1801:
its acceptor level is only 0.26 eV below conduction band; as the acceptor level in n-type silicon is shallower, the space charge generation rate is lower and therefore the leakage current is also lower than for gold doping. At high injection levels platinum performs better for lifetime reduction. Reverse recovery of bipolar devices is more dependent on the low-level lifetime, and its reduction is better performed by gold. Gold provides a good tradeoff between forward voltage drop and reverse recovery time for fast switching bipolar devices, where charge stored in base and collector regions must be minimized. Conversely, in many power transistors a long minority carrier lifetime is required to achieve good gain, and the gold/platinum impurities must be kept low.
419:, there are approximately 5Ă—10 atoms/cm. Doping concentration for silicon semiconductors may range anywhere from 10 cm to 10 cm. Doping concentration above about 10 cm is considered degenerate at room temperature. Degenerately doped silicon contains a proportion of impurity to silicon on the order of parts per thousand. This proportion may be reduced to parts per billion in very lightly doped silicon. Typical concentration values fall somewhere in this range and are tailored to produce the desired properties in the device that the semiconductor is intended for.
31:
2149:
semiconductor material. New applications have become available that require the discrete character of a single dopant, such as single-spin devices in the area of quantum information or single-dopant transistors. Dramatic advances in the past decade towards observing, controllably creating and manipulating single dopants, as well as their application in novel devices have allowed opening the new field of solotronics (solitary dopant optoelectronics).
3223:
428:
1926:
In most cases many types of impurities will be present in the resultant doped semiconductor. If an equal number of donors and acceptors are present in the semiconductor, the extra core electrons provided by the former will be used to satisfy the broken bonds due to the latter, so that doping produces
1486:
to receive the neutrons. As neutrons continue to pass through the silicon, more and more phosphorus atoms are produced by transmutation, and therefore the doping becomes more and more strongly n-type. NTD is a far less common doping method than diffusion or ion implantation, but it has the advantage
2287:
1800:
are used for minority carrier lifetime control. They are used in some infrared detection applications. Gold introduces a donor level 0.35 eV above the valence band and an acceptor level 0.54 eV below the conduction band. Platinum introduces a donor level also at 0.35 eV above the valence band, but
1728:
is a n-type dopant. It has a small diffusion coefficient. Used for buried layers. Has diffusivity similar to arsenic, is used as its alternative. Its diffusion is virtually purely substitutional, with no interstitials, so it is free of anomalous effects. For this superior property, it is sometimes
2157:
Electrons or holes introduced by doping are mobile, and can be spatially separated from dopant atoms they have dissociated from. Ionized donors and acceptors however attract electrons and holes, respectively, so this spatial separation requires abrupt changes of dopant levels, of band gap (e.g. a
2088:
Molecular dopants are preferred in doping molecular semiconductors due to their compatibilities of processing with the host, that is, similar evaporation temperatures or controllable solubility. Additionally, the relatively large sizes of molecular dopants compared with those of metal ion dopants
1575:
of choice for silicon integrated circuit production because it diffuses at a rate that makes junction depths easily controllable. Phosphorus is typically used for bulk-doping of silicon wafers, while arsenic is used to diffuse junctions, because it diffuses more slowly than phosphorus and is thus
1677:
is a dopant used for long-wavelength infrared photoconduction silicon detectors in the 8–14 μm atmospheric window. Gallium-doped silicon is also promising for solar cells, due to its long minority carrier lifetime with no lifetime degradation; as such it is gaining importance as a replacement of
1721:
is a n-type dopant. Its slower diffusion allows using it for diffused junctions. Used for buried layers. Has similar atomic radius to silicon, high concentrations can be achieved. Its diffusivity is about a tenth of phosphorus or boron, so it is used where the dopant should stay in place during
2148:
The sensitive dependence of a semiconductor's properties on dopants has provided an extensive range of tunable phenomena to explore and apply to devices. It is possible to identify the effects of a solitary dopant on commercial device performance as well as on the fundamental properties of a
434:
of PN junction operation in forward bias mode showing reducing depletion width. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1Ă—10/cm doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with
1285:
is added, and sulfur is incorporated into the structure. This process is characterized by a constant concentration of sulfur on the surface. In the case of semiconductors in general, only a very thin layer of the wafer needs to be doped in order to obtain the desired electronic properties.
1745:
solar cells. The lithium presence anneals defects in the lattice produced by protons and neutrons. Lithium can be introduced to boron-doped p+ silicon, in amounts low enough to maintain the p character of the material, or in large enough amount to counterdope it to low-resistivity n
1480:
752:
2268:
1938:
Partial compensation, where donors outnumber acceptors or vice versa, allows device makers to repeatedly reverse (invert) the type of a certain layer under the surface of a bulk semiconductor by diffusing or implanting successively higher doses of dopants, so-called
1206:
542:
For low levels of doping, the relevant energy states are populated sparsely by electrons (conduction band) or holes (valence band). It is possible to write simple expressions for the electron and hole carrier concentrations, by ignoring Pauli exclusion (via
948:
1943:. Most modern semiconductor devices are made by successive selective counterdoping steps to create the necessary P and N type areas under the surface of bulk silicon. This is an alternative to successively growing such layers by epitaxy.
