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237:. To solve this problem, a selenium diode was connected around the base–emitter to slow it down. The two-level logic was similar to the programmable logic array (PLA) that would come on the market many years later. Nearly any static logic function that yielded one output could be achieved with one transistor and a handful of cheap diodes. Several years later the selenium diodes were found to be not reliable and were replaced by silicon diodes. The logic family was packaged on
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warm-up time, unlike high-vacuum rectifiers. Selenium rectifiers were also cheaper and simpler to specify and install than vacuum tubes. However, they were later replaced by silicon diodes with high efficiencies (close to 100% at high voltages). Selenium rectifiers had the capability to act as current limiters, which can temporarily protect the rectifier during a short circuit and provide stable current for charging batteries.
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Selenium rectifiers had a shorter lifespan than desired. In the early stage of failure they produce a modest amount of sweet-smelling gas, sometimes described as 'sickly sweet'. At that point the rectification properties are almost totally gone, allowing reverse voltage to leak through the rectifier.
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The rectifying properties of selenium, amongst other semiconductors, were observed by Braun, Schuster and
Siemens between 1874 and 1883. The photoelectric and rectifying properties of selenium were also observed by Adams and Day in 1876 and C. E. Fitts around 1886, but practical rectifier devices
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A selenium rectifier is about the same size as a copper-oxide rectifier, but is much larger than a silicon or germanium diode. Selenium rectifiers have a long but not indefinite service life of 60,000 to 100,000 hours, depending on rating and cooling. The rectifier can show some unforming of the
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and television receivers used them from about 1947 to 1975 to provide up to a few hundred volts of plate voltage. Vacuum-tube rectifiers had efficiencies of only 60% compared to the 85% of selenium rectifiers, partially because vacuum-tube rectifiers required heating. Selenium rectifiers have no
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development departments were begging for low cost and did not need speed. It was possible to punch 1/8-inch discs from a sheet of selenium diode. GE claimed that they could make reliable selenium diodes. A design was achieved for a DDTL circuit with two levels of
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Selenium rectifiers are able to withstand repetitive significant overload without the need of special protective measures. It is commonly used in electroplating rectifier under 200,000 A and electrostatic precipitators operating between 30 and 100 kV
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in addition to providing a mounting place for the selenium disks. Plates can be stacked indefinitely to withstand higher voltages. Stacks of thousands of miniature selenium disks have been used as high-voltage rectifiers in
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rectifier characteristic after long storage. Each cell can withstand a reverse voltage around 25 volts and has a forward voltage drop around 1 volt, which limits the efficiency at low voltages. Selenium rectifiers have an
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and no series input resistor or speed-up capacitor. The family was called SMAL or SMALL, for "selenium matrix alloy logic". The alloy transistor proved to be too fast for the selenium diode
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in some automobiles was the result of compact, low-cost, high-current silicon rectifiers. These units were small enough to be inside the alternator case, unlike the
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In 1961 IBM started developing a low-speed computer logic family that used selenium diodes with similar characteristics to silicon but cost less than one cent. The
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that let the repair technician know what the problem was. By far the most common failure mode was a progressive increase in forward resistance, increasing forward
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for electronic equipment and in high-current battery-charger applications until they were superseded by
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121:. Cadmium selenide forms by reaction of the selenium with the tin-cadmium alloy and the CdSe-Se
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During catastrophic failure they produce significant quantities of malodorous and highly toxic
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543:: Transistor switch with noise rejection provided by variable capacitance feedback diode.
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and reducing the rectifier's efficiency. During the 1960s they began to be superseded by
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is the active rectifying junction. Each plate is able to withstand about 20 volts in the
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Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences
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117:. The selenium is then converted into polycrystalline gray (hexagonal) form by
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were not manufactured routinely until the 1930s. Compared with the earlier
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limit of 130 °C and are not suitable for high-frequency circuits.
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selenium rectifiers, which were invented by
Charles E. Fitts in 1933
109:. A much thicker layer of selenium (50 to 60 μm) doped with a
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423:"Constitution and mechanism of the selenium rectifier photocell"
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Selenium rectifier from 1960s. Each plate is 1-inch square.
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An 8-plate 160 V 450 mA Federal brand selenium rectifier
253:; 2nd Ed; Federal Telephone and Radio; 80 pages; 1953.
477:"Occupational Health Guideline for Hydrogen Selenide"
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Hempstead, Colin; Worthington, William (2005-08-08).
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411:, Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc. 1968, chapter 13.
54:rectifiers in the late 1960s. The arrival of the
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409:Reference Data for Radio Engineers Fifth Edition
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360:Reeves, E. A.; Heathcote, Martin (2013-06-17).
359:
340:A history of the world semiconductor industry
129:. The metal squares, or disks, also serve as
264:; 1st Ed; Sarkes Tarzian; 80 pages; 1950.
529:Selenium, U.S. Department of the Interior
82:Typical structure of a selenium rectifier
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290:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology
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113:is deposited on top of the thin metal
46:, invented in 1933. They were used in
62:units that preceded silicon devices.
366:. Taylor & Francis. p. 95.
558:The 1060 Data Communications System
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89:rectifiers are made from stacks of
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154:Selenium rectifiers used in 1950s
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262:S.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook
251:F.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook
97:plates coated with about 1
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421:Preston, J. S. (1950-08-22).
363:Newnes Electrical Pocket Book
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216:Selenium diode computer logic
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7:
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293:. Routledge. p. 669.
407:H. P. Westman (ed),
510:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
390:, Academic Press, 1964,
27:Type of power rectifier
447:10.1098/rspa.1950.0112
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68:copper-oxide rectifier
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189:operating temperature
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386:Ernst Bleule (ed.),
338:Peter Robin Morris.
506:"Hydrogen selenide"
439:1950RSPSA.202..449P
18:Selenium rectifiers
388:Electronic methods
328:books.google.co.uk
317:books.google.co.uk
210:silicon rectifiers
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140:photocopy machines
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40:selenium rectifier
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564:. IBM. p. 2.
541:US Patent 3218472
433:(1071): 449–466.
373:978-1-136-37644-3
300:978-1-135-45551-4
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202:hydrogen selenide
127:reverse direction
16:(Redirected from
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74:Construction
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227:diode logic
195:Replacement
592:Rectifiers
576:Categories
515:2022-10-01
490:2022-10-01
274:References
182:Properties
131:heat sinks
56:alternator
504:PubChem.
455:0080-4630
267:(archive)
256:(archive)
239:SMS cards
119:annealing
587:Selenium
463:93164294
235:recovery
222:terminal
158:computer
91:aluminum
87:Selenium
60:selenium
484:cdc.gov
435:Bibcode
156:MADDIDA
115:plating
111:halogen
103:bismuth
582:Diodes
486:. 1978
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107:nickel
562:(PDF)
480:(PDF)
459:S2CID
175:Radio
95:steel
451:ISSN
392:ISBN
368:ISBN
344:ISBN
295:ISBN
138:and
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146:Use
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