Doping in sport - Knowledge

1989:(ephedrine is known to help weight-loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. The federation also reviewed in 1988 the relevant documents with the athletes' names undisclosed and stated that "the medical committee felt satisfied, however, on the basis of the information received that the cases had been properly concluded by the USOC as 'negative cases' in accordance with the rules and regulations in place at the time and no further action was taken". 2252:, stated: "that in the years of 1994 to 1998 there was no ascertained positive case of doping substances by Juventus players, that the purchase of erythropoietin or its administration to the athletes of the club does not emerge from any act of the trial, and that the same expert had identified the possibility of an administration of erythropoietin in distant terms from the sure evidence ("very probable" and in two cases "practically certain"): it is that therefore, the judgement of probability and not of certainty, did not allow for a statement of responsibility." The verdict also went on to say: "In response to the conclusion taken, the territorial court notes that there were no deferred values higher than the limits set in the various antidoping protocols and that the situation of the Juventus players, both with reference to the average hematological values, and in relation to that of material balance, did not differ from the national average population. 2955:'s definition of gender as a performative act. Examples of social pressures were given in a study done on an online bodybuilding community where bodybuilders doped because they felt like it was a rite of passage to be accepted into the community, and to feel validated. Both men and women are being materialized in the context of doping in sport; in an interview involving 140 men, it was concluded that "bodily practices are essential for masculine identity," and it was determined that the media highly publicizes female athletes who were strong, and thin. This leads to the issue of the consumption of performance enhancement drugs to achieve muscular or thin figures, and the assumption that the opponents are also taking performance-enhancing drugs, deeming it as an acceptable behavior to conform to. In addition, society's embracement of the "winning is everything" spirit leads many athletes to participate in doping, hoping that they will not be caught. 1344:. We swore that we would never speak to anyone about our training methods, including our parents. The training was very hard. We were all watched. We signed a register each time we left for dormitory and we had to say where we were going and what time we would return. One day, my trainer, Günter Clam, advised me to take pills to improve my performance: I was running 200m in 24 seconds. My trainer told me the pills were vitamins, but I soon had cramp in my legs, my voice became gruff and sometimes I couldn't talk any more. Then I started to grow a moustache and my periods stopped. I then refused to take these pills. One morning in October 1977, the secret police took me at 7am and questioned me about my refusal to take pills prescribed by the trainer. I then decided to flee, with my fiancé. 2964:

enhancement drugs were influenced by the potential athletic success, 74% by the economic aspect, and 30% by self-confidence and social recognition related reasons. In another study of 40 people, it was concluded that athletes used performance enhancement drugs for healing purposes so that they were an able competitor for the economic rewards involved with elite sports. Physical pressures often overlap with social pressures to have a certain body build. This is the case with muscle dysmorphia, where an athlete wants a more muscular physique for functionality and self- image purposes. The most popular motive for athletes to take supplements is to prevent any nutrient deficiencies and to strengthen the immune system. These factors all focus on improving the body for performance.

1857:(CAS) against the WADA decision. The Court of Arbitration for Sport, on review of Russia's appeal of its case from WADA, ruled on 17 December 2020 to reduce the penalty that WADA had imposed. Instead of banning Russia from sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but for a period of two years the team cannot use the Russian name, flag, or anthem and must present themselves as "Neutral Athlete" or "Neutral Team". The ruling does allow for team uniforms to display "Russia" on the uniform as well as the use of the Russian flag's colors within the uniform's design, although the name should be up to equal predominance as the "Neutral Athlete/Team" designation. Russia can appeal the decision. 3093: 2973:

The individuals are very egotistic in their way of thinking and their motivation is dependent on the performance enhancement drug since they believe that it delivers the results. On a study on health psychology, Quirk points out three different psychological aspects that lead one to dope: social cognition, stress and strain, and addiction. The social and physical pressures can alter an athlete's way of thinking, leading them to believe that they must take performance enhancement drugs since everyone else is doing it, known as "the doping dilemma."This also causes athletes to be hesitant to consult with a doctor about their steroid use, putting themselves at more risk with health problems.

2314:, who at the time was one of the presidents of the UFC, said, "We want 100 percent of the fighters tested the night they compete". Also, in addition to the drug testing protocols in place for competitors on fight night, the UFC conducts additional testing for main event fighters or any fighters that are due to compete in championship matches. This includes enhanced, random 'out of competition' testing for performance-enhancing drugs, with both urine and blood samples being taken. The UFC also announced that all potential UFC signees would be subject to mandatory pre-contract screening for performance-enhancing drugs prior to being offered a contract with the promotion. 1353: 2192:

sleeping problems. In Köln he was chauffeuring his colleagues to the doctor who gave them pills and injections, presumably anabolics and stimulants. In the national team he mentioned a "walking chemist" and hormone use. Despite being supported by Paul Breitner he had to leave Köln after 544 games. Later on, his statements about doping in the Bundesliga were supported by Per Roentved, Hans Werner Moors, Dieter Schatzscheider, Hans-Josef Kapellmann, Peter Neururer, Benno Möhlmann, Uwe Nester, Peter Geyer (who talked about procedure, quantity and side effects), Jürgen Röber, Jürgen Stumm and Peter Harms (both medics).

1158:. Its perceived effects gave it the street name "speed". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that "Methedrine won the Battle of Britain" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as a 1014:

anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At the collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes.

2271:. They told about stimulants taken prior to their big games, which made them more energetic and keen. According to Eydelie, "all (of them) took a series of injections" in the Champions League Final 1993, except Rudi Völler. All this was no surprise for Arsene Wenger, who said everyone in France assumed something like that going on. Additionally, Desailly and Cascarino claimed that Bernard Tapie, the president himself, distributed pills and injections. Author Mondenard also mentioned "injections for everyone". Tapie only admitted that some players took Captagon. 615:, popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to regulate the use of drugs in sports strictly. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and the exemplary effect of drug-free sports for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the "spirit of sport". 2085:, sports minister at that time, also recalls that she felt pressurised when she initiated an unannounced test in December 1997. There were no more unannounced tests after that. Jean-Pierre Paclet, physician of Les Bleus in 1998, mentions "abnormal haematocrit values" in his book. Gary Neville, former English international, recalled that "some of the players started taking injections from (...) a Frenchman called Dr Rougier". After some felt an energy boost, there was "a queue to see the doctor before the Argentina match". 2057:, Salah Larbès, Abdelkader Tlemçani, members of Algerias national side in the 1980s, claim that they were given performance-enhancing drugs. They suspect this to be the reason why they all fathered disabled children. Chaib, father of three disabled children, demanded the medical records and was told they didn't exist anymore. Rashid Hanafi, team doctor back then, also suspected there were suspicious practices going on. He told CNN that he was "not allowed to take a look at the medical records of the players any more when 1410:, said: "Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training." He said: "For every Olympic champion, there are at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by the intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank , which is even more painful than a deformed spine." 2986: 1552: 62: 67: 11177: 1941:, Exum tried to use them in a lawsuit against USOC, accusing the organization of racial discrimination and wrongful termination against him and cover-up over the failed tests. the Denver federal Court summarily dismissed his case for lack of evidence. The USOC labelled his case "baseless" as he himself was the one in charge of screening the anti-doping test program of the organization and clarifying that the athletes were cleared according to the rules. 2172:, former Ajax player, claimed that "everyone was on something". He recounted injections for everyone on 1 November 1979, ahead of a match of his team, Saint-Etienne, against PSV Eindhoven. Pierre Poty, who was physician of the club at that time, also revealed that he worked with uppers and reasoned it with the fantastic effects. Fritz Kessel, also physician, worked for the Dutch national side for 30 years and revealed that drugs were common in the 1263: 2539: 11187: 2657: 2749: 3356: 11165: 3342: 2248:

the existence or not of any judgement rendered by a State court, sports authorities are under the obligation to prosecute the use of pharmaceutical substances which are prohibited by sports law or any other anti-doping rule violation in order to adopt disciplinary measures." In December 2005, Agricola was acquitted of the charges by Turin's court of appeal. In March 2007, in the final verdict by the

2007:'s belief that education and prevention with constant in and out-of-competition controls play a key role in making high-profile competitions free of performance-enhancing drugs. The FIFA administration work alongside team physicians to fight for dope free competitions, having them sign a joint declaration that states they agree with having routine blood testing to check for blood doping before any 2337:. While EPO is believed to have been widely used by athletes in the 1990s, there was not a way to directly test for the drug until 2002 as there was no specific screening process to test athletes . Athletes at the Olympic Games are tested for EPO through blood and urine tests. Stringent guidelines and regulations can lessen the danger of doping that has existed within some endurance sports. 3101:

has tested positive for a prohibited substance is requested an analysis of his or her B-sample after a confirmation test on sample A that delivered the same results. If the B-sample test results match the A-sample results, then the athlete is considered to have a positive test, otherwise, the test results are negative. This confirmation process ensures the safety of the individual.

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compelled to use drugs, and the net effect would be a level playing field but with widespread health consequences. A common rebuttal to this argument asserts that anti-doping efforts have been largely ineffective due to both testing limitations and lack of enforcement, and so sanctioned steroid use would not be markedly different from the situation already in existence.

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rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance."

1906:, the USOC recognized his gold-medal performance in the 1972 Summer Olympics in 2001, but only the IOC has the power to restore his medal, and it has as of 2017 refused to do so. DeMont originally won the gold medal in 4:00.26. Following the race, the IOC stripped him of his gold medal after his post-race urinalysis tested positive for traces of the banned substance 2203:(EPO) and the matter went to trial in 2004. In November 2004, club doctor Riccardo Agricola was given a 22-month prison sentence and fined €2,000 for sporting fraud by providing performance-enhancing drugs, specifically EPO, to players between 1994 and 1998, Leading hematologist Giuseppe d'Onofrio said that it was "practically certain" that midfielders 1949:. Former athletes and officials came out against the USOC cover-up. "For so many years I lived it. I knew this was going on, but there's absolutely nothing you can do as an athlete. You have to believe governing bodies are doing what they are supposed to do. And it is obvious they did not," said former American sprinter and 1984 Olympic champion, 1431:) was especially singled out as a center for doping in the former East Germany. Many former club officials and some athletes found themselves charged after the dissolution of the country. Victims of doping, trying to gain justice and compensation, set up a special page on the internet to list people involved in doping in the GDR. 1531:. Despite court rulings in Germany that substantiate claims of systematic doping by some East German swimmers, the IOC executive board announced that it has no intention of revising the Olympic record books. In rejecting the American petition on behalf of its women's medley relay team in Montreal and a similar petition from the 2333:. An athlete's VO2 max is highly correlated with success within endurance sports such as swimming, long-distance running, cycling, rowing, and cross-country skiing. EPO has recently become prevalent amongst endurance athletes due to its potency and low degree of detectability when compared to other methods of doping such as 1985:, 4 ppm and 6 ppm. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for 853:. Caffeine, although a stimulant, has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004. It has a positive effect on various physical parameters, most of all endurance, but also on velocity, strength, reaction time and specific actions like throwing performance. 1086:. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for 938:, a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: "We had to take them at lunchtime. He would put them on a little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine." 3100:

Under established doping control protocols, the athlete will be asked to provide a urine sample, which will be divided into two, each portion to be preserved within sealed containers bearing the same unique identifying number and designation respectively as A- and B-samples. An athlete whose A-sample

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introduced S. 1829, The Steroid Trafficking Act of 1989. The purpose of the act was simple: It would "amend the Controlled Substances Act to further restrict the use of steroids. By designating anabolic steroids as a Schedule II controlled substance, the bill would crack down on illegal steroid use".

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Social pressure is one of the factors that leads to doping in sport. The media and society work together to construct a view of what masculinity and femininity should look like. Adolescent athletes are constantly influenced by what they see on the media, and some go to extreme measures to achieve the

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gave the following advisory opinion, in part: "The use of pharmaceutical substances which are not expressly prohibited by sports law, and which cannot be considered as substances similar or related to those expressly prohibited, is not to be sanctioned by disciplinary measures. However, regardless of

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In 1987, Toni Schumacher wrote about a long-running tradition of doping in the Bundesliga, claiming that lots of players were taking Captagon. He himself experimented with it and the effects were: Increased aggression, lower pain threshold, increased focus, confidence and endurance. The by effect was

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Dr (Heinz) Wuschech knows more about anabolic steroids than any doctor I have ever met, and yet he cannot discuss them openly any more than Geoff Capes or Mac Wilkins can openly discuss them in the current climate of amateur sports regulation. What I did learn in East Germany was that they feel there

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She brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for a year for the sake of her family.

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we counted the pills: there were 5,000 of them, excluding hormone preparations and sleeping pills. I took them away, to his own relief. I let him keep the hormones and the sleeping pills. Later he seemed to have taken too many at once and he slept for a couple of days on end. We couldn't wake him up.