1729:
used in VLSI instead of arsenic. Heavy doping with antimony is important for power devices. Heavily antimony-doped silicon has lower concentration of oxygen impurities; minimal autodoping effects make it suitable for epitaxial substrates.
3005:
Lin, Xin; Purdum, Geoffrey E.; Zhang, Yadong; Barlow, Stephen; Marder, Seth R.; Loo, Yueh-Lin; Kahn, Antoine (2016-04-26). "Impact of a Low
Concentration of Dopants on the Distribution of Gap States in a Molecular Semiconductor".
183:
is not used in it, his US Patent issued in 1950 describes methods for adding tiny amounts of solid elements from the nitrogen column of the periodic table to germanium to produce rectifying devices. The demands of his work on
2776:
1351:
2123:
Research on magnetic doping has shown that considerable alteration of certain properties such as specific heat may be affected by small concentrations of an impurity; for example, dopant impurities in semiconducting
167:, and in 1930 the German scientist Bernhard Gudden, each independently reported that the properties of semiconductors were due to the impurities they contained. A doping process was formally developed by
1761:
engineering. Germanium layer also inhibits diffusion of boron during the annealing steps, allowing ultrashallow p-MOSFET junctions. Germanium bulk doping suppresses large void defects, increases internal
1665:
gas. The only acceptor with sufficient solubility for efficient emitters in transistors and other applications requiring extremely high dopant concentrations. Boron diffuses about as fast as phosphorus.
553:
2128:
alloys can generate different properties as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl and
Nakamura. The inclusion of dopant elements to impart dilute magnetism is of growing significance in the field of
399:
In general, increased doping leads to increased conductivity due to the higher concentration of carriers. Degenerate (very highly doped) semiconductors have conductivity levels comparable to
1722:
subsequent thermal processing. Useful for shallow diffusions where well-controlled abrupt boundary is desired. Preferred dopant in VLSI circuits. Preferred dopant in low resistivity ranges.
351:
1010:
511:'s properties are due to the band bending that happens as a result of the necessity to line up the bands in contacting regions of p-type and n-type material. This effect is shown in a
415:
would indicate a very lightly doped p-type material. Even degenerate levels of doping imply low concentrations of impurities with respect to the base semiconductor. In intrinsic
499:. The energy band that corresponds with the dopant with the greatest concentration ends up closer to the Fermi level. Since the Fermi level must remain constant in a system in
1595:
elements, which are missing the fourth valence electron, creates "broken bonds" (holes) in the silicon lattice that are free to move. The result is an electrically conductive
1626:
A very heavily doped semiconductor behaves more like a good conductor (metal) and thus exhibits more linear positive thermal coefficient. Such effect is used for instance in
1318:
and dopants (in a solvent) onto a wafer surface by spin-coating and then stripping it and baking it at a certain temperature in the furnace at constant nitrogen+oxygen flow.
2301:
1790:
is important for growing defect-free silicon crystal. Improves mechanical strength of the lattice, increases bulk microdefect generation, suppresses vacancy agglomeration.
284:
794:
2893:
Lin, Xin; Wegner, Berthold; Lee, Kyung Min; Fusella, Michael A.; Zhang, Fengyu; Moudgil, Karttikay; Rand, Barry P.; Barlow, Stephen; Marder, Seth R. (2017-11-13).
1975:
within the already potentially conducting system. There are two primary methods of doping a conductive polymer, both of which use an oxidation-reduction (i.e.,
73:
can change the ability of a semiconductor to conduct electricity. When on the order of one dopant atom is added per 100 million atoms, the doping is said to be
1735:
is a promising dopant for long-wavelength infrared photoconduction silicon detectors, a viable n-type alternative to the p-type gallium-doped material.
1277:. In vapor-phase epitaxy, a gas containing the dopant precursor can be introduced into the reactor. For example, in the case of n-type gas doping of
455:
impurities create states near the valence band. The gap between these energy states and the nearest energy band is usually referred to as dopant-site
407:
as a replacement for metal. Often superscript plus and minus symbols are used to denote relative doping concentration in semiconductors. For example,
1338:
doping (NTD) is an unusual doping method for special applications. Most commonly, it is used to dope silicon n-type in high-power electronics and
2140:(DFT) the temperature dependent magnetic behaviour of dopants within a given lattice can be modeled to identify candidate semiconductor systems.
