418:
394:
313:
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754:(outcrossing), and thus tends to reduce the expression of recessive deleterious mutations present in a population. In trees, compensation is realized mainly through increased seed production by females. This in turn is facilitated by a lower contribution of reproduction to population growth, which results in no demonstrable net costs of having males in the population compared to being hermaphroditic. Dioecy may also accelerate or retard lineage diversification in
666:
737:. The definition avoids reference to male and female reproductive structures, which are rare in fungi. An individual of a dioecious fungal species not only requires a partner for mating, but performs only one of the roles in nuclear transfer, as either the donor or the recipient. A monoecious fungal species can perform both roles, but may not be self-compatible.
197:
370:" when each sporophyte plant has only one kind of spore-producing organ, all of whose spores give rise either to male gametophytes, which produce only male gametes (sperm), or to female gametophytes, which produce only female gametes (egg cells). For example, a single flowering plant sporophyte of a fully dioecious species like
745:
Dioecy has the demographic disadvantage compared with hermaphroditism that only about half of reproductive adults are able to produce offspring. Dioecious species must therefore have fitness advantages to compensate for this cost through increased survival, growth, or reproduction. Dioecy excludes
573:
Dioecy evolves due to male or female sterility, although it is unlikely that mutations for male and female sterility occurred at the same time. In angiosperms unisexual flowers evolve from bisexual ones. Dioecy occurs in almost half of plant families, but only in a minority of genera, suggesting
2350:
Bruijning, Marjolein; Visser, Marco D.; Muller-Landau, Helene C.; Wright, S. Joseph; Comita, Liza S.; Hubbell, Stephen P.; de Kroon, Hans; Jongejans, Eelke (2017). "Surviving in a
Cosexual World: A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Dioecy in Tropical Trees".
417:
642:
from hermaphroditism at least 5 or 9 times. The reverse transition, from dioecy back to hermaphroditism has also been observed, both in
Asteraceae and in bryophytes, with a frequency about half of that for the forward transition.
374:
has either flowers with functional stamens producing pollen containing male gametes (staminate or 'male' flowers), or flowers with functional carpels producing female gametes (carpellate or 'female' flowers), but not both. (See
496:
species are dioecious, but almost all conifers are monoecious. In gymnosperms, the sexual systems dioecy and monoecy are strongly correlated with the mode of pollen dispersal, monoecious species are predominantly wind dispersed
316:
Alternation of generations in plants: the sporophyte generation produces spores that give rise to the gametophyte generation, which produces gametes that fuse to give rise to a new sporophyte generation.
758:. Dioecious lineages are more diversified in certain genera, but less in others. An analysis suggested that dioecy neither consistently places a strong brake on diversification, nor strongly drives it.
921:
570:
and greater protection against deleterious mutations. Regardless of the evolutionary pathway the intermediate states need to have fitness advantages compared to cosexual flowers in order to survive.
566:
multiple times either from hermaphroditic species or from monoecious species. A previously untested hypothesis is that this reduces inbreeding; dioecy has been shown to be associated with increased
1549:
Bachtrog, Doris; Mank, Judith E.; Peichel, Catherine L.; Kirkpatrick, Mark; Otto, Sarah P.; Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Hahn, Matthew W.; Kitano, Jun; Mayrose, Itay; Ming, Ray; Perrin, Nicolas (2014-07-01).
393:
225:
species are gonochoric, almost all vertebrate species are gonochoric, and all bird and mammal species are gonochoric. Dioecy may also describe colonies within a species, such as the colonies of
1668:
Muyle, Aline; Martin, Hélène; Zemp, Niklaus; Mollion, Maéva; Gallina, Sophie; Tavares, Raquel; Silva, Alexandre; Bataillon, Thomas; Widmer, Alex; Glémin, Sylvain; Touzet, Pascal (2021-03-01).
524:
species. In most dioecious plants, whether male or female gametophytes are produced is determined genetically, but in some cases it can be determined by the environment, as in
729:
refer to the donor and recipient roles in mating, where a nucleus is transferred from one haploid hypha to another, and the two nuclei then present in the same cell merge by
606:
mainly from mutations that resulted in male sterility. However, since the ancestral state is unclear, more work is needed to clarify the evolution of dioecy via monoecy.