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A number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with

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The fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and appealed to the crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their

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argues that anti-doping authorities have not adequately defined and publicized how they arrived at the criteria used to determine whether or not a test result is positive ...calibrated in part by testing a small number of volunteers taking the substance in question. ...that individual labs need to

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and medical counseling, such that medical safety is ensured, with all usage published. Under such a system, it is likely that athletes would attempt to cheat by exceeding official limits to try to gain an advantage; this could be considered conjecture as drug amounts do not always correlate linearly

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Some commentators maintain that, as outright prevention of doping is an impossibility, all doping should be legalised. However, most disagree with this, pointing out the claimed harmful long-term effects of many doping agents. Opponents claim that with doping legal, all competitive athletes would be

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Lack of libido and erectile dysfunction: especially occurs in those men abusing aromatisable androgen anabolic steroids, resulting in high oestrogen levels. Although physiological levels of oestrogens are necessary for normal sexual function, the high doses and the imbalance between testosterone and

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and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative side effects, and anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drugs have been

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at the behest of Iñaki Badiola, president of the club in 2008. The documentation of the doctor also contained the inscriptions "RSOC" a couple of times and "Cuentas Asti" which most probably stands for Astiazarán, president of the club from 2000 to 2005. In 2003 Real Sociedad finished second in the

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I cannot remember how they first came to be offered to us. But they were distributed in the dressing rooms. We didn't have to take them but most of the players did. The tablets were mostly white but once or twice they were yellow. They were used through the 1961–62 season and the championship season

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league, were champions of the 1962–63 season, and it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted the

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Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase

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Psychology is another factor to take into consideration in doping in sport. It becomes a behavioral issue when the athlete acknowledges the health risks associated with doping, yet participates in it anyway. This has to do with the psychological thinking that the drug will make one feel invincible.

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Over the years, different sporting bodies have evolved differently in the struggle against doping. Some, such as athletics and cycling, are becoming increasingly vigilant against doping. However, there has been criticism that sports such as football (soccer) and baseball are doing nothing about the

1421:, the state secret police, supervised systematic doping of East German athletes from 1971 until reunification in 1990. Doping existed in other countries, says the expert Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, both communist and capitalist, but the difference with East Germany was that it was a state policy. The 1221:

is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have failed tests for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as the drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their

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I took him along to a training camp in Spain. The boy changed then into a sort of lion. He raced around as though he was powered by rockets. I went to talk to him. He was really happy he was riding well and he told me to look out for him. I asked if he wasn't perhaps "using something" and he jumped

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with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over "a few drinks", repeatedly asked "What are you giving your boys?" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses

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It may be an advantage to know that a man can travel 520 miles in 138 hours, and manage to live through a week with an infinitesimal amount of rest, though we fail to perceive that anyone could possibly be placed in a position where his ability in this respect would be of any use to him what is to

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Sports scholar Verner Moller argues that society is hypocritical when it holds athletes to moral standards, but do not conform to those morals themselves. Fox Sports writer Jen Floyd Engel stated in an article, "We live in a pharmacological society. We live in a society of short cuts, of fake this

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The gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS is a way to detect any variations in the isotopic composition of an organic compound from the standard. This test is used to detect whether or not synthetic testosterone was consumed, leading to an increased abnormal testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) level.

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equality among athletes. The use of 'the suit' in swimming, which gives athletes an advantage in the way of hydrodynamics, has been banned from international competition due to the unfair advantage it delivered. The drugs taken by athletes differ widely based on the performance needs of the sport.

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The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport has become an increasing problem across a wide range of sports. It is defined as any substance or drug that, when taken, gives an athlete an unfair advantage relative to a "clean" athlete. The banning of these drugs promotes a level playing field and

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In December 2013, the UFC began a campaign to drug test their entire roster randomly all year-round. Random testing, however, became problematic for the promotion as it began to affect revenue, as fighters who had tested positive would need to be taken out of fights, which adversely affected fight

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The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988. Now it is regarded as negative test; the acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC

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said: "A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons." Brand name Dianabol is no

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The editorial closes, saying "Nature believes that accepting 'legal limits' of specific metabolites without such rigorous verification goes against the foundational standards of modern science, and results in an arbitrary test for which the rate of false positives and false negatives can never be

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Elite athletes have financial competitive motivations that cause them to dope and these motivations differ from that of recreational athletes. The common theme among these motivations is the pressure to physically perform. In a study of 101 individuals, 86% responded that their use of performance

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in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergey

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government helped fund a wide-scale doping programme. West Germany encouraged and covered up a culture of doping across many sports for decades. Clemens Prokop, head of Germany's athletics federation, told Reuters Television in an interview, "It is a bit of a problem that there is a short version

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Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement, decreasing the sensation of fatigue and improving motor coordination. The latter happens via improvement of the interaction between nervous

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An athletic contest in which the participants 'go queer' in their heads, and strain their powers until their faces become hideous with the tortures that rack them, is not sport, it is brutality. It appears from the reports of this singular performance that some of the bicycle riders have actually

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The athlete biological passport is a program that tracks the location of an athlete to combat doping in sports. This means that the athlete can be monitored and drug tested wherever they are and this data can be compared to the history of their doping test results. There is an ongoing discussion

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Lance Armstrong was world number one in 1996. In the same year he recovered from severe testicular cancer and continued to break records and win his seventh Tour de France in 2005. After beating cancer and breaking records he was accused of doping. Teammates of Lance had been caught taking EPO

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A study titled "Doping in Germany from 1950 to today", published in August 2013, stated that some members of the Germany national team received injections during their successful world cup 1954. Erik Eggers, who wrote about the preanabolic period in the study, was sure that the injections didn't

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Carl Lewis broke his silence on allegations that he was the beneficiary of a drugs cover-up, admitting he had failed tests for banned substances, but claiming he was just one of "hundreds" of American athletes who were allowed to escape bans, concealed by the USOC. Lewis has acknowledged that he

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in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The

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and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take a drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by

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The American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: "Trainers of the old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures." John Hoberman, a professor at the

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The use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial to help increase muscle. For instance,

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of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought a drug without after-effects and hit upon the anabolic steroid

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From that moment, people started to introduce their specific diets to improve their performance. Lots of athletes were mainly focusing on achieving superiority and winning the competition by increasing muscle strength capacity, and endurance. Charmis, the Spartan winner of the Stade race in the

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In countries where the use of these drugs is controlled, there is often a black market trade of smuggled or counterfeit drugs. The quality of these drugs may be poor and can cause health risks. In countries where anabolic steroids are strictly regulated, some have called for regulatory relief.

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Francis Pélissier said much later: "Londres was a famous reporter but he didn't know about cycling. We kidded him a bit with our cocaine and our pills. Even so, the Tour de France in 1924 was no picnic." The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930, when the race

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contained in his prescription asthma medication, Marax. The positive test following the 400 meter freestyle final also deprived him of a chance at multiple medals, as he was not permitted to swim in any other events at the 1972 Olympics, including the 1,500-meter freestyle for which he was the

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in Mexico City, the country of 17 million collected nine gold medals. Four years later the total was 20 and in 1976 it doubled again to 40. Ewald was quoted as having told coaches, "They're still so young and don't have to know everything." In July 2000 Ewald received a 22-month suspended

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It has to be appreciated that at the time the menace of doping for the health of athletes or of the purity of competition had yet to enter the morals because, after this marathon, the official race report said: The marathon has shown from a medical point of view how drugs can be very useful to

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To avoid being tested during training periods, athletes can make themselves unavailable. To mitigate this, athletes have to report their location at any time. If intended doping tests could not be done because the athlete could not be found, three times during a year, it's considered a doping

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Argentina took "speedy coffee" before the qualifier for the world cup 1994 against Australia, at least this is what Maradona said in May 2011. It should make them run faster, but also caused sleeping problems. He also found it suspicious that only the deciding match (against Australia) had no

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Russian doping is distinct from doping in other countries because in Russia the state supplied steroids and other drugs to sportspeople. Due to widespread doping violations, including an attempt to sabotage ongoing investigations by the manipulation of computer data, on 9 December 2019 the

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Athletes caught doping may be subject to penalties from their local, as well from the individual sporting, governing body. The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country. Fighters found using performance-enhancing drugs in mixed martial arts competitions (e.g. the

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One approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included

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We took him to hospital and they pumped out his stomach. They tied him to his bed to prevent anything going wrong again. But one way or another he had some stimulant and fancied taking a walk. A nurse came across him in the corridor, walking along with the bed strapped to his back.

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which followed it. Drug-taking had previously been virtually unnamed in the club. But once it had started we could have as many tablets as we liked. On match days they were handed out to most players as a matter of course. Soon some of the players could not do without the drugs.

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sentence, to the outrage of his victims. Often, doping took place without the knowledge of the athletes, some of them as young as ten years of age. It is estimated that around 10,000 former athletes bear the physical and mental scars of years of drug abuse; one of them,

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system and musculature. It has greater effect when an athlete is already exhausted - the period when the coordination suffers the most. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids.

730:(1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of 5954: 1864:. On aftermatch, the IOC announced that the Russian national flag would be substituted by the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee. It would also be allowed to use team uniforms bearing the words "Russian Olympic Committee", or the acronym "ROC" would be added. 2495:

following the discovery of a team car containing large amounts of various performance-enhancing drugs. The team director later admitted that some of the cyclists were routinely given banned substances. Six other teams pulled out in protest including Dutch team

1867:

On 15 April 2021, the uniforms for the Russian Olympic Committee athletes were unveiled, featuring the colours of the Russian flag. On 22 April 2021, the replacement for Russia's anthem was approved by the IOC, after an earlier choice of the patriotic Russian

1767:, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games." 2043:(an upper, also used massively by soldiers in World War 2) was widespread in German football in the 1940s. The study, 800 pages in length and costing 450.000 Euro, was done by Berlin's Humboldt University and financed by the institute of sports science. 8708: 1980:

are also found in cold medication. Due to the rules, his case could have led to disqualification from the Seoul Olympics and suspension from competition for six months. The levels of the combined stimulants registered in the separate tests were 2

1829:

and tens of world championships medals being stripped from Russian competitors—the most of any country, more than four times the number of the runner-up, and more than 30% of the global total. Russia also has the most competitors that have been

1398:

is little danger from anabolica, as they call it, when the athletes are kept on strictly monitored programmes. Although the extremely dangerous side-effects are admitted, they are statistically no more likely to occur than side-effects from the

1478:, were committed for trial for allegedly supplying 19 teenagers with illegal substances. Binus was sentenced in August, Pansold in December 1998 – both were found guilty of administering hormones to underage female athletes from 1975 to 1984. 9138: 1109:

Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration.

3277:

and enhanced that, and somehow we keep trying to sell the line that sports has become this evil empire of cheating. The reality is athletes are merely doing what so many of us do and celebrate and watch every single day of our lives."

2639:, was disqualified for a positive test to EPO. She remains the only Hawaii Ironman winner to be disqualified for doping offences. Sports lawyer Michelle Gallen has said that the pursuit of doping athletes has turned into a modern-day 1134:, "Ben Johnson: A Hero Disgraced" broadcast on 19 September 2013, for the 25th anniversary of the race, stated 20 athletes tested positive for drugs but were cleared by the IOC at this 1988 Seoul Olympics. An IOC official stated that 1022:

There are two different types of controls that can be conducted in competition or in training. It is important that tests are conducted by independent organizations that treat each athlete equally, indifferent of fame or nationality.

7883: 734:

as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of

5777:

China's swimming programme has seen its reputation tarnished by a series of scandals, most notably when one female swimmer was caught with 13 vials of human growth hormone at Sydney airport ahead of the 1998 world championships in

6387: 2767:

used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including:

8392: 1924:

that revealed that some 100 American athletes failed drug tests from 1988 to 2000, arguing that they should have been prevented from competing in the Olympics but were nevertheless cleared to compete; those athletes included

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An investigative commission of sports medicine in Freiburg claims that in the late 1970s and in the 1980s Stuttgart and Freiburg football clubs were operating with Anabolika. VfB Stuttgart reordered Anabolika at least once.

5604: 5950: 2068:

1987 Toni Schumacher recounted a huge amount of hormons, pills and injections (Liesen, head of the doctor team, injected 3000 himself) being used by national players during the World Cup 1986 in Mexico (see next chapter).

1705:

told of how he had tested hormones, blood doping and steroids on about fifty elite athletes. Chen also accused the United States, the Soviet Union and France of using performance-enhancing drugs at the same time as China.

7664: 3061:. According to USADA CEO Travis T. Tygart, the evidence against Armstrong includes, "...scientific data and laboratory test results that further prove the use, possession and distribution of performance enhancing drugs". 668:) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to 800 kilometres (500 mi) and the following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in 2795:, the exogenous testosterone and androgen anabolic steroids exert a suppressive effect of LH and FSH, leading to a decrease in intratesticular and secreted testosterone, decrease in spermatogenesis and sperm production. 2307:, about 31% of UFC fighters subjected to random testing since the program first started have failed due to using performance-enhancing drugs. That is approximately five failed tests for every sixteen random screenings. 2080:

Right after the world cup 1998, all of the drug testing samples were destroyed. If the same would have happened in the Tour de France, Armstrong wouldn't have been caught, former WADA director Dr. Alain Garnier argued.

2900:

in 1999, it has become more effective to catch athletes who use drugs. The first tests for athletes were at the 1966 European Championships and two years later the IOC implemented their first drug tests at both the

1120:

of pseudoephedrine in his urine after a 200m heat at the same Olympics, but was later cleared of any wrongdoing. Of the top five competitors in the race, only former world record holder and eventual bronze medalist

7638: 1153:

is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by

1386:. In the reverse of what the IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won. 587:

is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical and is prohibited by most international sports organizations, including the

465: 8217: 1911:

then-current world record-holder. Before the Olympics, DeMont had properly declared his asthma medications on his medical disclosure forms, but the USOC had not cleared them with the IOC's medical committee.

1303:

The use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said:

8100: 7992: 2867:

Many sports organizations have banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have very strict rules and penalties for people who are caught using them. The International Amateur Athletic Federation, now

1299:

and to make him drink a large glass brimming with brandy. He set off again as best he could he needed another injection four miles from the end to give him a semblance of speed and to get him to the finish.

706:, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders had hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion 1336:, fled to the West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany at the 1980 Summer Olympics. 6215: 5664: 2117:("Herrera's Coffee"). In 2010, Inter sued Mazzola but lost the case, the court believed him. One of the reasons he spoke up were the serious medical conditions and/or deaths of some of his former members: 6978: 689:"...and much more likely to endure their miseries publicly; a tired walker, after all, merely sits down – a tired cyclist falls off and possibly brings others crashing down as well. That's much more fun". 583:. As stated in the World Anti-Doping Code by WADA, doping is defined as the occurrence of one or more of the anti-doping rule violations outlined in Article 2.1 through Article 2.11 of the Code. The term 5444: 3999: 9493: 1226:(WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 5706: 5686: 9091: 8042: 718:

become temporarily insane during the contest... Days and weeks of recuperation will be needed to put the racers in condition, and it is likely that some of them will never recover from the strain.

7852: 1313:

Hicks was, in the phrase of the time, "between life and death" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics.

10199: 7935: 10167: 7003: 2156:

In the 1970s performance-enhancing drugs were used on a regular basis according to witnesses of that period, mostly in Ajax, Feyenoord and AZ Alkmaar during competitive matches, including the

7161: 5896: 5864: 2113:

for trying new pills and see if they worked." When he found out that some in the team were spitting them out, he dissolved them in coffee to make sure they were consumed, a practice known as

10101: 7875: 5764: 3245:, has called attention to potential problems with the validity of ways in which many of the standardised tests are performed; in his article, as described in an accompanying editorial, Berry 1200:

The 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: "You need never go off-course chasing the peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers."

9592: 4965:

Pain And Injury in Sport: Social And Ethical Analysis, Section III, Chapter 7, Page 111, by Sigmund Loland, Berit Skirstad, Ivan Waddington, Published by Routledge in 2006, ASIN: B000OI0HZG

7695: 4153:

Guest NS, VanDusseldorp TA, Nelson MT, Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Jenkins ND, Arent SM, Antonio J, Stout JR, Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Goldstein ER, Kalman DS, Campbell BI (2 January 2021).

1208:

straight up, climbed on a chair and from deep inside a cupboard he pulled out a plastic bag full of pills. I felt my heart skip a beat. I had never seen so many fireworks together. With a

8488: 6379: 9802: 8400: 7314: 8794:

Michael Powers, "Performance-Enhancing Drugs" in Joel Houglum, in Gary L. Harrelson, Deidre Leaver-Dunn, "Principles of Pharmacology for Athletic Trainers", SLACK Incorporated, 2005,

759:

University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion."

470: 7446: 5414: 2392:. Pélissier explained the problem—whether or not he had the right to take off a jersey—and went on to talk of drugs, reported in Londres' race diary, in which he invented the phrase 1770:

A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to

9543: 6068: 2408:. Worse than that, because the road to the Cross has only 14 stations and ours has 15. We suffer from the start to the end. You want to know how we keep going? Here..." He pulled a 1389:

After that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports-writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the

5612: 9297: 8243: 8458: 5354: 941:

Olympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 percent. The gold medalist pentathlete

8567: 7660: 7222: 8370: 6686: 6473: 6357: 6331: 1816: 801:

James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia.

5552: 3228:

Blood transfusions, which increase the blood's oxygen carrying capacity, in turn increasing endurance without the presence of drugs that could trigger a positive test result.

7726: 6626: 5642: 5522: 5474: 1197:, which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that "dope – whole cartloads – used in such royal quantities." 8186: 7909: 7501: 7252: 3225:

Diuretics, used to cleanse the system before having to provide a sample (which have also been placed in lists of banned substances themselves to circumvent this practice).

950:

itself is still made in many countries and other, similar drugs are made elsewhere. The use of anabolic steroids is now banned by all major sporting bodies, including the

1067:

was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder.

6189: 7634: 1193:

collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at the Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug,

3308: 1846:, WADA will allow individual cleared Russian athletes to compete neutrally under a title to be determined (which may not include the name "Russia", unlike the use of " 7060: 3075:

In January 2021, The government of Kenya unanimously passed the anti-doping bill into law that will enable the country to comply with the World 2021 anti-doping code.

1138:

profiles done at those games indicated that 80 percent of the track and field athletes tested showed evidence of long-term steroid use, although not all were banned.

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The event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists.

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muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in

778:

The entire Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, as the Russian State had sponsored and essentially sanctioned their doping program.

7984: 2876:

to take the situation seriously. In 1928 they banned participants from doping, but with little in the way of testing available they had to rely on the word of the

2303:

cards, and therefore pay-per-view sales. If the UFC were not able to find a replacement fighter fights would have to be cancelled. According to Steven Marrocco of

1812: 1651:

China conducted a state-sanctioned doping programme on athletes in the 1980s and 1990s. The majority of revelations of Chinese doping have focused on swimmers and

455: 10291: 6211: 5672: 4975: 2077:

back then, responded that there were no tests because Maradona, who already had a drug history, might not have passed. Maradona tested positive in the world cup.

6975: 6503: 6443: 3117:

The blood test detects illegal performance enhancement drugs through the measurement of indicators that change with the use of recombinant human erythropoietin:

7415: 7345: 1273:

These "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion" were not unknown outside cycling.

10321: 7384: 5436: 592:. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating. 9491: 9209:

Petróczi A, Mazanov J, Nepusz T, et al. (2008). "Comfort in big numbers: does over-estimation of doping prevalence in others indicate selfinvolvement?".

3960: 1518:

Ilona Slupianek failed a test along with three Finnish athletes at the 1977 European Cup, becoming the only East German athlete ever to be convicted of doping

7789: 2913:

became prevalent during the 1970s and after a method of detection was found they were added to the IOC's prohibited substances list in 1975, after which the

9860: 6272: 5690: 3250:

verify these detection limits in larger groups that include known dopers and non-dopers under blinded conditions that mimic what happens during competition.

3210:

Urine replacement, which involves replacing dirty urine with clean urine from someone who is not taking banned substances. Urine replacement can be done by

1287:, who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out a 5703: 1030:

Unannounced tests: Athletes don't know when they are tested. These tests are the effective ones when they are conducted outside of the competition periods.

6413: 4328: 628:

could drink a mixture called "butotens" to greatly improve their physical power at the risk of insanity, which is thought to have been prepared using the

8038: 8898: 7844: 3050:

launched an anti-steroid campaign called Play Asterisk Free aimed at teens. The campaign first launched in 2008 under the name "Don't Be An Asterisk!".

1725:

and other international competitions) won by Chinese athletes in the 1980s and 1990s must be taken back. This is contrary to previous statements by the

1182:

The club agreed that drugs had been used but that they "could not possibly have had any harmful effect." Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict.

6530: 4128: 3078:

In April 2021, The US Senate passes the "United States Anti-Doping Agency Reauthorization Act of 2021" to reauthorize the United States Doping Agency.

1379: 10189: 9042:

Hutchinson Brendan, Moston Stephen, Engelberg Terry (2018). "Social validation: a motivational theory of doping in an online bodybuilding community".

8423: 7931: 6995: 6575: 4491: 1779:" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m. 1629:

abuse. In the newly emerging doping discussion in 2013 after submission of the final report of the anti-doping commission, the former German sprinter

10515: 10490: 10348: 10155: 8067: 8014: 6726: 3269:

essay that legalizing performance-enhancing substances, as well as genetic enhancements once they became available, would satisfy society's need for

2667: 2126: 710:

refused to continue the New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand."

558: 7153: 5886: 5860: 10097: 6555: 5754: 5061: 8265: 5800: 4560: 1945:

failed three tests during the 1988 US Olympic trials, which under international rules at the time should have prevented him from competing in the

9007: 7687: 6782: 5574: 5271: 5293: 4640: 10260: 7283: 2146: 1621:

According to the German Olympic Sports Association (DOSB), doping was common in the West German athletes of the 1980s. West German heptathlete

1071: 445: 9809: 9570: 8633: 6872: 3232:

violation, same as refusing a test. There is a website and a phone app, called ADAMS, in which athletes are expected to report their location.

7306: 4670: 3870: 3035:(IOC) decided to establish the WADA to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight of against doping in sport. The headquarters for WADA is in 2598: 360: 2469:

by road cyclists in continental Europe exemplifies a cross-over between recreational and performance-enhancing abuse of drugs by sportsman.

2329:(EPO) is largely taken by endurance athletes who seek a higher level of red blood cells, which leads to more oxygenated blood, and a higher 1899: 10070: 8480: 7438: 5984: 5406: 5004: 3312: 3039:, Canada. The WADA is the supreme international authority and is allowed to do doping tests and can determine which substances are illegal. 291: 9834: 9539: 8928: 7811: 6841: 4521: 8768: 7961: 5832: 1957: 10132: 9269: 8450: 8328: 8306: 8239: 5236: 8557: 6212:"WADA Executive Committee unanimously endorses four-year period of non-compliance for the Russian Anti-Doping Agency (9 December 2019)" 5346: 498: 2061:

took over as coach in 1981". Alexander Tabartschuk, main doctor of the team, said he only handed vitamins. Algeria fell victim to the

1375:

passed into government control; it reputedly made around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised.

856:

Other ways of cheating that change the body without using foreign substances include injecting one's own red blood cells as done with

9693: 8362: 7214: 5180: 4944: 1782:

Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the

6899: 6678: 6465: 6353: 6323: 1787:

Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the

10845: 6241: 5544: 2290:

Spanish League, missing the title by two points. The well-known medic was hired by Real Madrid and FC Barcelona, too, according to

1481:

Virtually no East German athlete ever failed an official drugs test, though Stasi files show that many did produce failed tests at

296: 8817:"MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Medical consequences of doping with anabolic androgenic steroids: effects on reproductive functions" 7718: 6809: 6618: 5634: 5514: 5466: 5009: 4979: 3303:

Anti-doping policies instituted by individual sporting governing bodies may conflict with local laws. A notable case includes the

10424:

From Birth to Death and Bench to Clinic: The Hastings Center Bioethics Briefing Book for Journalists, Policymakers, and Campaigns

10048: 8170: 6294: 5376: 5323: 5039: 2461:

changed to national teams that were to be paid for by the organisers, that the rule book distributed to riders by the organiser,

1598:, rumors emerged that the West German team had taken performance-enhancing substances. Several members of the team fell ill with 503: 7905: 7493: 7244: 2896:

has always outstripped the ability of sports federations to implement rigorous testing procedures but since the creation of the

6656: 1713:(and in other international sport events). He has claimed that more than 10,000 athletes in China were doped in the systematic 460: 9517: 9319:

Bloodworth A, McNamee M (July 2010). "Clean Olympians? Doping and anti-doping: The views of talented young British athletes".

9166:

Morente-Sánchez Jaime, Zabala Mikel (2013). "Doping in sport: a review of elite athletes' attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge".

8742: 6173: 2728: 10482: 10415: 9608: 9471: 8991: 8541: 8133: 7757: 7560: 6149: 6115: 6051: 5738: 4874: 4834: 4279: 3943: 3733: 3595: 2439:

Henri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by

768: 551: 172: 4427: 2700: 1406:

Other reports came from the occasional athlete who fled to the West – 15 of them between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper

8655: 7052: 5098: 2027: 10229: 8856: 6588: 6007: 5918: 2039:

contain vitamin C ("They could have just eaten an orange") but assumed that they contained Pervitin. It also stated that

10989: 9890: 7183: 7122: 6831: 5158: 4609: 3906: 2565:. But a urine sample taken from Landis immediately after his Stage 17 win has twice tested positive for banned synthetic 1717:

doping program and that they received performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s and 1990s. He stated that the entirety of

1371:

and thereafter athletes were tested before they left the country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near

1349:

But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story.

951: 5128: 10283: 8673:

Dilger A, Frick B, Tolsdorf F (October 2007). "Are athletes doped? Some theoretical arguments and empirical evidence".

4982: 4222:"Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: A looming public health concern?" 2707: 2249: 2165: 1881: 1808: 877: 286: 82: 17: 6495: 6435: 5214: 2199:, but the victory remains controversial because of accusations of doping. The Juventus team has been accused of using 1102:

were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason.

8799: 8147: 7574: 7407: 7337: 4720: 3092: 2482: 2354: 2310:

From July 2015, the UFC has advocated to all commissions that every fighter be tested in competition for every card.

810: 430: 270: 266: 262: 10313: 9447: 8958: 7368: 2686: 3389: 2196: 1399: 544: 528: 7781: 1512:

publicly admitted to doping and accused their coaches for being responsible. Another former Sport Dynamo athlete,

1501:, still found itself involved in numerous lawsuits from doping victims, being sued by almost 200 former athletes. 747:

collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of

11087: 10608: 9912: 9856: 7025: 6264: 3043: 3032: 3024: 2889: 2714: 2551: 2346: 1915: 1826: 1730: 1524: 1490: 1040: 987: 963: 959: 595:

The origins of doping in sports go back to the creation of the sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in

589: 576: 450: 435: 10374:"Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government" 3198:, are now retested up to eight years later to take advantage of new techniques for detecting banned substances. 2026:

samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match are analysed by the

1125:

of the US never failed a drug test during his career. Smith later said: "I should have been the gold medalist."