377:
is the material's intrinsic carrier concentration. The intrinsic carrier concentration varies between materials and is dependent on temperature.
515:. The band diagram typically indicates the variation in the valence band and conduction band edges versus some spatial dimension, often denoted
2285:, Sparks, Morgan & Teal, Gordon K., "Method of Making P-N Junctions in Semiconductor Materials", issued March 17, 1953
1475:{\displaystyle ^{30}\mathrm {Si} \,(n,\gamma )\,^{31}\mathrm {Si} \rightarrow \,^{31}\mathrm {P} +\beta ^{-}\;(T_{1/2}=2.62\mathrm {h} ).}
1866:
n-type: silicon (substituting Ga), germanium (substituting Ga, better lattice match), carbon (substituting Ga, naturally embedding into
530:, which is the Fermi level in the absence of doping, is shown. These diagrams are useful in explaining the operation of many kinds of
3248:
747:{\displaystyle n_{e}=N_{\rm {C}}(T)\exp((E_{\rm {F}}-E_{\rm {C}})/kT),\quad n_{h}=N_{\rm {V}}(T)\exp((E_{\rm {V}}-E_{\rm {F}})/kT),}
1784:
of silicon wafer surfaces. Formation of an amorphous layer beneath the surface allows forming ultrashallow junctions for p-MOSFETs.
2101:. However, similar to the problem encountered in doping conductive polymers, air-stable n-dopants suitable for materials with low
3227:
1699:. It diffuses fast, so is usually used for bulk doping, or for well formation. Used in solar cells. Can be added by diffusion of
17:
2089:(such as Li and Mo) are generally beneficial, yielding excellent spatial confinement for use in multilayer structures, such as
2849:
2822:
2755:
2697:
2667:
2629:
2528:
2491:
2466:
2441:
2410:
1234:
62:
for the purpose of modulating its electrical, optical and structural properties. The doped material is referred to as an
2508:"Computer History Museum – The Silicon Engine|1955 – Photolithography Techniques Are Used to Make Silicon Devices"
2326:
Sproul, A. B; Green, M. A (1991). "Improved value for the silicon intrinsic carrier concentration from 275 to 375 K".
3243:
2874:
2604:
2579:
1715:. Phosphorus also traps gold atoms, which otherwise quickly diffuse through silicon and act as recombination centers.
1274:
2507:
2064:(i.e., reoxidize to the neutral state) the polymer. Thus, chemical n-doping must be performed in an environment of
1946:
Although compensation can be used to increase or decrease the number of donors or acceptors, the electron and hole
1201:{\displaystyle N_{\rm {C}}(T)=2(2\pi m_{e}^{*}kT/h^{2})^{3/2}\quad N_{\rm {V}}(T)=2(2\pi m_{h}^{*}kT/h^{2})^{3/2}.}
544:
295:
81:. When many more dopant atoms are added, on the order of one per ten thousand atoms, the doping is referred to as
2197:
1684:
is a dopant used for long-wavelength infrared photoconduction silicon detectors in the 3–5 μm atmospheric window.
2958:"Molecular Electrical Doping of Organic Semiconductors: Fundamental Mechanisms and Emerging Dopant Design Rules"
503:, stacking layers of materials with different properties leads to many useful electrical properties induced by
2364:
Green, M. A. (1990). "Intrinsic concentration, effective densities of states, and effective mass in silicon".
1587:
are added that become unbounded from individual atoms and allow the compound to be an electrically conductive
788:
is the maximum energy of the valence band. These are related to the value of the intrinsic concentration via
2774:, Weinberg, Irving & Brandhorst, Henry W. Jr., "Lithium counterdoped silicon solar cell"
1950:
is always decreased by compensation because mobility is affected by the sum of the donor and acceptor ions.
2105:(EA) are still elusive. Recently, photoactivation with a combination of cleavable dimeric dopants, such as
448:
222:
The concentration of the dopant used affects many electrical properties. Most important is the material's
2072:). Electrochemical n-doping is far more common in research, because it is easier to exclude oxygen from a
1889:
Mg, hydrogen complexes passivating of Mg acceptors and by Mg self-compensation at higher concentrations)
1812:
In the following list the "(substituting X)" refers to all of the materials preceding said parenthesis.
3076:
Zhang, X. Y; Suhl, H (1985). "Spin-wave-related period doublings and chaos under transverse pumping".
2771:
2282:
2263:
2226:
1306:, the latter method being more popular in large production runs because of increased controllability.
2137:
1861:
1650:
1615:
1572:
1540:
500:
452:
156:
3119:
Assadi, M.H.N; Hanaor, D.A.H. (2013). "Theoretical study on copper's energetics and magnetism in TiO
943:{\displaystyle n_{i}^{2}=n_{h}n_{e}=N_{\rm {V}}(T)N_{\rm {C}}(T)\exp((E_{\rm {V}}-E_{\rm {C}})/kT),}
152:
The effects of impurities in semiconductors (doping) were long known empirically in such devices as
2044:
to enter the polymer in the form of electron addition (i.e., n-doping) or removal (i.e., p-doping).