405:
450:
are also used. A dioicous gametophyte either produces only male gametes (sperm) or produces only female gametes (egg cells). About 60% of liverworts are dioicous.
1438:
332:), the gametophytes are fully independent plants. Seed plant gametophytes are dependent on the sporophyte and develop within the spores, a condition known as
164:
is biparental reproduction. Dioecy has costs, since only the female part of the population directly produces offspring. It is one method for excluding
2412:
Sabath, Niv; Goldberg, Emma E.; Glick, Lior; Einhorn, Moshe; Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Ming, Ray; Otto, Sarah P.; Vamosi, Jana C.; Mayrose, Itay (2016).
2124:
Transitions
Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems
593:
ancestors that have flowers containing both functional stamens and functional carpels. Some authors argue monoecy and dioecy are related.
2056:"Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae)"
1403:
Matallana, G.; Wendt, T.; Araujo, D.S.D.; Scarano, F.R. (2005), "High abundance of dioecious plants in a tropical coastal vegetation",
999:(2005). "Molecular Phylogenetics of the Siphonophora (Cnidaria), with Implications for the Evolution of Functional Specialization".
676:
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359:" when each sporophyte plant has both kinds of spore-producing organ but in separate flowers or cones. For example, a single
77:
1726:
841:
2122:
1834:
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recent evolution. For 160 families that have dioecious species, dioecy is thought to have evolved more than 100 times.
812:
1807:
1510:
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709:
135:
58:
2149:
356:
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1454:
602:, since there is a distribution of sexual systems, it has been postulated that dioecy evolved from monoecy through
423:
By comparson, each bisexual (perfect) tulip flower has both pollen-producing stamens and carpels containing ovules.
367:
172:(outcrossing), and thus tends to reduce the expression of recessive deleterious mutations present in a population.
1322:"Ecological constraints on the evolution of breeding systems in seed plants: dioecy and dispersal in gymnosperms"
1522:
LuthringerR, Cormier A, Ahmed S, Peters AF, Cock JM, Coelho, SM (2014). "Sexual dimorphism in the brown algae".
2414:"Dioecy does not consistently accelerate or slow lineage diversification across multiple genera of angiosperms"
1271:
782:
185:
1910:
777:
1999:
1215:
Walas, Łukasz; Mandryk, Wojciech; Thomas, Peter A.; Tyrała-Wierucka, Żanna; Iszkuło, Grzegorz (2018-09-01).
207:, is a dioecious colonial marine animal; the reproductive medusae within the colony are all of the same sex.
2523:
2518:
1972:
1216:
1780:
399:
In dioecious holly, some plants only have 'male' flowers with functional stamens that produce pollen...
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250:
2513:
899:
2508:
691:
204:
1670:"Dioecy Is Associated with High Genetic Diversity and Adaptation Rates in the Plant Genus Silene"
852:
823:
2264:
Esser, K. (1971). "Breeding systems in fungi and their significance for genetic recombination".
942:
2528:
68:
453:
Dioecy occurs in a wide variety of plant groups. Examples of dioecious plant species include
246:
1092:
217:
In zoology, dioecy means that an animal is either male or female, in which case the synonym
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8:
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that develops into a new individual. In land plants, by contrast, one generation – the
165:
1974:
Embryology of
Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems
363:
of a monoecious species has both functional stamens and carpels, in separate flowers.
305:, which produce gametes. A male gamete and a female gamete then fuse to produce a new
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2005:
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1195:
1168:
1137:
1119:
Botanical Latin: History, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary, Fourth edition
1016:
977:
927:
787:
652:, since there is no monoecy, it is suggested that dioecy evolved through gynodioecy.
567:
145:
2293:
1895:
1610:"Sex-oriented research on dioecious crops of Indian subcontinent: an updated review"
1535:
1306:
1256:
972:
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615:
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have several other methods of preventing self-fertilization including, for example,
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32:
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466:
371:
360:
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1093:"Case studies : -oicy : Dioicous, dioecious, monoicous and monoecious"
687:
1782:
Reproductive
Diversity of Plants: An Evolutionary Perspective and Genetic Basis
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1361:
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that have distinct unisexual individuals, each producing either male or female
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1862:"Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants"
1609:
2439:
2390:
2328:
2307:
Charlesworth D, Willis JH (2009). "The genetics of inbreeding depression".
