2304:Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A
1911:American Journal of Comparative Law
1792:Race and Slavery in the Middle East
1672:Women's Studies International Forum
1205:was dominated by the Byzantine and
1029:
705:, patrilineal marriage and others.
375:society. For example, according to
13:
2535:. US: Princeton University Press.
2041:Interview: William Montgomery Watt
1334:Islam reduced the effect of blood
618:
394:
379:, Islam "from the first denounced
14:
2723:
1359:-giving developed into a form of
685:
495:
2267:, xxxv:3 (Winter, 2005), 391–406
2091:Islam, Gender, and Social Change
1806:Bernard Lewis, (1992), pp. 78-79
1329:
1115:
1106:himself)—was rooted in the term
946:
905:Islamic adoptional jurisprudence
587:to be assigned a specific term,
2582:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman
2478:
2457:
2445:
2414:
2392:
2370:
2345:
2336:
2327:
2318:
2309:
2288:
2279:
2270:
2237:
2210:
2201:
2185:
2149:
2124:
2083:
2074:
2065:
2034:
2001:
1981:
1972:Islam: An Introduction to Islam
1916:
1872:
1859:
1774:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman
1766:
1752:
1725:
1690:
1663:
1650:
1636:
1611:
1543:
1530:
1517:
1404:. The New York Review of Books.
1058:, often understood as usury or
858:was accompanied by a growth in
421:pagan peoples of western Arabia
387:, and adopted a formula of the
340:'s mission and the rule of his
2625:. Cambridge University Press.
2452:The Cambridge History of Islam
2071:Bloom and Blair (2002) p.46-47
1956:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
1497:
1484:
1435:
1426:
1417:
1408:
1343:The Cambridge History of Islam
1196:
1040:Islamic economics in the world
1036:Islamic economic jurisprudence
832:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
753:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
1:
2498:
1913:, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 213-218
1511:Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
1479:Women and the Advent of Islam
1443:Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
1400:Lewis, Bernard (1998-01-21).
788:Islamic marital jurisprudence
2650:Schimmel, Annemarie (1992).
2549:P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis,
1684:10.1016/0277-5395(82)90028-0
590:
500:
7:
2640:Nadvi, Abdus Salam (2000).
2509:Muhammad: A Short Biography
2442:Bloom and Blair (2002) p.46
1821:Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
1658:Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
1563:Annali dell'Islam, Volume I
1370:
1363:to be used exclusively for
1268:who were deemed heretic by
894:
801:, previously regarded as a
781:
581:Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
10:
2728:
2135:. Saqi Books. p. 66.
1794:, Oxford Univ Press 1994,
1182:
1102:authority (indeed, of the
1033:
950:
898:
785:
689:
642:A slave market in Islamic
631:
627:
615:narrated by Asma bint Ab.
436:
2621:Manning, Patrick (1990).
2606:. Yale University Press.
2562:Brill Academic Publishers
2490:New York University Press
2131:Mernissi, Fatima (1975).
1976:Columbia University Press
1711:10.1017/S0020743800033377
1238:Muslim conquest of Persia
1178:
1084:. Muslim tradition (both
292:Islamization of knowledge
175:Science in medieval times
2677:. Blackwell Publishing.
2673:A Brief History of Islam
2644:. Karachi: Darul Ishaat.
2577:Watt, William Montgomery
2505:Forward, Martin (1998).
2352:Hoyland, Robert (1997).
2031:, p.65, SUNY Press, 1992
1925:Encyclopedia of Religion
1884:Lynne Rienner Publishers
1605:Islam: The Straight Path
1506:Firestone (1999) p. 118;
1382:
634:Islamic views on slavery
562:when the buried infant (
2642:The ways of the Sahabah
2294:Nadvi (2000), pg. 407-8
2285:Nadvi (2000), pg. 405-6
2276:Nadvi (2000), pg. 403-4
2046:August 7, 2011, at the
2029:Islam-: An Introduction
1878:Valentine M. Moghadam.
1618:Esposito, John (2002).
1580:Israel Oriental Studies
1299:Sophronius of Jerusalem
575:The true prevalence of
2652:Islam: An Introduction
2556:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2244:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2233:Encyclopedia of Ethics
2175:Encyclopaedia of Islam
1865:Unni Wikan, review of
1567:Skizzen und Vorabeiten
1432:Esposito (1998), p. 98
1295:
1286:
1003:(day of resurrection);
850:, notably in Mecca, a
818:Inheritance and wealth
647:
445:Constitution of Medina
439:Constitution of Medina
433:Constitution of Medina
430:
391:open to the talents".