289:
In a non-intrinsic semiconductor under thermal equilibrium, the relation becomes (for low doping):
172:
118:
244:
2747:
Solar Cell Array Design
Handbook: The Principles and Technology of Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
2192:
2187:
1824:
p-type: beryllium, zinc, chromium (substituting Ga); silicon, germanium, carbon (substituting As)
1671:, used for deep p-diffusions. Not popular in VLSI and ULSI. Also a common unintentional impurity.
63:
59:
411:
denotes an n-type semiconductor with a high, often degenerate, doping concentration. Similarly,
2956:
Salzmann, Ingo; Heimel, Georg; Oehzelt, Martin; Winkler, Stefanie; Koch, Norbert (2016-03-15).
2129:
2118:
2060:
environment. An electron-rich, n-doped polymer will react immediately with elemental oxygen to
1857:
1696:
1605:
1548:
1501:
1339:
444:
2745:
2687:
2657:
2400:
2895:"Beating the thermodynamic limit with photo-activation of n-doping in organic semiconductors"
2839:
2812:
2715:
Bismuth-Doped
Silicon: An Extrinsic Detector For Long-Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) Applications
2049:
1704:
1536:
1335:
1237:
of electrons and holes, respectively, quantities that are roughly constant over temperature.
2266:, Woodyard, John R., "Nonlinear circuit device utilizing germanium", issued 1950
3185:
3142:
3085:
3050:
2906:
2373:
2335:
2033:
1886:
1841:
1596:
1588:
531:
168:
137:
122:
114:
102:
94:
8:
2132:. The presence of disperse ferromagnetic species is key to the functionality of emerging
1742:
1314:
Spin-on glass or spin-on dopant doping is a two-step process of applying a mixture of SiO
1267:
443:, but very close to the energy band that corresponds to the dopant type. In other words,
416:
227:
160:
3189:
3146:
3089:
3054:
2910:
2377:
2339:
477:
in silicon bulk is 0.045 eV, compared with silicon's band gap of about 1.12 eV. Because
3158:
3132:
2726:
2171:
2094:
2080:. However, it is unlikely that n-doped conductive polymers are available commercially.
1964:
1959:
1327:
1263:
485:
404:
38:
array. Silicon based intrinsic semiconductor becomes extrinsic when impurities such as
2790:
1840:
isoelectric: nitrogen (substituting P) is added to enable luminescence in older green
1821:
n-type: tellurium, sulfur (substituting As); tin, silicon, germanium (substituting Ga)
3201:
3101:
3023:
2987:
2979:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2870:
2845:
2818:
2751:
2730:
2693:
2663:
2625:
2600:
2575:
2487:
2462:
2437:
2406:
2167:
2102:
1947:
1894:
1874:
1845:
1829:
1781:
1584:
439:
Doping a semiconductor in a good crystal introduces allowed energy states within the
141:
3162:
3041:
Hogan, C. Michael (1969). "Density of States of an
Insulating Ferromagnetic Alloy".
2546:
495:
Dopants also have the important effect of shifting the energy bands relative to the
3193:
3150:
3093:
3058:
3015:
2969:
2914:
2718:
2381:
2343:
2202:
2175:
2077:
2036:
is created between the electrodes that causes a charge and the appropriate counter
1971:, or sometimes reduce, the system so that electrons are pushed into the conducting
1816:
1303:
1295:
1282:
1278:
393:
164:
3176:
Koenraad, Paul M.; Flatté, Michael E. (2011). "Single dopants in semiconductors".
3019:
2974:
2957:
2247:
1907:
1853:
1712:
1532:
1483:
1259:
30:
2163:
2007:
1972:
1600:
1580:
1552:
489:
456:
223:
196:
108:
144:
in semiconductors. Doping is also used to control the color in some pigments.
3237:
3097:
3027:
2983:
2926:
2136:, a class of systems that utilise electron spin in addition to charge. Using
2125:
2011:
235:
200:
153:
51:
3062:
3205:
2991:
2942:
2207:
2159:
1932:
1878:
1516:
1509:
512:
508:
504:
431:
188:
prevented
Woodyard from pursuing further research on semiconductor doping.
176:
133:
3105:
519:. The Fermi level is also usually indicated in the diagram. Sometimes the
2133:
2109:, suggests a new path to realize effective n-doping in low-EA materials.