2218:
2177:"Diversity of sexual systems within different lineages of the genus Silene"
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1711:
1651:
1594:
1424:
1347:
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1020:
981:
544:
539:
477:
2285:
1416:
1167:(Fourth ed.). Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.: C & M Floristics.
827:
411:...while other holly plants only have 'female' flowers that produce ovules
2175:
Casimiro-Soriguer, Inés; Buide, Maria L.; Narbona, Eduardo (2015-01-01).
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302:
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212:
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1752:
Atwell, Brian James; Kriedemann, Paul E.; Turnbull, Colin G. N. (1999).
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1957:
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1099:. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium
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266:
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218:
181:
177:
84:
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1503:
Seaweeds of the
British Isles Volume 1 Rhodophyta Part 3A Ceramiales
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Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G (2018).
2364:
2151:
Ecological
Genomics: Ecology and the Evolution of Genes and Genomes
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Perry, Laura E.; Pannell, John R.; Dorken, Marcel E. (2012-04-19).
994:
956:"Evolution and development: some insights from evolutionary theory"
751:
526:
502:
462:
329:
273:. Without further dividing, a sperm and an egg cell fuse to form a
262:
169:
2349:
1755:
Plants in Action: Adaptation in Nature, Performance in
Cultivation
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Sarkar, Sutanu; Banerjee, Joydeep; Gantait, Saikat (2017-05-29).
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627:
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306:
294:
270:
230:
153:
1191:
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Ecology of Flowering Plants: Patterns and Processes
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817:
734:
726:
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458:
454:
341:
337:
286:
274:
254:
222:
149:
20:
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Evolution: Systematics and Evolution
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K. S. Bawa (1980). "Evolution of Dioecy in Flowering Plants".
1548:
469:. As its specific name implies, the perennial stinging nettle
109:
44:
2174:
1521:
1436:
534:
513:
482:
345:
282:
258:
173:
74:
1188:
Tandon, Rajesh; Shivanna, K. R.; Koul, Monika (2020-08-07).
1032:
1030:
336:. In flowering plants, the male gametophytes develop within
1360:
379:
for further details, including more complex cases, such as
321:
196:
124:
118:
103:
50:
38:
2484:(5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning.
2411:
512:
species are entirely dioecious and about 7% of angiosperm
281:
generation – consists of individuals that produce haploid
229:(Portuguese man-of-war), which may be either dioecious or
112:
1059:
1057:
1027:
543:, are dioecious. Dioecy is prevalent in the brown algae (
516:
contain some dioecious species. Dioecy is more common in
1751:
2148:
Landry, Christian R.; Aubin-Horth, Nadia (2013-11-25).
1806:
Núñez-Farfán, Juan; Valverde, Pedro Luis (2020-07-30).
547:) and may have been the ancestral state in that group.
1667:
1054:
683:
1607:
1354:
1131:
1078:
The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms
1042:
355:
The sporophyte generation of a seed plant is called "
136:
127:
59:
47:
2154:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 9.
1805:
366:
The sporophyte generation of seed plants is called "
100:
35:
2343:
1998:Wilson, Karen L.; Morrison, David A. (2000-05-19).
1809:
Evolutionary Ecology of Plant-Herbivore Interaction
1475:Fusco, Giuseppe; Minelli, Alessandro (2019-10-10).
1366:"Dioecy and its correlates in the flowering plants"
106:
41:
2405:
2306:
2053:
1551:"Sex Determination: Why So Many Ways of Doing It?"
1187:
1132:Vanderpoorten A, Goffinet B (2009). "Liverworts".
2147:
2500:
581:, dioecy is likely the ancestral sexual system.
722:Very few dioecious fungi have been discovered.
253:. In animals, typically an individual produces
2482:Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology
2023:
2021:
1997:
1779:Karasawa, Marines Marli Gniech (2015-11-23).
1136:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1125:
344:, and the female gametophytes develop within
2300:
1474:
1439:"Introduction to Parasitic Flowering Plants"
1116:
442:generation of non-vascular plants, although
2033:. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 2016-04-14.
2018:
1481:. Cambridge University Press. p. 329.