372: 10421: 8532:

Doping in Elite Sport: The Politics of Drugs in the Olympic Mvnt: The Politics of Drugs in the Olympic Movement

6409: 4343: 3320: 2244: 2074: 1998: 1860:

On 19 February 2021, it was announced that Russia would compete under the acronym "ROC", after the name of the

1854: 657:

Olympic Games of 668BC, introduced the special diet of consuming enough dried figs during the training period.

301: 7876:"Juventus' controversial European past casts dark shadows ahead of Champions League final against Real Madrid" 5887:"Systematic doping of Chinese athletes in Olympic Games revealed by former doctor | DW | 21.10.2017" 1333: 10868: 8890: 3326:

Under certain circumstances, when athletes need to take a prohibited substance to treat a medical condition,

2885: 2619:

titles since 1 August 1998. As a response to the decisions of the USADA and UCI, Armstrong resigned from the

2582: 1447: 1382:(IAAF) suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in 1003: 991: 955: 425: 9631:

Green Gary A (2006). "Doping Control for the Team Physician: A Review of Drug Testing Procedures in Sport".

7468: 6538: 4117: 2696: 1367:

Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, failed a test for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in

4495: 2350: 1847: 857: 612: 493: 258: 8074: 8021: 6718: 1746: 1189:

took "seven packets of amphetamine" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider

713:

Public reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said:

10194: 7612: 7099: 6891: 6552: 3404: 3384: 2388:

and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had resigned from the competition after an argument with the organiser

1893: 1831: 1759:

colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the IOC to undermine

1532: 608: 513: 440: 384: 365: 321: 253: 5069: 4268:

Laure, P.: Les répresentations du dopage; approche psycho-sociologique, Thèse STAPS, Nancy, France, 1994

10694: 10433:"Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: An endocrine society scientific statement" 6764: 5790: 4693: 4583: 4556: 3485: 2762:, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drugs mimic the effect of 2620: 1602:, presumably from a contaminated needle. Members of the team later claimed they had been injected with 518: 9015: 9008:"What Performance Enhancing Drugs Have Been or Are Banned Olympics? - Drug Use in Sports - ProCon.org" 6786: 5951:"China to make doping a criminal offence and warns athletes who test positive could be sent to prison" 5582: 5496: 5263: 3820:

Hoberman, John; Dopers on Wheels: The Tour's sorry history, MSNBC/id/19462071/ retrieved December 2007

2997: 2105:, Inter player during that period, accused him of distributing performance-enhancing drugs, including 1563: 1063:

amongst other things. Johnson was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance.

771:

admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to a study commissioned by the

10252: 6836: 5297: 4632: 3327: 2675: 2566: 2161: 2157: 1861: 1595: 508: 10543: 8625: 8068:"Repubblica Italiana La Corte Suprema Cassazione Sezione Seconda Penale In Nome Del Popolo Italiano" 7275: 2430:"And pills. Do you want to see pills? Have a look, here are the pills." Each pulled out three boxes. 2168:

recounted drug use before the big games. They seemed to work as he felt energy boosts and euphoria.

1729:, which had denied involvement in systematic doping, claiming that athletes doped individually. The 1070:

Johnson was not the only participant whose success was questioned: Lewis had tested positive at the

934:

The results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports.

11211: 11011: 10938: 10661: 10317: 9674: 9566: 9092:"Personal and Psychosocial Predictors of Doping Use in Physical Activity Settings: A Meta-Analysis" 8562: 7845:"Juventus vs Ajax: Revisiting the Doping Scandal That Tarnished the Champions League Final of 1996" 6876: 4369:

Walker Jennifer (2009). "Cutaneous Manifestations of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use in Athletes".

3304: 3028: 3017: 2897: 2578: 2533: 2508:" or "Belgian mix" has a decades-long history in pro cycling, among both riders and support staff. 2447:"At night, in our rooms, we can't sleep. We twitch and dance and jig about as though we were doing 1839: 1734: 1352: 1223: 999: 928: 896: 772: 660:

A participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used

488: 394: 331: 162: 142: 4662: 3311:

that local labor laws superseded the NFL's anti-doping regime. The challenge was supported by the

861: 11138: 10758: 8864: 5714: 4024:

Connor JM, Mazanov J (2009). "Would you dope? A general population test of the Goldman dilemma".

3831: 3434: 3211: 3206:

Athletes seeking to avoid testing positive use various methods. The most common methods include:

2671: 2547: 2500:

who left the tour still being questioned by the police. The Festina scandal overshadowed cyclist

1091: 975: 892: 775:(WADA), actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught. 45: 10074: 6466:"Tchaikovsky Selection To Replace Banned Russian Anthem At Tokyo 2020 and Beijing 2022 Olympics" 6069:"The 1980 Olympics Are The 'Cleanest' In History. Athletes Recall How Moscow Cheated The System" 5976: 5013: 2856:

Anabolic steroids are available over-the-counter in some countries such as Thailand and Mexico.

11148: 9677:.com. 22 November 2006. Archived from the original on 6 January 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2009. 8920: 4517: 3419: 3409: 3191: 1614:

study in 2010 posited that the West German players had been injected with the banned substance

1327: 1276: 1130: 979: 311: 8981: 8764: 7957: 6139: 5822: 5728: 2465:, reminded them that drugs were not among items with which they would be provided. The use of 11221: 10813: 10530: 10124: 9289: 8393:"Los papeles de Eufemiano Fuentes demuestran que la Real Sociedad compró sustancias dopantes" 8298: 6107: 5240: 4802:

Cited by fellow professional Tony Hewson in Journal, Fellowship of Cycling Old Timers, 158/72

4155:"International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and exercise performance" 3935: 3929: 2721: 2216: 1689: 1673: 1625:

died at age 26 due to sudden multiple organ failure, triggered at least in part by long-term

1407: 983: 942: 638: 276: 6410:"No flag allowed, but Russian colours plastered on uniforms for Tokyo Olympics | CBC Sports" 10964: 10959: 10888: 10787: 10699: 9995: 9935: 9600: 8093:"The glory and the corruption of Marseille's kings of 1993, the team that conquered Europe" 5668: 4411: 4071: 3748:

Grajewski, Tadeusw: The Building That Would Not Go Away, Royal Agriciultural Hall, UK, 1989

3429: 3307:(NFL)'s inability to suspend players found with banned substances, after it was ruled by a 2914: 2906: 2902: 2448: 2260: 2220: 1946: 1843: 1783: 1764: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1681: 1528: 1460: 1451: 1414: 1267: 1227: 1169: 1060: 1044: 787: 182: 5184: 4936: 2385: 2062: 2046: 1918:'s director of drug-control administration from 1991 to 2000, gave copies of documents to 8: 11102: 11079: 11006: 10903: 10731: 10704: 10689: 10656: 10601: 8515:

Dope: A History of Performance Enhancement in Sports from the Nineteenth Century to Today

4456:

Nicole Thualagant (2012). "The conceptualization of fitness doping and its limitations".

3439: 3424: 2791:

Suppression of spermatogenesis: As endogenous testosterone is the major regulator of the

2682: 2562: 2208: 2177: 2173: 2138: 2082: 2019: 2015: 1969: 1718: 1190: 1083: 915: 904: 744: 727: 205: 9999: 9939: 6237: 1606:, and the team physician Franz Loogen said in 2004 that the players had only been given 1497:(IDAS). In 2005, 15 years after the end of East Germany, the manufacturer of the drugs, 11216: 11123: 11092: 11059: 11026: 10979: 10792: 10775: 10457: 10432: 10040: 10021: 9959: 9784: 9656: 9374: 9191: 9130: 9069: 8690: 6950: 6925: 6924:

Dvorak J, Graf-Baumann T, D'Hooghe M, Kirkendall D, Taennler H, Saugy M (1 July 2006).

6801: 4473: 4394: 4246: 4221: 4202: 4189: 4154: 4099: 4049: 3991: 3862: 3696: 3669: 3645: 3620: 3530: 3369: 2497: 2228: 1986: 1982: 1920: 1726: 1714: 1611: 1422: 1087: 947: 924: 752: 736: 600: 580: 404: 389: 378: 9394:"Doping in sport: A review of medical practitioners' knowledge, attitudes and beliefs" 9270:"Combating drug use in competitive sports. An analysis from the athletes' perspective" 8210:"DOPAGE DANS LE FOOTBALL - Mondenard : "Les footballeurs sont de grands malades"" 7635:"Dopingskandal in der Bundesliga?Schwere Vorwürfe gegen VfB Stuttgart und SC Freiburg" 6308: 5384: 5319: 5035: 2859:

Sports that are members of the IOC also enforce drug regulations; for example bridge.

2521: 2381: 1763:

and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with tremendous efforts". On the topic of the

1470:

club doctors, Dieter Binus, chief of the national women's team from 1976 to 1980, and

829:(second most common), which increase excitement and decrease the sensation of fatigue. 11190: 10916: 10780: 10726: 10709: 10651: 10478: 10462: 10411: 10395: 10373: 10025: 10013: 9963: 9951: 9776: 9732: 9648: 9604: 9421: 9413: 9378: 9336: 9281: 9250: 9183: 9122: 9073: 8987: 8838: 8795: 8694: 8686: 8537: 8530: 8336: 8273: 8178: 8139: 8129: 7819: 7763: 7753: 7604: 7566: 7556: 7376: 7091: 6976:

Anti-dopage. Dvorak : "Le profil biologique, une approche complètement nouvelle"

6955: 6648: 6181: 6145: 6111: 6100: 6047: 5734: 4870: 4830: 4716: 4477: 4386: 4382: 4294: 4251: 4237: 4206: 4194: 4176: 4091: 4041: 3983: 3939: 3866: 3854: 3729: 3650: 3601: 3591: 3534: 3459: 3449: 3285: 2372: 2334: 2278: 2240: 2236: 2102: 1877: 1539:, the IOC made it clear that it wanted to discourage any such appeals in the future. 1280: 1243: 1194: 351: 107: 102: 9788: 9660: 9134: 8738: 6380:"Olympics: Russia to compete under ROC acronym in Tokyo as part of doping sanctions" 4398: 4103: 4053: 3995: 3832:"Doping in Two Elite Athletics Competitions Assessed by Randomized-Response Surveys" 2932:

Another point of view is that doping could be legalized to some extent using a drug

11143: 11054: 11036: 10974: 10883: 10873: 10855: 10753: 10746: 10631: 10452: 10444: 10385: 10003: 9943: 9766: 9722: 9640: 9513: 9405: 9366: 9328: 9242: 9195: 9175: 9114: 9106: 9059: 9051: 8828: 8682: 6945: 6937: 6862:

Wallechinsky and Loucky, The Complete Book of the Olympics (2012 edition), page 61.

6327: 6304: 5827: 4465: 4378: 4241: 4233: 4184: 4166: 4083: 4033: 3975: 3846: 3691: 3681: 3640: 3632: 3564: 3520: 3454: 3394: 3280:

Sociologist Ellis Cashmore argues that what is considered doping is too arbitrary:

3265: 3215: 2910: 2759: 2311: 2286: 2224: 2149:. He suspected the drugs to be the cause of their sufferings. in 2015, his brother 2118: 1800: 1788: 1467: 1113: 881: 820: 723: 630: 604: 316: 230: 167: 132: 97: 9468: 9055: 7661:"Doping-Skandal in der Bundesliga?"VfB Stuttgart bestellte Anabolika-Mittel nach"" 4914:

Cited Woodland, Les: Dope, the use of drugs in sport, David and Charles, UK, 1980.

4545:

Wallechinsky and Loucky, The Complete Book of the Olympics (2012 edition), page 61

4302: 3525: 3508: 2586: 2054: 11180: 11133: 11118: 11044: 10996: 10921: 10911: 10823: 10721: 10641: 10572: 10390: 10225: 10071:"The Armstrong Saga: Why We Should Legalise Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sport" 9727: 9710: 9697: 9497: 9475: 9409: 9332: 7439:"La Grande Inter di Helenio Herrera e il doping: aveva ragione Ferruccio Mazzola" 6982: 6559: 6299: 6041: 5923: 5710: 4469: 4423: 3979: 3399: 3379: 3361: 3058: 2869: 2834: 2612: 2574: 2462: 2389: 2256: 2109:, among the team players, especially the substitute players "who often served as 2098: 1961: 1873: 1771: 1752: 1652: 1646: 1615: 1513: 1356: 1075: 792:

Goldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite

399: 337: 306: 200: 9293: 9233:

Ehrnborg Christer, Rosén Thord (2009). "The psychology behind doping in sport".

8659: 5094: 4329:"Isometrics or Steroids? Exploring New Frontiers Of Strength in the Early 1960s" 3569: 3552: 2153:, who denied everything at the beginning, admitted that the incidents happened. 11128: 11097: 10954: 10926: 10893: 10878: 10770: 10741: 10676: 10666: 10594: 9882: 9771: 9754: 9393: 9246: 9041: 5891: 4940: 4171: 3898: 3374: 3292: 2616: 2605: 2513: 2492: 2478: 2367: 2326: 2268: 2200: 2150: 2122: 2008: 1977: 1950: 1822: 1804: 1709:

In 2012 and 2017 Xue Yinxian revealed systematic doping of Chinese athletes in

1622: 1536: 1509: 1505: 908: 703: 646: 596: 523: 326: 210: 157: 9370: 9179: 9118: 9110: 6496:"Tchaikovsky music approved as replacement for banned Russian national anthem" 5150: 4601: 4087: 3850: 3180:

about how this measure can be seen as a violation of an individual's privacy.