2041:
2025:
1873:
p-type: magnesium (substituting Ga) - challenging due to relatively high
1610:
1592:
1544:
1504:, semiconductor physicists always use an older notation, not the current
767:
496:
211:
1902:
p-type: phosphorus (substituting Te); lithium, sodium (substituting Cd)
1899:
n-type: indium, aluminium (substituting Cd); chlorine (substituting Te)
1631:
1564:
1343:
1273:
Alternately, synthesis of semiconductor devices may involve the use of
3154:
2934:
2894:
2722:
113:) A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like a
27:
Intentional introduction of impurities into an intrinsic semiconductor
3197:
2918:
2385:
2347:
2065:
2057:
2029:
2021:
1991:
1882:
1763:
1700:
1654:
1627:
1620:
1528:
1299:
1294:
To define circuit elements, selected areas — typically controlled by
537:
192:
2770:
2717:. Mosaic Focal Plane Methodologies I. Vol. 0244. pp. 2–8.
1912:
n-type: gallium (substituting Cd); iodine, fluorine (substituting S)
1758:
1662:
970:
440:
231:
129:
43:
3137:
2032:
along with separate counter and reference electrodes. An electric
2073:
2003:
1995:
1987:
1968:
1708:
1568:
1560:
1524:
1520:
1332:
1255:
507:, if the interfaces can be made cleanly enough. For example, the
378:
35:
2459:
Process
Engineering Analysis in Semiconductor Device Fabrication
3222:
2053:
1999:
1837:
p-type: zinc, magnesium (substituting Ga); tin (substituting P)
1251:
389:
207:
953:
an expression which is independent of the doping level, since
2281:
2083:
2069:
1976:
1927:
no free carriers of either type. This phenomenon is known as
1867:
1834:
n-type: tellurium, selenium, sulfur (substituting phosphorus)
1630:. Lower dosage of doping is used in other types (NTC or PTC)
1556:
1505:
474:
400:
185:
39:
2955:
2090:
1658:
70:
2659:
Crystal Growth and
Evaluation of Silicon for VLSI and ULSI
1342:. It is based on the conversion of the Si-30 isotope into
427:
2037:
2010:; this method is far less common, and typically involves
2750:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 157–.
2692:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 437–.
2302:"John Robert Woodyard, Electrical Engineering: Berkeley"
111:
for a more detailed description of the doping mechanism.
2620:
Cheruku, Dharma Raj; Krishna, Battula
Tirumala (2008).
1657:
rate allows easy control of junction depths. Common in
58:
is the intentional introduction of impurities into an
2713:
Parry, Christopher M. (1981). Chan, William S. (ed.).
1487:
of creating an extremely uniform dopant distribution.
2743:
2712:
2599:. Electrochemical Society Proceedings. Vol. 98.
2097:. Typical p-type dopants include F4-TCNQ and Mo(tfd)
1354:
1240:
1013:
797:
556:
298:
247:
125:
if it has been doped in equal quantities of p and n.
3004:
1482:
In practice, the silicon is typically placed near a
488:
practically all of the dopant atoms and create free
210:
proved to be the grounds of extensive litigation by
2892:
2529:"1954: Diffusion Process Developed for Transistors"
2143:
1678:
boron doped substrates for solar cell applications.
779:is the minimum energy of the conduction band, and
226:concentration. In an intrinsic semiconductor under
2624:(2nd ed.). Delhi, India: Dorling Kindersley.
1474:
1200:
942:
746:
538:Relationship to carrier concentration (low doping)
345:
278:
3040:
2814:Field-Effect and Bipolar Power Transistor Physics
2262:
2006:. Alternatively, the polymer can be exposed to a
3235:
2837:
2597:High Resistivity NTD Production and Applications
2481:
2436:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 241–243.
2162:), or built-in electric fields (e.g. in case of
1953:
2810:
2431:
1935:in the vast majority of semiconductor devices.
1321:
1245:
484:is so small, room temperature is hot enough to
3175:
2619:
2020:involves suspending a polymer-coated, working
363:is the concentration of conducting electrons,
2685:
2681:
2679:
2655:
2456:
2245:
1967:can be doped by adding chemical reactants to
3118:
2594:
2405:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. pp. 6–7.
2363:
1619:. This is a key concept in the physics of a
388:, for example, is roughly 1.08Ă—10 cm at 300
346:{\displaystyle n_{0}\cdot p_{0}=n_{i}^{2}\ }
2651:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2325:
2252:(2md ed.). Cambridge University Press.
422:
2676:
2227:"Faraday to Shockley – Transistor History"
2084:Doping in organic molecular semiconductors
1495:
1433:
466:and is relatively small. For example, the
370:is the conducting hole concentration, and
3136:
3075:
2973:
2450:
2048:N-doping is much less common because the
1915:p-type: lithium, sodium (substituting Cd)
1766:, and improves wafer mechanical strength.