1319:
953:
849:UK English Dictionary UK English Dictionary
589:Dioecious flowering plants can evolve from
1935:
1515:
1075:
913:
501:) and dioecious species animal-dispersed (
2429:
2372:
2263:
2208:
2097:
2079:
1877:
1859:
1728:Evolutionary Biology: A Plant Perspective
1701:
1641:
1584:
1566:
1337:
1272:"Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review"
1217:"Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review"
971:
710:Learn how and when to remove this message
269:of the individual producing them, so are
16:Having distinct male and female organisms
2259:
2257:
2255:
1970:
1964:
1938:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1778:
1731:. Oxford University Press. p. 377.
1663:
1661:
1155:
1153:
960:Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências
682:Relevant discussion may be found on the
311:
195:
2479:
2456:
2120:
1912:The Papaya: Botany, Production and Uses
1758:. Macmillan Education AU. p. 249.
1501:Maggs, C.A. and Hommersand, M.H. 1993.
1313:
1063:
1048:
1036:
609:
2501:
2141:
1929:
1724:
1505:. The Natural History Museum, London.
1437:Nickrent D.L., Musselman L.J. (2004).
1084:
1069:
919:
694:to additional sources at this section.
550:
475:is dioecious, while the annual nettle
265:. The gametes have half the number of
221:is more often used. For example, most
2252:
1908:
1832:
1658:
1263:
1159:
1150:
2030:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology
1090:
923:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology
659:
340:grains produced by the sporophyte's
245:) differ from animals in that their
1950:10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.000311
740:
13:
1725:Cruzan, Mitchell B. (2018-09-11).
1339:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1980.tb04034.x
1076:Hickey, M. & King, C. (2001).
675:relies largely or entirely upon a
14:
2540:
2231:
2004:. Csiro Publishing. p. 264.
1860:Ainsworth, Charles (2000-08-01).
144:) is a characteristic of certain
2121:Leonard, Janet L. (2019-05-21).
1833:Reeve, Eric C. R. (2014-01-14).
1812:. Springer Nature. p. 177.
1194:. Springer Nature. p. 179.
879:Oxford English Dictionary online
664:
416:
404:
392:
96:
31:
2450:
2225:
2168:
2114:
2047:
1991:
1902:
1853:
1826:
1799:
1772:
1745:
1718:
1674:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1601:
1542:
1495:
1468:
1430:
1396:
1208:
1181:
1110:
973:10.1590/s0001-37652001000300008
584:
2266:Molecular and General Genetics
2238:. APH Publishing. p. 77.
1971:Batygina, T. B. (2019-04-23).
1165:New Flora of the British Isles
988:
947:
892:
863:
834:
805:
783:Self-incompatibility in plants
655:
555:For evolution in animals, see
1:
1080:. Cambridge University Press.
798:
778:Plant reproductive morphology
377:Plant reproductive morphology
348:produced by the sporophyte's
191:
90: 'two households'; adj.
2081:10.1371/journal.pone.0035597
1568:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899
622:but may also evolve through
614:Dioecy usually evolves from
557:Gonochorism § Evolution
236:
7:
1909:Mitra, Sisir (2020-09-01).
1536:10.1127/2198-011X/2014/0002
1478:The Biology of Reproduction
1443:The Plant Health Instructor
761:
10:
2545:
2480:Mauseth, James D. (2014).
2463:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
1839:. Routledge. p. 616.
1451:10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01
1405:American Journal of Botany
1370:American Journal of Botany
1299:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009
1241:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009
1134:Introduction to bryophytes
554:
537:, such as some species of
428:Slightly different terms,
293:by dividing repeatedly by
289:. Spores do not fuse, but
251:alternation of generations
210:
76:
75:
18:
1977:. CRC Press. p. 43.
1626:10.1007/s13205-017-0723-8
1524:Perspectives in Phycology
1364:; R. E. Ricklefs (1995).
1279:Basic and Applied Ecology
1221:Basic and Applied Ecology
1013:10.1080/10635150500354837
881:. Oxford University Press
481:is monoecious. Dioecious
2127:. Springer. p. 91.
1836:Encyclopedia of Genetics
1785:. Springer. p. 31.
995:Dunn, C.W.; Pugh, P.R.;
920:Kliman, Richard (2016).
297:to give rise to haploid
19:Not to be confused with
2353:The American Naturalist
943:Alternative archive URL
853:Oxford University Press
824:Oxford University Press
2459:The Kew Plant Glossary
2457:Beentje, Henk (2010).