342:immediate successor(s)
2712:Islamic jurisprudence
2669:Sonn, Tamara (2004).
2484:Minou Reeves (2000),
2106:Rhouni, Raja (2009).
1772:Watt, W. Montgomery.
1377:Reforms of Umar's era
1290:
1288:Bernard Lewis wrote:
1281:
1277:Francis Edward Peters
1034:Further information:
979:(Islamic piety), an "
641:
417:
2513:. Oxford: Oneworld.
2315:Hourani (2003), p.22
2027:Annemarie Schimmel,
1852:). Routledge: 2003,
1423:Robinson (2004) p.21
1402:"Islamic Revolution"
1193:under Islamic rule.
963:moral responsibility
924:Sociological changes
447:, also known as the
383:privilege, rejected
344:who established the
103:(Islamic monotheism)
69:Early social changes
64:Early historiography
2422:"Sebeos' Chronicle"
1270:Christian Orthodoxy
1250:Byzantine–Arab Wars
1226:Khalid ibn al-Walid
838:The status of women
2654:. US: SUNY Press.
2486:Muhammad in Europe
2060:the Iona Community
1825:Slaves and Slavery
1551:Muhammad at Medina
1414:Watt (1974), p.234
1211:Roman–Persian Wars
1185:Muhammad in Medina
901:Islam and children
824:Annemarie Schimmel
709:Valentine Moghadam
648:
514:female infanticide
346:Rashidun Caliphate
2702:7th-century Islam
2684:978-1-4051-0900-0
2661:978-0-7914-1327-2
2632:978-0-521-34867-6
2613:978-0-300-09422-0
2592:978-0-19-881078-0
2542:978-0-691-05419-3
2533:The Jews of Islam
2520:978-1-85168-131-0
2378:"Nikiu Chronicle"
2117:978-90-47-42960-9
2056:Alastair McIntosh
1970:Gerhard Endress,
1934:978-0-02-865742-4
1886:, USA, 1993) p. 5
1840:Turner, Brian S.
1656:Donna Lee Bowen,
1629:978-0-19-515435-1
1525:Islamic Quarterly
1248:during the early
1218:Islamic conquests
1216:During the early
1174:Political changes
1150:During a famine,
1074:Charles C. Torrey
959:prophets in Islam
680:Religious Studies
611:, as stated in a
585:pre-Islamic Arabs
449:Charter of Medina
332:took place under
326:
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78:Modern philosophy
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2707:Life of Muhammad
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1224:, mostly led by
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1191:tribes of Arabia
1030:Economic changes
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1660:, Infanticide
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944:
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2402:. Tertullian
2394:
2382:. Retrieved
2380:. Tertullian
2372:
2353:
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2320:
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2306:(1977), p.57
2303:
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2067:
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2028:
2023:
2012:. Retrieved
2003:
1992:. Retrieved
1983:
1978:, 1988, p.31
1971:
1955:
1938:
1924:
1918:
1906:
1879:
1874:
1866:
1861:
1841:
1824:
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1773:
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1727:
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1579:
1570:
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1562:
1558:
1550:
1545:
1537:
1532:
1524:
1519:
1510:
1509:"Muhammad",
1499:
1491:
1486:
1478:
1442:
1441:"Ak̲h̲lāḳ",
1437:
1428:
1419:
1410:
1350:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1333:
1312:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1274:
1258:Monophysites
1215:
1200:
1188:
1149:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1107:
1085:
1070:
1063:
1053:
1043:
1020:moral values
1017:
1009:
1000:
987:
980:
974:
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940:
938:
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928:Sociologist
927:
918:
911:
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889:
880:
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864:
856:trade routes
841:
831:
829:
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791:
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767:
751:
738:
730:Christianity
707:
695:
676:
660:legal status
657:
649:
622:
609:Zayd ibn Amr
601:
588:
574:
565:
561:
558:
518:exploitation
504:
489:lex talionis
487:
477:
475:
468:
465:Banu Khazraj
448:
442:
418:
414:
398:
381:aristocratic
350:
327:
286:Other topics
234:Architecture
140:Etiquettical
99:
76: /
68:
2052:Bashir Maan
1740:: 169–174.