1661:technology. Can be added by diffusion of
1603:element is said to behave as an electron
1408:
1389:
1372:
1298:— are further doped by such processes as
117:than a semiconductor is referred to as a
2864:
2638:
2170:and is advantageous owing to suppressed
426:
217:
29:
2425:
2402:Microelectronic Materials and Processes
2359:
2357:
1807:
1571:are used to dope silicon. Boron is the
1512:is called "Group IV", not "Group 14".)
1346:atom by neutron absorption as follows:
14:
3236:
2569:
1707:, by irradiation of pure silicon with
2888:
2886:
2461:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 29, 330–337.
2306:University of California: In Memoriam
1289:
2791:"2. Semiconductor Doping Technology"
2475:
2398:
2354:
2166:crystals). This technique is called
2152:
1986:involves exposing a polymer such as
1703:gas. Bulk doping can be achieved by
492:in the conduction or valence bands.
121:. A semiconductor can be considered
2689:Neutron-Transmutation-Doped Silicon
1870:-grown layers in low concentration)
1583:elements such as phosphorus, extra
203:, with a US Patent issued in 1953.
24:
2883:
2595:Schmidt, P. E.; Vedde, J. (1998).
2574:. Wiley-Interscience. p. 32.
2112:
1637:
1490:
1462:
1416:
1400:
1397:
1368:
1365:
1270:an almost uniform initial doping.
1241:Techniques of doping and synthesis
1235:density of states effective masses
1111:
1020:
914:
899:
866:
845:
718:
703:
670:
624:
609:
576:
447:impurities create states near the
140:; this is not to be confused with
25:
3260:
3215:
2028:solution in which the polymer is
1780:can be used as ion beams for pre-
1508:group notation. For example, the
60:intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor
3249:Semiconductor device fabrication
3221:
2570:Baliga, B. Jayant (1987-03-10).
2144:Single dopants in semiconductors
1309:
3169:
3112:
3069:
3034:
2998:
2949:
2869:(2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
2858:
2831:
2804:
2783:
2764:
2737:
2706:
2622:Electronic Devices and Circuits
2613:
2588:
2563:
2539:
2521:
2500:
2484:Analysis of Transport Phenomena
2198:List of semiconductor materials
1921:
1741:is used for doping silicon for
1104:
973:) does not change with doping.
650:
2793:. Iue.tuwien.ac.at. 2002-02-01
2744:Rauschenbach, Hans S. (2012).
2434:Doping in III-V Semiconductors
2392:
2319:
2294:
2275:
2256:
2239:
2219:
1539:, the most common dopants are
1466:
1434:
1404:
1385:
1373:
1178:
1132:
1123:
1117:
1087:
1041:
1032:
1026:
934:
920:
890:
887:
878:
872:
857:
851:
738:
724:
694:
691:
682:
676:
644:
630:
600:
597:
588:
582:
191:Similar work was performed at
13:
1:
3020:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b00165
2962:Accounts of Chemical Research
2213:
1954:Doping in conductive polymers
2975:10.1021/acs.accounts.5b00438
2662:. CRC Press. pp. 253–.
2399:Levy, Roland Albert (1989).
1579:By doping pure silicon with
1322:Neutron transmutation doping
1246:Doping during crystal growth
545:Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics
279:{\displaystyle n=p=n_{i}.\ }
136:, doping is better known as
7:
2865:Hastings, Ray Alan (2006).
2844:. CRC Press. pp. 19–.
2486:. Oup USA. pp. 91–94.
2181:
10:
3265:
3125:Journal of Applied Physics
2817:. Elsevier. pp. 93–.
2366:Journal of Applied Physics
2116:
1957:
1325:
1254:are added as the (usually
976:The concentration factors
147:
2841:Microelectronic Materials
2838:Grovenor, C.R.M. (1989).
2482:Deen, William M. (1998).
2138:density functional theory
1862:Aluminium gallium nitride
501:thermodynamic equilibrium
238:are equivalent. That is,
89:. This is often shown as
3244:Semiconductor properties
3098:10.1103/PhysRevA.32.2530
2867:The Art of Analog Layout
2811:Blicher, Adolph (2012).
2432:Schubert, E. F. (2005).
2172:carrier-donor scattering
2056:-rich, thus creating an
435:increasing forward bias.
423:Effect on band structure
230:, the concentrations of
173:Sperry Gyroscope Company
163:. For instance, in 1885
119:degenerate semiconductor
69:Small numbers of dopant
3131:(23): 233913–233913–5.
3063:10.1103/PhysRev.188.870
2533:Computer History Museum
2193:Intrinsic semiconductor
2188:Extrinsic semiconductor
2130:magnetic semiconductors
1519:semiconductors such as
1500:(Note: When discussing
1496:Group IV semiconductors
1340:semiconductor detectors
64:extrinsic semiconductor
18:Doping (semiconductors)
3228:Doping (semiconductor)
3008:Chemistry of Materials
2686:Jens Guldberg (2013).