1879:10.1006/anbo.2000.1201
1686:10.1093/molbev/msaa229
900:"Animal Diversity Web"
725:Monoecy and dioecy in
562:In plants, dioecy has
438:, may be used for the
317:
208:
162:Dioecious reproduction
152:, either directly (in
2193:10.1093/aobpla/plv037
1915:. CABI. p. 161.
1417:10.3732/ajb.92.9.1513
1117:Stearn, W.T. (1992).
1097:Australian Bryophytes
830:on December 21, 2021.
820:UK English Dictionary
640:evolved independently
564:evolved independently
315:
211:Further information:
205:Portuguese man o' war
199:
2461:. Richmond, Surrey:
1320:Givnish, TJ (1980).
1121:. David and Charles.
1091:Lepp, Heino (2007).
954:David, J.R. (2001).
688:improve this article
610:From hermaphroditism
285:rather than haploid
257:of one kind, either
186:self-incompatibility
156:) or indirectly (in
2524:Reproductive system
2519:Sexual reproduction
2235:A Textbook of Fungi
2072:2012PLoSO...735597P
1291:2018BApEc..31....1W
1233:2018BApEc..31....1W
1039:, pp. 204–205.
551:Evolution of dioecy
508:About 6 percent of
485:are predominant in
2278:10.1007/bf00276051
2187:(plv037): plv037.
1001:Systematic Biology
926:. Academic Press.
859:on April 12, 2021.
748:self-fertilization
638:, dioecy may have
318:
209:
166:self-fertilization
2491:978-1-4496-6580-7
2472:978-1-84246-422-9
2431:10.1111/nph.13696
2245:978-81-7648-737-5
2161:978-94-007-7347-9
2134:978-3-319-94139-4
2040:978-0-12-800426-5
2011:978-0-643-09929-6
1984:978-1-4398-4436-6
1922:978-1-78924-190-7
1846:978-1-134-26350-9
1819:978-3-030-46012-9
1792:978-3-319-21254-8
1765:978-0-7329-4439-1
1738:978-0-19-088268-6
1488:978-1-108-49985-9
1201:978-981-15-4210-7
1174:978-1-5272-2630-2
1143:978-0-521-70073-3
933:978-0-12-800426-5
788:Sexual dimorphism
720:
719:
712:
568:genetic diversity
301:individuals, the
201:Physalia physalis
2536:
2514:Dioecious plants
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2476:
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2424:(3): 1290–1300.
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1899:
1881:
1866:Annals of Botany
1857:
1851:
1850:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1705:
1665:
1656:
1655:
1645:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1588:
1570:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1519:
1513:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1453:. Archived from
1434:
1428:
1427:
1411:(9): 1513–1519,
1400:
1394:
1393:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1276:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1157:
1148:
1147:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1025:
1024:
992:
986:
985:
975:
951:
945:
941:
936:. Archived from
917:
911:
910:
908:
906:
896:
890:
889:
887:
886:
867:
861:
860:
855:. Archived from
838:
832:
831:
826:. Archived from
809:
741:Adaptive benefit
715:
708:
704:
701:
695:
668:
667:
660:
420:
408:
396:
140:
134:
133:
130:
129:
126:
121:
120:
115:
114:
111:
108:
105:
102:
88:
82:
81:
80:
63:
57:
56:
53:
52:
49:
46:
43:
40:
37:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2509:Plant sexuality
2499:
2498:
2492:
2473:
2453:
2448:
2447:
2418:New Phytologist
2410:
2406:
2348:
2344:
2321:10.1038/nrg2664
2309:Nat. Rev. Genet
2305:
2301:
2262:
2253:
2246:
2230:
2226:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2119:
2115:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2027:
2026:
2019:
2012:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1969:
1965:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1907:
1903:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1723:
1719:
1666:
1659:
1606:
1602:
1561:(7): e1001899.
1547:
1543:
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1500:
1496:
1489:
1473:
1469:
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1431:
1401:
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1382:10.2307/2445418
1359:
1355:
1318:
1314:
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1268:
1264:
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1209:
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1186:
1182:
1175:
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1126:
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1102:
1100:
1089:
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1062:
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997:Haddock, S.H.D.
993:
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952:
948:
940:on May 6, 2021.