11205: 11169: 11021: 10984: 10835: 10818: 10736: 9644: 9417: 8340: 8277: 8182: 8143: 7823: 7767: 7608: 7570: 7380: 7095: 6941: 6185: 5120: 4180: 4037: 3686: 3605: 3414: 3347: 3195: 3194:

samples may be retested later. Samples from high-profile events, such as the

3031:

had been founded. After the doping scandal in cycling in the summer 1998 the

2952: 2918: 2624: 2517: 2501: 2304: 2282: 2232: 2204: 2134: 1710: 1693:

newspaper, Chen Zhangho, the lead doctor for the Chinese Olympic team at the

1677: 1630: 1471: 1456: 1443: 1239: 900: 344: 281: 220: 5730:

Women, Sport, and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More Than Half the Sky

3270: 1842:(WADA) banned Russia from all international sport for four years. As at the 1340:

At 17, I joined the East Berlin Sports Institute. My speciality was the 80m

1203:

The Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care:

10969: 10931: 10863: 10763: 10466: 10431:

Pope J, Harrison G, Wood RI, Rogol A, Nyberg F, Bowers L, Bhasin S (2014).

10211: 10017: 9955: 9780: 9736: 9652: 9425: 9340: 9285: 9254: 9187: 9126: 8842: 8073:. Supreme Court of Cassation. 29 March 2007. pp. 40–42. Archived from 6959: 6174:"The Soviet Doping Plan: Document Reveals Illicit Approach to '84 Olympics" 5206: 4390: 4255: 4198: 4095: 4045: 3987: 3858: 3654: 3281: 3112: 3068: 2893: 2877: 2763: 2570: 2558: 2543: 2509: 2264: 2142: 2130: 2058: 2050: 1776: 1587: 1439: 1186: 1165: 1155: 1122: 1007: 793: 740: 731: 707: 642: 87: 10399: 8891:"IAAF: A Piece of Anti-Doping History: IAAF Handbook 1927–1928 | iaaf.org" 8588:

Londres, Albert: Les frères Pélissier et leur camarade Ville abandonnent,

8240:"Sharapova, Guardiola, doping, darkness and light | Sporting Intelligence" 7026:"West Germany's 1954 World Cup win may have been drug-fuelled, says study" 6436:"Uniforms for "neutral" Russian team at Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games unveiled" 6043:

Drug Games: The International Olympic Committee and the Politics of Doping

4298: 3636: 3585: 1402:. If, that is, programmes are constantly medically monitored as to dosage. 1363:

East Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977 the

1051:

was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as

10840: 10808: 10448: 9686:

Shehzad Basaria; Androgen Abuse in Athletes: Detection and Consequences,

9439: 8983:

Steroids and Doping in Sports: A Reference Handbook: A Reference Handbook

8950: 3444: 3219: 2106: 1934: 1930: 1903: 1760: 1637:

physician Armin Klümper: "Klümper was the largest doper on this planet."

1475: 1251: 1159: 1099: 1095: 888: 865: 842: 748: 235: 147: 112: 92: 10190:"Enhanced Games: audacious plan for sporting event without drug testing" 9064: 8833: 8816: 7985:"The drug scandal that blackens the name of Juve's team of the Nineties" 6923: 3284:

is not allowed, but other methods of boosting blood cell count, such as

2985: 1551: 1417:, on 26 August 1993 the records were opened and evidence found that the 1162:

before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s.

1010:

can be wildly inconsistent and, in some instances, has gone unenforced.

11069: 10646: 10636: 9691: 5919:"Wada is accused of sitting on mass China doping claims for five years" 3065: 3047: 2685:

if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and

2640: 2636: 2413: 2169: 2110: 1926: 1296: 1235: 1150: 1117: 1064: 1048: 911:. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs. 797: 625: 177: 33: 10491:"Lowering Restrictions on Performance Enhancing Drugs in Elite Sports" 10349:"Lowering Restrictions on Performance Enhancing Drugs in Elite Sports" 10156:"Lowering Restrictions on Performance Enhancing Drugs in Elite Sports" 5704:

Sportpolitik – DopingManfred Ommer: "Inhalt hat mich nicht überrascht"

2925:

issue, and letting athletes implicated in doping get away unpunished.

2888:(cycling) joined the IAAF in the fight against drugs, followed by the 2093:

In the 1960s, Inter Milan has its greatest period of success known as

61: 10557: 9835:"IOC to apply today's drug testing standards to 2006 Olympic samples" 8266:"Doping: Neuer Nandrolon-Fall: Barcas Frank de Boer positiv getestet" 8123: 7550: 6008:"Former doctor reveals more than 10,000 Chinese athletes were doping" 3171: ratio, the more likely that synthetic testosterone was used. 3168: 3161: 3151: 3145: 2933: 2846: 2585:

stripped him of his 2006 Tour de France title. Second place finisher

2538: 2505: 2466: 2377: 2294:. They had access to confidential documents like training schedules. 1973: 1965: 1907: 1656: 1607: 1498: 1284: 1262: 1247: 1218: 1135: 1079: 1056: 935: 850: 846: 826: 695: 669: 225: 215: 152: 137: 122: 10008: 9983: 9947: 7597:"Bundesliga-Clubs dopten in den 80ern: Anabolika beim VfB Stuttgart" 7523: 6238:"Russia Banned from Olympics, World Cup, for State-Sponsored Doping" 6102:

Doping in Élite Sport: The Politics of Drugs in the Olympic Movement

5264:"Forgotten victims of East German doping take their battle to court" 3670:"Performance-Enhancing Substances in Sport and Exercise (first ed.)" 3057:

released evidence to corroborate their doping claim against cyclist

2456:"There's less flesh on our bodies than on a skeleton," Francis said. 66: 11001: 10828: 10684: 10516:"The History of Performance-Enhancing Drugs In Thoroughbred Racing" 9165: 8481:"UFC unveils new drug-testing protocols and standards for fighters" 8015:"ADVISORY OPINION Pronounced by the COURT OF ARBITRATION FOR SPORT" 4602:"BBC News | Sport | Christie suspended after drugs shock" 3323:) could face civil and/or criminal charges once Bill S-209 passes. 3036: 2825: 2792: 2440: 2422: 2404:"You have no idea what the Tour de France is," Henri said. "It's a 2291: 2040: 2003:

There have been few incidents of doping in football, mainly due to

1869: 1722: 1634: 1599: 1482: 1463:, has since had numerous miscarriages and recurring ovarian cysts. 1435: 1368: 1364: 1209: 1052: 834: 661: 127: 117: 3899:"Doping: More than 30% of athletes at 2011 Worlds admit to doping" 1295:

I therefore decided to inject him with a milligram of sulphate of

11064: 7338:"Gary Neville reveals bizarre England methods under Glenn Hoddle" 7084:"Dopingverdacht bei Algeriens "Goldener Elf": Alles nur Vitamine" 5795: 5759: 5515:"German newspaper sheds light on West Germany's doping practices" 4280:"Incidence of the nonmedical use of anabolic-androgenic steroids" 2758:

In sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used

2488: 2405: 2330: 2101:

was their manager. He won seven trophies with the club. In 2004,

1626: 1603: 1372: 1341: 1288: 1279:, an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic 838: 665: 9540:"Kenyan Athletes Now Risk Jail Term If Found Culpable Of Doping" 9357:

Quirk Frances H (2009). "Health psychology and drugs in sport".

7719:"When Harald 'Toni' Schumacher exposed doping in the Bundesliga" 3667: 823:(most common), which increase muscle mass and physical strength. 11016: 10182: 8790: 8788: 8786: 7307:"Foot : la Coupe du monde 1998 pas épargnée par le dopage" 7053:"Children affected? Algerian footballers seek 'doping' answers" 5545:"West Germany cultivated doping culture among athletes: report" 4780:(French title), Ed. Campagnolo, Italy, 1995, cited De Mondenard 3288:, are allowed. Other scholars have advanced similar arguments. 2504:'s tour win, but he himself later failed a test. The infamous " 2435:"The truth is," Francis said, "that we keep going on dynamite." 2212: 1960:

three times at the 1988 Olympics trials for minimum amounts of

1383: 919: 816:

The most common prohibited substances for doping in sport are:

699: 32:"Anti-doping" redirects here. For the Mexican reggae band, see 10578: 10567: 4072:"Prevalence of legal and illegal stimulating agents in sports" 1817:

Russian Olympic Committee athletes at the 2020 Summer Olympics

1487:

Zentrales Dopingkontroll-Labor des Sportmedizinischen Dienstes

10617: 5823:"3 Chinese weightlifters lose 2008 Olympic titles for doping" 4763:

Gabbert, Michael: How we uncovered the Everton drug scandal,

4152: 4069: 3054: 2873: 2516:, and was stripped of his title and suspended for two years. 2409: 2274:

In 2001, a couple of players tested positive for nandrolone.

2215:, and that it was "very probable" that seven other players – 2023: 1591:

that has been published and that names have not been named."

1418: 650: 9232: 8783: 7123:"Algérie : un lien entre dopage et enfants handicapés?" 6066: 5183:. Schwimmverein Limmat Zürich. 23 March 2000. Archived from 4277: 4070:

Deventer K, Roels K, Delbeke FT, Van Eenoo P (August 2011).

3934:(2nd ed.). Elite Sports Medicine Publications. p. 3484:. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: World Anti-Doping Agency. 2021. 3479: 2976: 2524:

and suspended for two years after testing positive for EPO.

2255:

At Olympique Marseille, doping also took place according to

739:, which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name 698:(the French word for "healers"), helpers akin to seconds in 11049: 8451:"UFC Must Take Drastic Stand on PEDs in Mixed Martial Arts" 7596: 7083: 6354:"Russia can't use its name and flag at the next 2 Olympics" 6324:"Russia can't use its name and flag at the next 2 Olympics" 5181:"Doping of underage athletes in the former GDR (in German)" 3291:

In 2023, Australian businessman Aron D'Souza announced the

2881: 2004: 1459:, a triple Olympic champion and world record-setter at the 971: 967: 9267: 5977:"WADA to investigate claims of systematic doping in China" 5347:"OLYMPICS; U.S. Seeks Redress for 1976 Doping In Olympics" 3810:

Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000

3760:

Woodland, Les: This Island Race, Mousehold Press, UK, 2005

2608:), which made the accusations against Armstrong stronger. 2184:, who wrote that players "consumed tons of amphetamines." 931:

and marketed as Dianabol (colloquially known as "d-bol").

10575:

at the International Association of Athletics Federations

8558:"Full Body Swimsuit Now Banned for Professional Swimmers" 5755:"China's swimmers racing to escape country's doping past" 5747: 4850:

Lunzenfichter A (10 December 2007). "C'est pas du Jeu!".

4715:(9th ed.). Bochum: Sportverlag Strauß. p. 668. 1756: 995: 10586: 9268:

Striegel H, Vollkommer G, Dickhuth HH (September 2002).

8363:"Tom English: Spanish football clouded by doping claims" 7908:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 26 January 2004. 5239:. World Anti-Doping Agency. January 2004. Archived from 4159:

Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition

3723: 1813:

Olympic Athletes from Russia at the 2018 Winter Olympics

1246:, which have chemical structures and effects similar to 1027:

Announced tests: The athletes know when they are tested.

649:

had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank

10562: 7906:"Zidane admits using creatine in Juventus doping trial" 7215:"Maradona atacó a Grondona y ahora a sus ex compañeros" 6067:

Aleksandrov A, Aleksandrov G, Runets V (22 July 2020).

5687:"Eine Erinnerung an den tragischen Fall Birgit Dressel" 4557:"The dirtiest race in history Olympic 100m final, 1988" 4278:

Yesalis CE, Anderson WA, Buckley WE, Wright JE (1990).

3782:

Bearings, US, 24 December 1896, cited Ritchie, Andrew,

2799:

estradiol appear to be the cause of sexual dysfunction.

2297: 1527:

asked for the redistribution of gold medals won in the

1039:

A famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian

809:"Banned substance" redirects here. For other uses, see 9926:

Berry, D.A. (7 August 2008). "The science of doping".

9688:

The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism

3273:

and reverse the decline in public interest in sports.

1283:

in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American

914:

AAS use in American sports began in October 1954 when

10430: 9978: 9976: 9708: 9690:, Volume 95, Issue 4, 1 April 2010, Pages 1533–1543, 9597:

Drugs and Doping in Sports – Socio-Legal Perspectives

9208: 8857:"Extract of the Ruling of the Hearing – Geir Helgemo" 8810: 8808: 7688:"Fußball: "Anabolika-Doping in systematischer Weise"" 7184:"Maradona repeats doping allegations | Football News" 6919: 6917: 6619:"OLYMPICS; Anti-Doping Official Says U.S. Covered Up" 5605:"Das Wunder von Bern: Tor-Rekord und Doping-Verdacht" 3618: 3131: 2862: 2512:, the 2003 World-Time Trial Champion, admitted using 2412:

from his bag. "That's cocaine, for our eyes. This is

2370:

followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper

1956:

Exum's documents revealed that Carl Lewis had tested

1291:

and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle.