2656:Eranna, Golla (2014).
2457:Middleman, S. (1993).
2246:Wilson, A. H. (1965).
2119:Magnetic semiconductor
2018:Electrochemical doping
1858:Indium gallium nitride
1476:
1202:
944:
748:
436:
403:and are often used in
347:
280:
47:
2772:US patent 4608452
2510:. Computerhistory.org
2283:US patent 2631356
2264:US patent 2530110
2174:, allowing very high
1705:nuclear transmutation
1599:. In this context, a
1502:periodic table groups
1477:
1203:
945:
749:
532:semiconductor devices
521:intrinsic Fermi level
430:
348:
281:
218:Carrier concentration
33:
3230:at Wikimedia Commons
2572:Modern Power Devices
2249:The Theory of Metals
2034:potential difference
1931:, and occurs at the
1808:Other semiconductors
1597:p-type semiconductor
1589:n-type semiconductor
1352:
1011:
795:
554:
296:
245:
169:John Robert Woodyard
123:i-type semiconductor
3190:2011NatMa..10...91K
3147:2013JAP...113w3913A
3090:1985PhRvA..32.2530Z
3055:1969PhRv..188..870H
2911:2017NatMa..16.1209L
2378:1990JAP....67.2944G
2340:1991JAP....70..846S
2095:Organic solar cells
1965:Conductive polymers
1576:more controllable.
1567:, and occasionally
1275:vapor-phase epitaxy
1155:
1064:
812:
417:crystalline silicon
405:integrated circuits
339:
228:thermal equilibrium
161:selenium rectifiers
107:See the article on
2164:noncentrosymmetric
2050:Earth's atmosphere
1960:Conductive polymer
1743:radiation hardened
1643:Acceptors, p-type
1472:
1328:Neutron activation
1290:Post-growth doping
1264:Czochralski method
1198:
1141:
1050:
940:
798:
744:
437:
343:
325:
276:
179:. Though the word
128:In the context of
48:
3226:Media related to
3155:10.1063/1.4811539
3078:Physical Review A
2905:(12): 1209–1215.
2851:978-0-85274-270-9
2824:978-0-323-15540-3
2757:978-94-011-7915-7
2723:10.1117/12.959299
2699:978-1-4613-3261-9
2669:978-1-4822-3282-0
2631:978-81-317-0098-3
2493:978-0-19-508494-8
2468:978-0-07-041853-0
2443:978-0-521-01784-8
2412:978-0-7923-0154-7
2168:modulation doping
2153:Modulation doping
2103:electron affinity
1895:Cadmium telluride
1875:ionisation energy
1846:indirect band gap
1830:Gallium phosphide
1585:valence electrons
1537:silicon–germanium
453:electron acceptor
342:
275:
206:Woodyard's prior
142:dopant activation
34:Doping of a pure
16:(Redirected from
3256:
3225:
3210:
3209:
3198:10.1038/nmat2940
3178:Nature Materials
3173:
3167:
3166:
3140:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3084:(4): 2530–2533.
3073:
3067:
3066:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3014:(8): 2677–2684.
3002:
2996:
2995:
2977:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2919:10.1038/nmat5027
2899:Nature Materials
2890:
2881:
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2557:
2551:inside.mines.edu
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2348:10.1063/1.349645
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2260:
2254:
2253:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2223:
2203:Monolayer doping
2178:to be attained.
1817:Gallium arsenide
1757:can be used for
1481:
1479:
1478:
1473:
1465:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1432:
1431:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1403:
1395:
1394:
1371:
1363:
1362:
1304:ion implantation
1296:photolithography
1283:hydrogen sulfide
1279:gallium arsenide
1232:
1221:
1207:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1193:
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1154:
1149:
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1103:
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989:
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486:thermally ionize
394:room temperature
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165:Shelford Bidwell
21:
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3074:
3070:
3043:Physical Review
3039:
3035:
3003:
2999:
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2547:"Spin-on Glass"
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2220:
2216:
2184:
2155:
2146:
2121:
2115:
2113:Magnetic doping
2108:
2100:
2086:
1984:Chemical doping
1962:
1956:
1924:
1908:Cadmium sulfide
1854:Gallium nitride
1810:
1713:nuclear reactor
1689:Donors, n-type
1640:
1638:Silicon dopants
1533:silicon carbide
1498:
1493:
1491:Dopant elements
1484:nuclear reactor
1461:
1445:
1441:
1437:
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528:
490:charge carriers
482:
471:
464:
449:conduction band
425:
386:
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329:
316:
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264:
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220:
150:
46:are introduced.
28:
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12:
11:
5:
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3232:
3231:
3217:
3216:External links
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3212:
3211:
3168:
3120:
3111:
3068:
3049:(2): 870–874.
3033:
2997:
2968:(3): 370–378.