1475:Leila Ahmed
1246:Roman Egypt
1242:Roman Syria
1236:during the
1230:Mesopotamia
1203:Middle East
1197:Middle East
1096:free market
1024:fear of God
852:matrilineal
808:Al-Tirmidhi
803:bride-price
769:Leila Ahmed
718:patriarchal
670:, and from
534:fornication
510:pagan Arabs
406:Greco-Roman
359:structure,
239:Calligraphy
196:Mathematics
166:Theological
86:Eschatology
2696:Categories
2499:References
2467:, p. 104,
2014:2018-08-02
1994:2018-08-02
1850:041512347X
1361:income tax
1320:Muawiyah I
1254:Nestorians
1183:See also:
1013:monotheism
795:concubines
786:See also:
577:gendercide
546:divine law
484:blood-wite
425:monotheism
247:Literature
189:Inventions
145:Hygienical
109:Mysticism
47:Philosophy
2570:1573-3912
2424:. Attalus
2110:. Brill.
1796:chapter 1
1719:144324973
1494:, p.45-46
1262:Jacobites
1207:Sassanian
1162:with the
1082:Near East
672:Byzantium
530:contracts
501:Practices
385:hierarchy
229:Astrology
184:Astronomy
161:Political
2579:(1974).
2531:(1984).
2492:, p. 42.
2428:2 August
2406:2 August
2384:2 August
2246:Online,
2044:Archived
1746:41223623
1371:See also
1100:caliphal
1060:interest
895:Children
875:Bedouins
812:Fahishah
782:Marriage
773:Khadijah
762:polygamy
726:Hinduism
722:Buddhism
703:polygyny
564:mawudatu
538:adultery
528:, false
512:such as
461:Banu Aus
412:world".
408:and the
363:and the
338:Muhammad
204:Medicine
155:Military
135:Economic
130:Criminal
111:(Sufism)
52:Theology
24:a series
22:Part of
1365:welfare
1324:Yazid I
1164:Red Sea
1126:sadaqah
1050:charity
1001:Qiyamah
734:Judaism
713:Marxist
628:Slavery
401:Muslims
361:slavery
278:Pottery
150:Marital
42:History
2681:
2658:
2629:
2610:
2589:
2568:
2558:Online
2539:
2517:
2471:
2360:
2249:Akhlaq
2198:
2196:33:4–5
2194:
2180:saghir
2139:
2114:
2054:&
1931:
1854:p77-78
1848:
1744:
1717:
1626:
1575:Ansars
1549:Watt.
1234:Persia
1220:, the
1179:Arabia
1137:Talhah
1133:canals
1109:sadaqa
1104:Caliph
1087:hadith
989:Tawhid
848:Arabia
744:Sharia
732:, and
613:hadith
554:Qur'an
540:, and
526:murder
463:) and
457:pagans
455:, and
389:career
365:rights
357:family
261:Poetry
100:Tawhid
2192:Quran
2050:, by
1842:Islam
1742:JSTOR
1715:S2CID
1608:p. 79
1571:Ummah
1503:See:
1383:Notes
1352:zakat
1336:feuds
1307:Copts
1266:Copts
1156:Egypt
1145:Basra
1141:Anbar
1122:hijra
1065:zakat
994:Allah
981:ummah
976:taqwa
941:ummah
867:veils
799:dowry
644:Yemen
605:ṣaḥīḥ
542:theft
522:usury
479:hijra
470:Ummah
369:women
334:Islam
328:Many
273:Music
74:Early
2679:ISBN
2656:ISBN
2627:ISBN
2608:ISBN
2587:ISBN
2566:ISSN
2537:ISBN
2515:ISBN
2469:ISBN
2430:2018
2408:2018
2386:2018
2358:ISBN
2137:ISBN
2112:ISBN
1929:ISBN
1846:ISBN
1624:ISBN
1357:alms
1264:and
1244:and
1240:and
1232:and
1160:Nile
1152:Umar
1090:and
1076:and
1055:riba
1038:and
903:and
668:Rome
591:waʾd
453:Jews
443:The
373:Arab
220:Arts
1882:. (
1707:doi
1680:doi
1272:).
967:God
674:."
492:).
367:of
2698::
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2488:,
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2231:,
2221:^
2177:,
2165:^
2098:^
1974:,
1963:^
1946:^
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1891:^
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1781:^
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1587:^
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26:on
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2120:.
2017:.
1997:.
1856:.
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1709::
1686:.
1682::
1676:5
1646:.
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211:)
207:(
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