8424:"Le Real Madrid et le Barça liés au docteur Fuentes" 8329:"Niederlande: Frank de Boer des Dopings beschuldigt" 8020:. coni.it. 26 April 2005. p. 27. Archived from 5437:"Report: West Germany systematically doped athletes" 3337: 1495:

Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry

1442:

gold represented an ideological victory. From 1974,

743:. During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist 10422:Murray, Thomas H. (2008); "Sports Enhancement", in 9274:

The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness

8672: 8168: 6537:. Associated Press. 30 January 2001. Archived from 6295:"Russia Confirms It Will Appeal 4-Year Olympic Ban" 4937:"Sports Doping Statistics Reach Plateau in Germany" 3927: 3668:M.S. Bahrke, C.E. Yesalis (Eds.) (September 2005). 3587:

Foul play : the dark arts of cheating in sport

2623:. He later admitted to doping in an interview with 2243:– had taken EPO in small doses. In April 2005, the 2065:in 1982 and won the African Cup eight years later. 9973: 8805: 8529: 7524:"'Oranje gebruikte doping op WK's van '74 en '78'" 6914: 6099: 5575:"German report sparks calls for names and new law" 5407:"Study Says West Germany Engaged in Sports Doping" 4892:Sport Information Dienst, W Germany, December 1978 4219: 3958: 3808:Novich, ibid. Cited De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: 3795:New York Times, US, 1897, cited McCullagh, James, 2421:"This," Ville said, emptying his shoulder bag "is 918:, a doctor who treated American athletes, went to 641:have been alleged to have had forms of doping. In 9318: 8921:"The Tribune – Magazine section – Saturday Extra" 8125:Schuss. Die geheime Dopinggeschichte des Fußballs 7750:Schuss. Die geheime Dopinggeschichte des Fußballs 7552:Schuss. Die geheime Dopinggeschichte des Fußballs 7154:"Enthüllungen - Der Fußball weiß, was Doping ist" 5635:"Erzürnte Weltmeister: "Vitamin C, sonst nichts"" 4455: 3961:"Would they dope? Revisiting the Goldman dilemma" 2880:that they were clean. It was not until 1966 that 1090:(ephedrine is known to help weight loss). Fellow 11203: 10253:"N.F.L. Seeks Congressional Help on Drug Policy" 9752: 9391: 7408:"You ought to know more about: Il Caffè Herrera" 6716: 5296:. Sports Publications. July 1998. Archived from 5121:"New doping charges against East German doctors" 4220:Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG (November 2008). 3072:(Senate Judiciary Committee, 2002, p. 282). 2872:, was the first international governing body of 10371: 10226:"Congress to review blocked doping suspensions" 9356: 9089: 8814: 8765:"cyclingnews.com – the world centre of cycling" 7685: 6799: 6775: 6566:(September 4, 1972). Retrieved March 16, 2015. 5861:"Chinese Olympians subjected to routine doping" 5665:"Germany's 1954 World Cup winners 'were doped'" 4824: 4368: 4065: 4063: 3619:Vlad RA, Hancu G, Popescu GC, Lungu IA (2018). 860:, treating blood with UV light or the use of a 681:be gained by a constant repetition of the fact. 672:, London, to 840 kilometres (520 mi). The 6756: 5815: 5467:"Report exposes decades of West German doping" 4813:Daar was 't, een biografie van Kees Pellenaars 4548: 3174: 2681:Please review the contents of the section and 1902:for doping violations. In the case of swimmer 1747:Doping in Russia § Background: Soviet era 1332:In 1977 one of East Germany's best sprinters, 446:Doping at the World Championships in Athletics 10602: 10098:"Engel: Enough with the fake steroid outrage" 9857:"What are Whereabouts Failures? | USADA" 8658:. Velonews. 20 September 2007. Archived from 8648: 8399:(in Spanish). 4 February 2013. 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(2011). 9591: 8169:Oberschelp M, Theweleit D (12 April 2006). 7873: 6892:"USOC's Actions on Lewis Justified by IAAF" 6873:"IAAF: USOC followed rules over dope tests" 6824: 6097: 5855: 5853: 5845:for doping at their home 2008 Beijing Games 5726: 5089: 5087: 4793:, Het Vrije Volk, Holland, 13 December 1961 4424:"Carl Lewis | biography – American athlete" 4359:Peters, Mary: Mary P, Arrow Books, UK, 1976 3921: 3893: 3891: 2359: 2180:. He said that to Guido Derksen, writer of 2073:anti-doping control. 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This was detected by auditors from 1737:have investigated these allegations. 1434:State-endorsed doping began with the 769:2011 World Championships in Athletics 10372:Franke WW, Berendonk B (July 1997). 10263:from the original on 7 December 2017 9893:from the original on 16 October 2019 9673:WADA Clarifies B-Sample Procedure". 9617: 9398:International Journal of Drug Policy 9392:Backhouse SH, McKenna J (May 2011). 9321:International Journal of Drug Policy 8745:from the original on 21 October 2012 8491:from the original on 4 December 2017 8461:from the original on 5 December 2017 8090: 8039:"Juventus doctor wins doping appeal" 7716: 7006:from the original on 31 October 2010 6844:from the original on 5 February 2018 6729:from the original on 10 October 2019 6701: 6689:from the original on 5 February 2021 6629:from the original on 4 February 2021 6275:from the original on 9 December 2019 6171: 6039: 5525:from the original on 5 December 2020 5477:from the original on 5 December 2020 5417:from the original on 4 December 2020 5217:from the original on 26 January 2008 5161:from the original on 12 January 2009 5131:from the original on 11 January 2009 5042:from the original on 26 January 2016 4643:from the original on 12 January 2021 4612:from the original on 24 January 2021 4524:from the original on 5 February 2018 4494:. 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A fragment of 1740: 1731:International Olympic Committee 1542: 1525:United States Olympic Committee 1491:International Olympic Committee 1485:, the Saxon laboratory (German: 988:National Basketball Association 964:International Olympic Committee 590:International Olympic Committee 27:Use of banned drugs by athletes 10558:Anti-Doping Sciences Institute 8305:(in Dutch). 16 November 2001. 8041:. uefa.com. 14 December 2005. 7934:. uefa.com. 26 November 2004. 7686:Kistner T, Aumüller J (2015). 7437:Gilioli A (10 November 2015). 7336:Chronnell P (21 August 2011). 7051:Sadallah B (25 January 2012). 4825:Parienté R, Lagorce G (1973). 3661: 3612: 3472: 3263:G. 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June 2007. 7305:Godon P (25 July 2013). 7274:Royer N (26 July 2013). 6942:10.1136/bjsm.2006.027383 6936:(Supplement 1): i3–i12. 6531:"Better late than never" 4905:, Larousse, France, 1980 4901:Costelle D, Berlioux M, 4651:– via NYTimes.com. 4336:Journal of Sport History 4038:10.1136/bjsm.2009.057596 3687:10.1136/bjsm.2005.014381 3305:National Football League 3298: 3220:The Original Whizzinator 3029:World Anti-Doping Agency 3018:World Anti-Doping Agency 2937:with performance gains. 2898:World Anti-Doping Agency 2579:World Anti-Doping Agency 2534:Floyd Landis doping case 2398:The Convicts of the Road 2361:The Convicts of the Road 1914:In 2003, Wade Exum, the 1840:World Anti-Doping Agency 1735:World Anti-Doping Agency 1640: 1224:World Anti-Doping Agency 897:high-density lipoprotein 773:World Anti-Doping Agency 489:World Anti-Doping Agency 395:Barry Bonds perjury case 143:Beta2-adrenergic agonist 10406:Mottram, David (2005); 9969:(subscription required) 9496:5 November 2013 at the 8865:World Bridge Federation 8128:. Droemer. p. 62. 7782:"Mit Tabletten zum Tor" 7152:Hummel T (March 2015). 5038:. ESPN. 28 April 2005. 4767:, UK, 13 September 1964 4631:Wilson D (3 May 2008). 4287:NIDA Research Monograph 3797:American Bicycle Racing 3435:Doping in pigeon racing 3282:transfusing blood cells 3150:the remaining 1.1% are 2941:The influence of others 2921:which tested for them. 2779:Impaired liver function 2548:2006 Tour of California 2394:Les Forçats de la Route 1900:Olympic medals stripped 1424:Sportvereinigung Dynamo 1092:Santa Monica Track Club 976:professional golf tours 893:low-density lipoprotein 674:Illustrated London News 571:In competitive sports, 451:Stripped Olympic medals 390:Steroid use in baseball 10538:Cite journal requires 8592:, 27 June 2014, France 7717:Lord A (31 May 2022). 6683:The New Zealand Herald 6578:. Sports-Reference.com 6558:14 August 2017 at the 6500:www.insidethegames.biz 6440:www.insidethegames.biz 3481:World Anti-Doping Code 3420:Caffeine use for sport 3410:Doping in East Germany 3252: 3192:World Anti-Doping Code 3097: 3042:In February 2011, the 2851:Deepening of the voice 2833:Irregularities of the 2631:Other endurance sports 2569:as well as a ratio of 2555: 2542:Controversial athlete 2366:In 1924, a journalist 2121:, then team's captain 2018:was introduced in the 1834:, with more than 200. 1789:Russian doping program 1594:Immediately after the 1586:study details how the 1493:(IOC), now called the 1360: 1328:Doping in East Germany 1322:East Germany (the GDR) 1270: 1222:offence, however, the 1018:Types of drug controls 980:National Hockey League 361:History of allegations 8303:Voetbal International 8080:on 29 September 2011. 7601:Die Tageszeitung: taz 7088:Die Tageszeitung: taz 6981:12 March 2017 at the 3637:10.15171/apb.2018.062 3247: 3095: 3053:In October 2012, the 3016:Further information: 2821:Male pattern baldness 2813:Side effects in women 2808:Risk of heart failure 2805:Male pattern baldness 2788:Increase in oestrogen 2541: 2443:, before continuing: 2217:Alessandro Birindelli 1821:Systematic doping in 1690:Sydney Morning Herald 1408:Hans-Georg Aschenbach 1355: 1265: 984:Major League Baseball 575:is the use of banned 10449:10.1210/er.2013-1058 9601:Cavendish Publishing 8957:. 14 November 2013. 8487:. 18 February 2015. 8097:These Football Times 6879:on February 1, 2014. 6789:on 22 February 2007. 6311:on 27 December 2019. 5953:. 29 December 2018. 5727:Jinxia Dong (2003). 5709:25 July 2021 at the 5669:Agence France-Presse 5615:on 29 September 2015 5300:on 21 September 2008 5127:. 25 November 1997. 5072:on 21 September 2008 4943:. 26 February 2003. 4711:De Marées H (2003). 4412:1988 Summer Olympics 3584:Rowbottom M (2013). 3430:Concussions in sport 3186:Retesting of samples 3064:On 1 November 1989, 2915:1976 Summer Olympics 2647:Non-endurance sports 2593:Lance Armstrong case 2546:, shown here at the 2487:In 1998, the entire 2221:Alessandro Del Piero 2178:1978 FIFA World Cups 2083:Marie-Georges Buffet 1993:Association football 1972:, which were banned 1947:1988 Summer Olympics 1882:Piano Concerto No. 1 1844:2018 Winter Olympics 1784:1984 Summer Olympics 1765:1980 Summer Olympics 1721:medals (both in the 1682:2008 Summer Olympics 1529:1976 Summer Olympics 1461:1980 Summer Olympics 1452:1968 Summer Olympics 1415:German reunification 1268:1904 Summer Olympics 1228:2004 Summer Olympics 1061:human growth hormone 1045:1988 Summer Olympics 419:Doping-related lists 302:Association Football 183:Tetrahydrogestrinone 163:Human growth hormone 77:Substances and types 10000:2008Natur.454Q.667. 9940:2008Natur.454..692B 9696:6 July 2024 at the 9446:. 1 November 2013. 9211:J Occup Med Toxicol 8834:10.1530/EJE-15-0080 8715:. 23 October 2012. 8713:The Washington Post 7412:www.sportskeeda.com 7002:. 27 October 2010. 6240:. 9 December 2019. 6214:. 9 December 2019. 5983:. 24 October 2017. 5927:. 23 October 2017. 5831:. 12 January 2017. 5799:. 5 February 2016. 5243:on 28 February 2008 5187:on 26 February 2008 4865:Woodland L (1980). 4778:Le Géant et la Lime 4342:(1). Archived from 3507:Geeraets V (2018). 3440:Equine drug testing 3425:Cannabis and sports 2830:Increased sex drive 2824:Hypertrophy of the 2802:Increased sex drive 2771:Side effects in men 2611:On 22 October 2012 2563:2006 Tour de France 2261:Jean-Jaques Eydelie 2209:Alessio Tacchinardi 2139:Ferdinando Miniussi 2020:2014 FIFA World Cup 2016:biological passport 1970:phenylpropanolamine 1825:has resulted in 47 1610:before the game. A 1191:Knud Enemark Jensen 1084:phenylpropanolamine 1035:1988 Seoul Olympics 905:high blood pressure 745:Knud Enemark Jensen 206:Biological passport 10776:Physical education 10489:Collins R (2017). 10378:Clinical Chemistry 10347:Collins R (2017). 10257:The New York Times 10228:. 8 October 2009. 10154:Collins R (2017). 10129:StoptheDrugWar.org 9913:"ADAMS Mobile App" 9715:Clinical Chemistry 9119:20.500.11937/65294 8630:The New York Times 8536:. Human Kinetics. 8122:Kistner T (2015). 7849:Sports Illustrated 7549:Kistner T (2015). 7473:www.medicosport.eu 6806:Sports Illustrated 6750:The New York Times 6623:The New York Times 6593:The Globe and Mail 6564:The New York Times 6178:The New York Times 6012:Sports Illustrated 5585:on 7 December 2020 5411:The New York Times 5387:on 26 October 2008 5351:The New York Times 5157:. 31 August 1998. 