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2117:Main article:
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1990:, typically a
1958:Main article:
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1636:
1613:element as an
1591:. Doping with
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109:semiconductors
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3184:(2): 91–100.
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3123:polymorphs".
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1911:
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201:Morgan Sparks
198:
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154:crystal radio
145:
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96:
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2965:
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2795:. Retrieved
2785:
2766:
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2565:
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2550:
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2532:
2523:
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2502:
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2416:. Retrieved
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2321:
2310:. Retrieved
2305:
2296:
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2258:
2248:
2241:
2230:. Retrieved
2221:
2208:p-n junction
2160:quantum well
2156:
2147:
2122:
2087:
2076:in a sealed
2061:
2047:
2017:
1983:
1963:
1945:
1940:
1937:
1933:p-n junction
1929:compensation
1928:
1925:
1922:Compensation
1887:interstitial
1879:valence band
1811:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1777:
1773:
1769:
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1510:carbon group
1499:
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1272:
1262:is grown by
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513:band diagram
509:p-n junction
505:band bending
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432:Band diagram
412:
408:
398:
382:
371:
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357:
355:
288:
221:
205:
190:
180:
177:World War II
151:
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54:production,
49:
2372:(6): 2944.
2134:spintronics
2042:electrolyte
2026:electrolyte
1979:) process.
1632:thermistors
768:Fermi level
497:Fermi level
212:Sperry Rand
171:working at
3238:Categories
2797:2016-02-02
2556:2022-12-22
2514:2014-06-12
2418:2008-02-23
2334:(2): 846.
2312:2007-08-12
2232:2016-02-02
2214:References
1877:above the
1693:Phosphorus
1628:sensistors
1565:phosphorus
1555:elements.
1344:phosphorus
1326:See also:
138:activation
97:doping or
3138:1304.1854
3028:0897-4756
2984:0001-4842
2927:1476-4660
2731:136572510
2066:inert gas
2058:oxidizing
2040:from the
2030:insoluble
2022:electrode
2008:reductant
1992:thin film
1883:diffusion
1844:(GaP has
1774:germanium
1764:gettering
1755:Germanium
1701:phosphine
1655:diffusion
1611:Group III
1593:Group III
1545:Group III
1541:acceptors
1529:germanium
1429:−
1425:β
1405:→
1383:γ
1300:diffusion
1152:∗
1139:π
1061:∗
1048:π
906:−
885:
710:−
689:
616:−
595:
310:⋅
232:electrons
193:Bell Labs
157:detectors
130:phosphors
115:conductor
105:doping. (
3206:21258352
3163:94599250
2992:26854611
2943:29170548
2182:See also
2176:mobility
1998:such as
1994:, to an
1973:orbitals
1948:mobility
1798:platinum
1788:Nitrogen
1759:band gap
1726:Antimony
1709:neutrons
1669:Aluminum
1663:diborane
1616:acceptor
1609:, and a
1517:Group IV
1515:For the
1233:are the
971:band gap
441:band gap
392:, about
44:Antimony
3186:Bibcode
3143:Bibcode
3106:9896377
3086:Bibcode
3051:Bibcode
2935:1595457
2907:Bibcode
2374:Bibcode
2336:Bibcode
2074:solvent
2068:(e.g.,
2062:de-dope
2004:bromine
1996:oxidant
1988:melanin
1969:oxidize
1770:Silicon
1739:Lithium
1733:Bismuth
1719:Arsenic
1675:Gallium
1601:Group V
1581:Group V
1569:gallium
1561:arsenic
1553:Group V
1525:silicon
1521:diamond
1333:Neutron
1256:silicon
1252:dopants
766:is the
390:kelvins
379:Silicon
175:during
148:History
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2024:in an
2000:iodine
1751:Other
1682:Indium
1653:. Its
1549:donors
1535:, and
1211:where
757:where
451:while
401:metals
356:where
341:
274:
208:patent
181:doping
103:p-type
95:n-type
56:doping
3159:S2CID
3133:arXiv
2727:S2CID
2091:OLEDs
2078:flask
2070:argon
1977:redox
1868:MOVPE
1778:xenon
1746:type.
1711:in a
1695:is a
1649:is a
1647:Boron
1621:diode
1606:donor
1557:Boron
1551:from
1543:from
1506:IUPAC
1268:wafer
1260:boule
1250:Some
969:(the
475:boron
236:holes
186:radar
87:heavy
79:light
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3202:PMID
3102:PMID
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2939:PMID
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2871:ISBN
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2626:ISBN
2601:ISBN
2576:ISBN
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2463:ISBN
2438:ISBN
2407:ISBN
2093:and
1842:LEDs
1796:and
1794:Gold
1776:and
1659:CMOS
1459:2.62
1302:and
1222:and
990:and
473:for
234:and
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101:for
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83:high
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