934:
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902:
898:
897:
893:
884:
882:
869:
868:
864:
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743:
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699:
696:
690:by introducing
681:
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616:hermaphroditism
612:
587:
560:
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510:flowering plant
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400:
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361:flowering plant
320:In bryophytes (
239:
215:
194:
138:
123:
117:
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2359:(3): 297–314.
2342:
2315:(11): 783–96.
2299:
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2232:Gupta, Rajni.
2224:
2167:
2160:
2140:
2133:
2113:
2046:
2039:
2017:
2010:
1990:
1983:
1963:
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1921:
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1872:(2): 211–221.
1852:
1845:
1825:
1818:
1798:
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1764:
1744:
1737:
1717:
1680:(3): 805–818.
1657:
1600:
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1467:
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1395:
1376:(5): 596–606.
1353:
1332:(5): 959–972.
1312:
1262:
1207:
1200:
1180:
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1149:
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1124:
1109:
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1068:
1066:, p. 218.
1064:Mauseth (2014)
1053:
1051:, p. 487.
1049:Mauseth (2014)
1041:
1037:Mauseth (2014)
1026:
1007:(6): 916–935.
987:
966:(3): 385–395.
946:
932:
912:
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833:
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800:
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2272:(1): 86–100.
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2267:
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2247:
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2100:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2066:(4): e35597.
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2042:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2024:
2022:
2013:
2007:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1924:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1905:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
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1848:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1815:
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1810:
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1794:
1788:
1784:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1761:
1757:
1756:
1748:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1729:
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1709:
1704:
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1695:
1691:
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1511:0-11-310045-0
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1457:on 2016-10-05
1456:
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1444:
1440:
1433:
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1410:
1406:
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1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1362:Renner, S. S.
1357:
1349:
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1340:
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759:
757:
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750:and promotes
749:
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723:
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711:
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679:
678:
677:single source
673:This section
671:
662:
661:
653:
651:
650:
644:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
607:
605:
601:
600:
596:In the genus
594:
592:
582:
580:
575:
571:
569:
565:
558:
548:
546:
542:
541:
536:
531:
529:
528:
523:
522:heterotrophic
519:
515:
511:
506:
504:
500:
495:
492:About 65% of
490:
488:
484:
480:
479:
474:
473:
472:Urtica dioica
468:
464:
460:
456:
451:
449:
445:
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437:
436:
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419:
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402:
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373:
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358:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
314:
310:
308:
304:
300:
299:multicellular
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
241:Land plants (
234:
232:
228:
227:Siphonophorae
224:
220:
214:
206:
202:
198:
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
142:
132:
93:
89:
87:
79:
73:
70:
69:Ancient Greek
66:
65:
55:
28:
22:
2481:
2458:
2451:Bibliography
2421:
2417:
2407:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2269:
2265:
2234:
2227:
2184:
2180:
2170:
2150:
2143:
2123:
2116:
2063:
2059:
2049:
2029:
2000:
1993:
1973:
1966:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1911:
1904:
1869:
1865:
1855:
1835:
1828:
1808:
1801:
1781:
1774:
1754:
1747:
1727:
1720:
1677:
1673:
1617:
1613:
1603:
1558:
1555:PLOS Biology
1554:
1544:
1530:(1): 11–25.
1527:
1523:
1517:
1502:
1497:
1477:
1470:
1459:. Retrieved
1455:the original
1442:
1432:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1373:
1369:
1356:
1329:
1325:
1315:
1282:
1278:
1265:
1224:
1220:
1210:
1190:
1183:
1164:
1161:Stace, C. A.
1133:
1127:
1118:
1112:
1101:. Retrieved
1096:
1086:
1077:
1071:
1044:
1004:
1000:
990:
963:
959:
949:
938:the original
922:
915:
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894:
883:. Retrieved
878:
872:
865:
857:the original
845:
836:
828:the original
816:
807:
744:
724:
721:
706:
697:
674:
647:
645:
613:
597:
595:
588:
585:From monoecy
576:
572:
561:
545:Phaeophyceae
540:Polysiphonia
538:
532:
525:
518:woody plants
507:
491:
478:Urtica urens
476:
470:
467:African teak
452:
447:
443:
433:
429:
427:
365:
354:
319:
309:sporophyte.