5016:on 24 January 2008 4815:, Netherlands,1973 4789:Van Dijk, Pieter: 4637:The New York Times 4308:on 31 October 2007 3905:. 29 August 2017. 3370:Cheating in sports 3286:hypobaric chambers 3202:Cheating the tests 3098: 2996:. You can help by 2959:Physical pressures 2556: 2047:Mohammed Kaci Saïd 1939:Sports Illustrated 1921:Sports Illustrated 1727:Chinese government 1715:Chinese government 1703:Barcelona Olympics 1680:for doping at the 1655:athletes, such as 1612:Leipzig University 1562:. You can help by 1429:Dynamo Sports Club 1400:birth control pill 1361: 1271: 1244:fluoroamphetamines 948:methandrostenolone 925:methandrostenolone 891:levels (increased 862:hyperbaric chamber 753:nicotinyl tartrate 751:and a drug called 737:methandrostenolone 601:doping in baseball 483:Anti-doping bodies 405:Biogenesis scandal 379:Operation Aderlass 18:Drug use in sports 11199: 11198: 11170:Sports portal 10781:Physical activity 10727:Athletic training 10710:Strength training 10662:Semi-professional 10495:Inquiries Journal 10483:978-0-415-43125-5 10437:Endocrine Reviews 10416:978-0-415-37564-1 10353:Inquiries Journal 10160:Inquiries Journal 9765:(3S): S125–S132. 9639:(10): 1690–1698. 9610:978-1-85941-662-4 9503:, 10 October 2012 9105:(11): 1603–1624. 8993:978-1-61069-314-1 8739:"Lance Armstrong" 8590:Le Petit Parisien 8543:978-0-7360-0329-2 8528:Wilson W (2000). 8403:on 13 August 2022 8135:978-3-426-27652-5 7759:978-3-426-27652-5 7562:978-3-426-27652-5 6896:Los Angeles Times 6840:. 18 April 2003. 6723:Los Angeles Times 6685:. 25 April 2003. 6655:. 29 April 2020. 6625:. 17 April 2003. 6595:. 17 April 2003. 6553:Of Gold and Drugs 6502:. 23 April 2021. 6472:. 22 April 2021. 6442:. 15 April 2021. 6151:978-3-527-60543-9 6117:978-0-7360-0329-2 6053:978-0-292-73957-4 5740:978-0-7146-5235-1 5717:, 6. August 2013. 5675:on 30 April 2011. 5551:. 5 August 2013. 5521:. 3 August 2013. 5503:. 16 August 2013. 5473:. 5 August 2013. 5443:. 3 August 2013. 5413:. 8 August 2013. 4876:978-0-7153-7894-6 4836:978-2-8307-0583-6 4498:on 17 August 2010 4377:(10): 1044–1048. 4118:"PROHIBITED LIST" 3945:978-0-9631451-0-9 3735:978-2-7027-0639-8 3597:978-1-4081-5579-0 3460:Technology doping 3450:Mechanical doping 3014: 3013: 2911:Anabolic steroids 2760:anabolic steroids 2756: 2755: 2732: 2697:"Doping in sport" 2373:Le Petit Parisien 2335:blood transfusion 2287:Ernst & Young 2241:Moreno Torricelli 2237:Gianluca Pessotto 2195:Juventus won the 2103:Ferruccio Mazzola 2063:Disgrace of Gijón 1878:Pyotr Tchaikovsky 1580: 1579: 872:Anabolic steroids 821:Anabolic steroids 788:Goldman's dilemma 782:Goldman's dilemma 724:anabolic steroids 569: 568: 352:L.A. Confidentiel 332:Floyd Landis case 108:Technology doping 103:Mechanical doping 83:Anabolic steroids 16:(Redirected from 11229: 11189: 11188: 11179: 11178: 11168: 11167: 11166: 10912:General managers 10814:Governing bodies 10611: 10604: 10597: 10588: 10587: 10547: 10541: 10536: 10534: 10526: 10524: 10522: 10510: 10508: 10506: 10470: 10460: 10403: 10393: 10368: 10366: 10364: 10334: 10333: 10331: 10329: 10310: 10304: 10303: 10301: 10299: 10279: 10273: 10272: 10270: 10268: 10248: 10242: 10241: 10239: 10237: 10222: 10216: 10215: 10209: 10207: 10198:. 24 June 2023. 10186: 10180: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10151: 10145: 10144: 10142: 10140: 10120: 10114: 10113: 10111: 10109: 10093: 10087: 10086: 10084: 10082: 10073:. Archived from 10067: 10061: 10060: 10058: 10056: 10036: 10030: 10029: 10011: 9980: 9971: 9970: 9967: 9923: 9917: 9916: 9909: 9903: 9902: 9900: 9898: 9879: 9873: 9872: 9870: 9868: 9859:. 4 March 2019. 9853: 9847: 9846: 9844: 9842: 9831: 9825: 9824: 9822: 9820: 9814: 9808:. 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Archived from 5683: 5677: 5676: 5661: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5560: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5530: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5433: 5427: 5426: 5424: 5422: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5362: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5331: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5248: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5213:. 2 March 2005. 5203: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5091: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5077: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4985:on 20 April 2004 4972: 4966: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4952: 4933: 4927: 4921: 4915: 4912: 4906: 4899: 4893: 4890: 4881: 4880: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4829:. France: ODIL. 4822: 4816: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4794: 4787: 4781: 4774: 4768: 4761: 4752: 4745: 4739: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4713:Sportphysiologie 4708: 4702: 4701: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4680: 4678: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4552: 4546: 4543: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4529: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4458:Sport in Society 4453: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4420: 4414: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4366: 4360: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4333: 4327:Fair JD (1993). 4324: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4307: 4301:. Archived from 4284: 4275: 4269: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4249: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4192: 4174: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4133: 4122: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4067: 4058: 4057: 4021: 4015: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4004: 3965: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3895: 3886: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3875: 3836: 3827: 3821: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3793: 3787: 3780: 3774: 3769:Novich, Max M., 3767: 3761: 3758: 3749: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3721: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3689: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3648: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3551:Kumar R (2010). 3548: 3539: 3538: 3528: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3476: 3455:Stem cell doping 3395:Doping in Russia 3364: 3359: 3358: 3357: 3350: 3345: 3344: 3343: 3330:may be granted. 3216:prosthetic penis 3167: 3160: 3009: 3006: 2988: 2981: 2946:Social pressures 2751: 2750: 2742: 2739: 2733: 2731: 2690: 2659: 2658: 2651: 2449:St Vitus's Dance 2416:, for our gums." 2318:Endurance sports 2225:Didier Deschamps 2182:Voetbal Myseries 2119:Giuliano Taccola 2115:Caffè di Herrera 1801:Doping in Russia 1668: 1667: 1575: 1572: 1554: 1547: 1114:Linford Christie 1055:, testosterone, 882:Anabolic steroid 664:(which contains 651:herbal infusions 631:Amanita muscaria 605:doping in tennis 561: 554: 547: 424:Doping cases in 373:Operación Puerto 357:Lance Armstrong 231:Stem cell doping 168:Methylhexanamine 133:Stem cell doping 98:Stem cell doping 69: 64: 41: 40: 21: 11237: 11236: 11232: 11231: 11230: 11228: 11227: 11226: 11212:Doping in sport 11202: 11201: 11200: 11195: 11164: 11162: 11153: 11112:Sport by region 11107: 11074: 11045:Artificial turf 11031: 11002:Olympic culture 10943: 10898: 10850: 10797: 10671: 10642:Military sports 10620: 10615: 10584: 10554: 10539: 10537: 10528: 10527: 10520: 10518: 10504: 10502: 10362: 10360: 10343: 10341:Further reading 10338: 10337: 10327: 10325: 10320:. 20 May 2014. 10312: 10311: 10307: 10297: 10295: 10280: 10276: 10266: 10264: 10249: 10245: 10235: 10233: 10224: 10223: 10219: 10205: 10203: 10188: 10187: 10183: 10173: 10171: 10152: 10148: 10138: 10136: 10121: 10117: 10107: 10105: 10094: 10090: 10080: 10078: 10077:on 4 March 2016 10069: 10068: 10064: 10054: 10052: 10037: 10033: 10009:10.1038/454667a 9982: 9981: 9974: 9968: 9948:10.1038/454692a 9934:(7205): 692–3. 9924: 9920: 9911: 9910: 9906: 9896: 9894: 9881: 9880: 9876: 9866: 9864: 9855: 9854: 9850: 9840: 9838: 9833: 9832: 9828: 9818: 9816: 9815:on 11 June 2014 9812: 9805: 9801: 9800: 9796: 9751: 9744: 9707: 9703: 9698:Wayback Machine 9685: 9681: 9672: 9668: 9629: 9618: 9611: 9590: 9586: 9576: 9574: 9563: 9559: 9549: 9547: 9538: 9537: 9533: 9523: 9521: 9512: 9511: 9507: 9498:Wayback Machine 9490: 9486: 9482:, 8 August 2008 9476:Wayback Machine 9467: 9463: 9453: 9451: 9438: 9437: 9433: 9390: 9386: 9355: 9348: 9317: 9313: 9303: 9301: 9266: 9262: 9231: 9222: 9207: 9203: 9168:Sports Medicine 9164: 9157: 9147: 9145: 9141: 9099:Sports Medicine 9094: 9088: 9081: 9040: 9031: 9021: 9019: 9006: 9005: 9001: 8994: 8978: 8974: 8964: 8962: 8949: 8948: 8944: 8934: 8932: 8919: 8918: 8914: 8904: 8902: 8889: 8888: 8884: 8874: 8872: 8855: 8854: 8850: 8813: 8806: 8793: 8784: 8774: 8772: 8763: 8762: 8758: 8748: 8746: 8737: 8736: 8732: 8722: 8720: 8707: 8706: 8702: 8671: 8667: 8662:on 5 July 2008. 8654: 8653: 8649: 8639: 8637: 8622: 8618: 8613: 8609: 8601:Woodland, Les: 8600: 8596: 8587: 8583: 8573: 8571: 8556: 8555: 8551: 8544: 8526: 8522: 8511: 8504: 8494: 8492: 8479: 8478: 8474: 8464: 8462: 8455:Bleacher Report 8447: 8443: 8433: 8431: 8420: 8416: 8406: 8404: 8391: 8390: 8386: 8376: 8374: 8359: 8355: 8345: 8343: 8327: 8326: 8322: 8312: 8310: 8297: 8296: 8292: 8282: 8280: 8264: 8263: 8259: 8249: 8247: 8238: 8237: 8233: 8223: 8221: 8206: 8202: 8192: 8190: 8167: 8163: 8153: 8151: 8136: 8120: 8116: 8106: 8104: 8089: 8085: 8077: 8070: 8066: 8065: 8058: 8048: 8046: 8037: 8036: 8032: 8024: 8017: 8013: 8012: 8008: 7998: 7996: 7989:The Independent 7981: 7977: 7967: 7965: 7956: 7955: 7951: 7941: 7939: 7930: 7929: 7925: 7915: 7913: 7904: 7903: 7899: 7889: 7887: 7880:The Independent 7872: 7868: 7858: 7856: 7843: 7842: 7838: 7828: 7826: 7810: 7809: 7805: 7795: 7793: 7780: 7779: 7775: 7760: 7746: 7742: 7732: 7730: 7723:German Football 7715: 7711: 7701: 7699: 7684: 7680: 7670: 7668: 7659: 7658: 7654: 7644: 7642: 7633: 7632: 7628: 7618: 7616: 7595: 7594: 7590: 7580: 7578: 7563: 7547: 7543: 7533: 7531: 7522: 7521: 7517: 7507: 7505: 7492: 7491: 7487: 7477: 7475: 7467: 7466: 7462: 7452: 7450: 7435: 7431: 7421: 7419: 7404: 7400: 7390: 7388: 7365: 7361: 7351: 7349: 7334: 7330: 7320: 7318: 7303: 7299: 7289: 7287: 7272: 7268: 7258: 7256: 7251:. 28 May 2011. 7243: 7242: 7238: 7228: 7226: 7211: 7207: 7197: 7195: 7190:. 28 May 2011. 7182: 7181: 7177: 7167: 7165: 7150: 7146: 7136: 7134: 7119: 7115: 7105: 7103: 7080: 7076: 7066: 7064: 7049: 7045: 7035: 7033: 7024: 7023: 7019: 7009: 7007: 7000:The Independent 6994: 6993: 6989: 6983:Wayback Machine 6972: 6971: 6967: 6922: 6915: 6905: 6903: 6888: 6884: 6871: 6870: 6866: 6861: 6857: 6847: 6845: 6830: 6829: 6825: 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5753: 5752: 5748: 5741: 5725: 5721: 5711:Wayback Machine 5702: 5698: 5693:on 5 June 2012. 5685: 5684: 5680: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5648: 5646: 5633: 5632: 5628: 5618: 5616: 5609:sueddeutsche.de 5603: 5602: 5598: 5588: 5586: 5573: 5572: 5568: 5558: 5556: 5543: 5542: 5538: 5528: 5526: 5513: 5512: 5508: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5478: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5450: 5448: 5435: 5434: 5430: 5420: 5418: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5390: 5388: 5375: 5374: 5370: 5360: 5358: 5343: 5339: 5329: 5327: 5318: 5317: 5313: 5303: 5301: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5277: 5275: 5260: 5256: 5246: 5244: 5235: 5234: 5230: 5220: 5218: 5205: 5204: 5200: 5190: 5188: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5164: 5162: 5149: 5148: 5144: 5134: 5132: 5119: 5118: 5114: 5104: 5102: 5093: 5092: 5085: 5075: 5073: 5066:The Independent 5060: 5059: 5055: 5045: 5043: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5019: 5017: 5003: 5002: 4998: 4988: 4986: 4974: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4960: 4950: 4948: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4922: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4900: 4896: 4891: 4884: 4877: 4863: 4859: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4823: 4819: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4788: 4784: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4755: 4747:Grant, D.N.W.; 4746: 4742: 4734: 4730: 4723: 4709: 4705: 4690: 4686: 4676: 4674: 4661: 4660: 4656: 4646: 4644: 4629: 4625: 4615: 4613: 4600: 4599: 4595: 4580: 4576: 4566: 4564: 4553: 4549: 4544: 4537: 4527: 4525: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4499: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4454: 4443: 4433: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4406: 4367: 4363: 4358: 4354: 4349:on 28 May 2008. 4346: 4331: 4325: 4321: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4218: 4214: 4151: 4147: 4137: 4135: 4131: 4120: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4068: 4061: 4032:(11): 871–872. 4022: 4018: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3974:(11): 697–700. 3963: 3957: 3953: 3946: 3926: 3922: 3912: 3910: 3897: 3896: 3889: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3839:Sports Medicine 3834: 3828: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3794: 3790: 3781: 3777: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3752: 3747: 3743: 3736: 3722: 3705: 3666: 3662: 3617: 3613: 3598: 3582: 3578: 3549: 3542: 3505: 3501: 3491: 3489: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3468: 3400:Doping in China 3380:Mitchell Report 3362:Olympics portal 3360: 3355: 3353: 3346: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3301: 3261: 3239: 3212:catheterization 3204: 3188: 3177: 3165: 3158: 3134: 3107: 3090: 3085: 3059:Lance Armstrong 3020: 3010: 3004: 3001: 2994:needs expansion 2979: 2970: 2961: 2948: 2943: 2907:Winter Olympics 2870:World Athletics 2865: 2835:menstrual cycle 2815: 2773: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2737: 2734: 2691: 2680: 2676:primary sources 2660: 2656: 2649: 2633: 2613:Lance Armstrong 2601: 2595: 2575:epitestosterone 2536: 2530: 2522:Vuelta a España 2485: 2477:Main articles: 2475: 2463:Henri Desgrange 2390:Henri Desgrange 2382:Henri Pélissier 2364: 2357: 2343: 2320: 2312:Lorenzo Feritta 2300: 2257:Marcel Desailly 2127:Marcello Giusti 2099:Helenio Herrera 2091: 2036: 2001: 1995: 1978:Bronchodilators 1962:pseudoephedrine 1896: 1890: 1819: 1799:Main articles: 1797: 1772:epitestosterone 1753:Andrew Jennings 1749: 1743: 1653:track and field 1649: 1647:Doping in China 1643: 1616:methamphetamine 1576: 1570: 1567: 1560:needs expansion 1545: 1514:Ilona Slupianek 1413:After the 1990 1357:Ilona Slupianek 1330: 1324: 1319: 1260: 1144: 1076:pseudoephedrine 1037: 1020: 884: 876:Main articles: 874: 814: 807: 790: 784: 765: 755:in his system. 621: 565: 536: 535: 484: 476: 475: 420: 412: 411: 400:Mitchell Report 338:Game of Shadows 249: 241: 240: 201:Abortion doping 196: 188: 187: 78: 70: 54:Doping in sport 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11235: 11225: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11197: 11196: 11194: 11193: 11183: 11173: 11158: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11146: 11141: 11136: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11115: 11113: 11109: 11108: 11106: 11105: 11100: 11098:National sport 11095: 11090: 11084: 11082: 11076: 11075: 11073: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11052: 11047: 11041: 11039: 11033: 11032: 11030: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11017:Sports mascots 11014: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10994: 10993: 10992: 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10951: 10949: 10945: 10944: 10942: 10941: 10936: 10935: 10934: 10929: 10924: 10914: 10908: 10906: 10900: 10899: 10897: 10896: 10891: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10866: 10860: 10858: 10852: 10851: 10849: 10848: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10832: 10831: 10826: 10816: 10811: 10805: 10803: 10799: 10798: 10796: 10795: 10790: 10785: 10784: 10783: 10778: 10768: 10767: 10766: 10761: 10751: 10750: 10749: 10744: 10739: 10734: 10729: 10719: 10714: 10713: 10712: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10692: 10681: 10679: 10673: 10672: 10670: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10628: 10626: 10622: 10621: 10614: 10613: 10606: 10599: 10591: 10582: 10581: 10576: 10570: 10565: 10560: 10553: 10552:External links 10550: 10549: 10548: 10540:|journal= 10511: 10486: 10471: 10443:(3): 341–375. 10428: 10419: 10408:Drugs in Sport 10404: 10384:(7): 1262–79. 10369: 10342: 10339: 10336: 10335: 10305: 10288:TopMMANews.com 10274: 10243: 10217: 10181: 10146: 10115: 10088: 10062: 10031: 9972: 9918: 9904: 9874: 9848: 9826: 9794: 9742: 9721:(7): 969–976. 9701: 9679: 9666: 9616: 9609: 9584: 9567:"Congress.gov" 9557: 9531: 9505: 9484: 9461: 9431: 9404:(3): 198–202. 9384: 9365:(3): 375–393. 9346: 9327:(4): 276–282. 9311: 9260: 9241:(4): 285–287. 9220: 9201: 9174:(6): 395–411. 9155: 9079: 9050:(2): 260–282. 9029: 9018:on 9 July 2015 8999: 8992: 8972: 8942: 8912: 8882: 8848: 8827:(2): R47–R58. 8804: 8782: 8756: 8730: 8700: 8681:(4): 604–615. 8665: 8647: 8616: 8607: 8594: 8581: 8549: 8542: 8520: 8502: 8472: 8441: 8414: 8384: 8353: 8320: 8290: 8257: 8231: 8200: 8161: 8134: 8114: 8083: 8056: 8030: 8006: 7975: 7949: 7923: 7897: 7866: 7836: 7803: 7773: 7758: 7740: 7709: 7692:Süddeutsche.de 7678: 7652: 7626: 7588: 7561: 7541: 7515: 7485: 7460: 7445:(in Italian). 7429: 7398: 7359: 7328: 7297: 7266: 7236: 7221:(in Spanish). 7205: 7188:NDTVSports.com 7175: 7158:Süddeutsche.de 7144: 7113: 7074: 7043: 7017: 6987: 6965: 6913: 6882: 6864: 6855: 6823: 6792: 6774: 6755: 6740: 6700: 6670: 6640: 6610: 6580: 6568: 6544: 6541:on 7 May 2001. 6517: 6487: 6457: 6427: 6401: 6371: 6345: 6314: 6286: 6255: 6229: 6203: 6164: 6150: 6130: 6116: 6090: 6059: 6052: 6029: 5998: 5968: 5942: 5910: 5892:Deutsche Welle 5878: 5849: 5814: 5782: 5746: 5739: 5719: 5696: 5678: 5656: 5639:Spiegel Online 5626: 5596: 5566: 5536: 5519:Deutsche Welle 5506: 5501:Deutsche Welle 5488: 5458: 5428: 5398: 5368: 5337: 5311: 5294:"Drugs update" 5285: 5254: 5228: 5198: 5172: 5142: 5112: 5083: 5053: 5027: 4996: 4967: 4958: 4941:Deutsche Welle 4928: 4916: 4907: 4894: 4882: 4875: 4857: 4842: 4835: 4817: 4804: 4795: 4782: 4769: 4753: 4740: 4728: 4721: 4703: 4684: 4654: 4623: 4606:news.bbc.co.uk 4593: 4574: 4547: 4535: 4509: 4483: 4464:(3): 409–419. 4441: 4415: 4404: 4361: 4352: 4319: 4270: 4261: 4212: 4145: 4109: 4059: 4016: 3951: 3944: 3920: 3887: 3822: 3813: 3801: 3788: 3775: 3762: 3750: 3741: 3734: 3703: 3660: 3631:(4): 529–534. 3611: 3596: 3576: 3540: 3519:(3): 255–271. 3499: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3375:McLaren Report 3372: 3366: 3365: 3351: 3335: 3332: 3300: 3297: 3293:Enhanced Games 3260: 3257: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3203: 3200: 3187: 3184: 3176: 3173: 3155: 3154: 3148: 3133: 3130: 3129: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3106: 3103: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3062: 3051: 3040: 3012: 3011: 2991: 2989: 2978: 2975: 2969: 2966: 2960: 2957: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2864: 2861: 2853: 2852: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2831: 2828: 2822: 2819: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2800: 2796: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2769: 2754: 2753: 2746: 2744: 2663: 2661: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2632: 2629: 2617:Tour de France 2606:Erythropoietin 2597:Main article: 2594: 2591: 2532:Main article: 2529: 2526: 2493:Tour de France 2479:Festina affair 2474: 2473:Festina affair 2471: 2458: 2457: 2453: 2452: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2427: 2426: 2418: 2417: 2384:, his brother 2368:Albert Londres 2363: 2358: 2342: 2339: 2327:Erythropoietin 2319: 2316: 2299: 2296: 2269:Tony Cascarino 2201:erythropoietin 2123:Armando Picchi 2090: 2089:Football Clubs 2087: 2035: 2032: 2009:FIFA World Cup 1994: 1991: 1951:Evelyn Ashford 1892:Main article: 1889: 1886: 1823:Russian sports 1805:McLaren Report 1796: 1793: 1742: 1739: 1678:Olympic medals 1661:Ma Family Army 1645:Main article: 1642: 1639: 1623:Birgit Dressel 1578: 1577: 1557: 1555: 1544: 1541: 1537:Sharron Davies 1510:Andrea Pollack 1506:Daniela Hunger 1446:, the head of 1404: 1403: 1346: 1345: 1334:Renate Neufeld 1326:Main article: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1311: 1310: 1301: 1300: 1259: 1256: 1215: 1214: 1180: 1179: 1143: 1140: 1072:Olympic Trials 1036: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1028: 1019: 1016: 895:and decreased 873: 870: 831: 830: 824: 806: 803: 796:by physician, 786:Main article: 783: 780: 764: 761: 722:The father of 720: 719: 704:nitroglycerine 691: 690: 683: 682: 647:chariot racing 620: 617: 597:chariot racing 567: 566: 564: 563: 556: 549: 541: 538: 537: 534: 533: 532: 531: 526: 524:UK Anti-Doping 521: 516: 511: 506: 496: 491: 485: 482: 481: 478: 477: 474: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 421: 418: 417: 414: 413: 410: 409: 408: 407: 402: 397: 387: 382: 375: 370: 369: 368: 363: 355: 348: 341: 334: 329: 327:Festina affair 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 259:Tour de France 256: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 239: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 211:Blood-spinning 208: 203: 197: 194: 193: 190: 189: 186: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 79: 76: 75: 72: 71: 57: 56: 50: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11234: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11209: 11207: 11192: 11184: 11182: 11174: 11172: 11171: 11160: 11159: 11156: 11150: 11149:South America 11147: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11139:North America 11137: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11116: 11114: 11110: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11083: 11081: 11077: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11056: 11053: 11051: 11048: 11046: 11043: 11042: 11040: 11038: 11034: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11022:Sportsmanship 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10991: 10988: 10987: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10965:Entertainment 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10952: 10950: 10946: 10940: 10937: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10920: 10919: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10909: 10907: 10905: 10904:Communication 10901: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10865: 10862: 10861: 10859: 10857: 10853: 10847: 10846:International 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10830: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10821: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10812: 10810: 10807: 10806: 10804: 10802:Organizations 10800: 10794: 10791: 10789: 10788:Rating system 10786: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10773: 10772: 10769: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10756: 10755: 10752: 10748: 10745: 10743: 10740: 10738: 10735: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10724: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10711: 10708: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10700:Periodization 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10687: 10686: 10683: 10682: 10680: 10678: 10674: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10629: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10612: 10607: 10605: 10600: 10598: 10593: 10592: 10589: 10585: 10580: 10577: 10574: 10571: 10569: 10566: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10555: 10545: 10532: 10517: 10512: 10500: 10496: 10492: 10487: 10484: 10480: 10477:, Routledge. 10476: 10472: 10468: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10429: 10427: 10425: 10420: 10417: 10413: 10410:, Routledge. 10409: 10405: 10401: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10383: 10379: 10375: 10370: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10345: 10344: 10323: 10319: 10315: 10309: 10293: 10289: 10285: 10278: 10262: 10258: 10254: 10247: 10231: 10227: 10221: 10213: 10201: 10197: 10196: 10191: 10185: 10169: 10165: 10161: 10157: 10150: 10134: 10130: 10126: 10119: 10103: 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3224: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3199: 3197: 3196:Olympic Games 3193: 3183: 3181: 3172: 3170: 3163: 3157:The lower the 3153: 3149: 3147: 3143: 3142: 3141: 3140:Assumptions: 3138: 3127:Level of Iron 3126: 3124:Reticulocytes 3123: 3120: 3119: 3118: 3115: 3114: 3111: 3102: 3094: 3077: 3074: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3008: 2999: 2995: 2992:This section 2990: 2987: 2983: 2982: 2974: 2965: 2956: 2954: 2953:Judith Butler 2938: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2920: 2919:Olympic games 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2860: 2857: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2816: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2797: 2794: 2790: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2745: 2741: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2706: 2702: 2699: – 2698: 2694: 2693:Find sources: 2688: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2664:This section 2662: 2653: 2652: 2644: 2642: 2638: 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