303:gametophytes
243:embryophytes
240:
216:
200:
161:
91:
85:
83:
72:
26:
25:
2374:2066/168955
871:"diœcious,
842:"dioecious"
768:Gonochorism
756:angiosperms
656:In mycology
632:heterostyly
630:or through
624:androdioecy
440:gametophyte
385:androdioecy
267:chromosomes
213:Gonochorism
158:seed plants
67:; from
2503:Categories
2181:AoB Plants
1461:2017-01-10
1103:2021-06-21
885:2021-12-21
799:References
733:to form a
636:Asteraceae
626:, through
620:gynodioecy
604:gynodioecy
599:Sagittaria
591:monoecious
579:Caricaceae
499:anemophily
494:gymnosperm
448:monoecious
381:gynodioecy
357:monoecious
326:liverworts
279:sporophyte
247:life cycle
231:monoecious
192:In zoology
141:-sh(ee-)əs
2383:0003-0147
2201:2041-2851
2090:1932-6203
1944:: 15–39.
1888:0305-7364
1694:0737-4038
1634:2190-5738
1620:(2): 93.
1614:3 Biotech
1577:1544-9173
1326:Evolution
1249:1439-1791
731:karyogamy
700:June 2021
692:citations
684:talk page
634:. In the
530:species.
444:dioecious
435:monoicous
368:dioecious
334:endospory
330:hornworts
291:germinate
263:egg cells
249:involves
237:In botany
219:gonochory
182:herkogamy
178:dichogamy
92:dioecious
2440:26467174
2391:28221824
2329:19834483
2294:11353336
2219:25862920
2108:22532862
2060:PLOS ONE
1896:85039623
1712:32926156
1652:28555429
1595:24983465
1425:21646169
1348:28581147
1307:90740232
1257:90740232
1163:(2019).
1021:16338764
982:11600899
905:27 April
813:"dioecy"
762:See also
752:allogamy
618:through
533:Certain
527:Arisaema
503:zoophily
487:tropical
463:cannabis
430:dioicous
170:allogamy
2399:6839285
2286:5102399
2210:4433491
2099:3330815
2068:Bibcode
1958:2096901
1703:7947750
1643:5447520
1586:4077654
1390:2445418
1287:Bibcode
1285:: 1–9.
1229:Bibcode
1227:: 1–9.
793:Trioecy
628:distyly
459:willows
455:ginkgos
350:carpels
342:stamens
307:diploid
295:mitosis
287:gametes
271:haploid
255:gametes
154:animals
150:gametes
146:species
86:dioikía
78:διοικία
2488:
2469:
2438:
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2337:771357
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1255:
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1019:
980:
930:
847:Lexico
818:Lexico
735:zygote
649:Silene
520:, and
514:genera
346:ovules
338:pollen
322:mosses
283:spores
275:zygote
223:animal
184:, and
174:Plants
27:Dioecy
21:Dioicy
2395:S2CID
2333:S2CID
2290:S2CID
1954:JSTOR
1892:S2CID
1386:JSTOR
1303:S2CID
1275:(PDF)
1253:S2CID
727:fungi
535:algae
483:flora
372:holly
259:sperm
71:
2486:ISBN
2467:ISBN
2436:PMID
2387:PMID
2379:ISSN
2325:PMID
2282:PMID
2240:ISBN
2215:PMID
2197:ISSN
2156:ISBN
2129:ISBN
2104:PMID
2086:ISSN
2035:ISBN
2006:ISBN
1979:ISBN
1917:ISBN
1884:ISSN
1841:ISBN
1814:ISBN
1787:ISBN
1760:ISBN
1733:ISBN
1708:PMID
1690:ISSN
1648:PMID
1630:ISSN
1591:PMID
1573:ISSN
1507:ISBN
1483:ISBN
1421:PMID
1344:PMID
1245:ISSN
1196:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1138:ISBN
1017:PMID
978:PMID
928:ISBN
907:2014
465:and
446:and
432:and
383:and
328:and
64:-see
2426:doi
2422:209
2369:hdl
2361:doi
2357:189
2317:doi
2274:doi
2270:110
2205:PMC
2189:doi
2094:PMC
2076:doi
1946:doi
1874:doi
1698:PMC
1682:doi
1638:PMC
1622:doi
1581:PMC
1563:doi
1532:doi
1447:doi
1413:doi
1378:doi
1334:doi
1295:doi
1237:doi
1009:doi
968:doi
873:adj
646:In
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261:or
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137:dy-
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2020:^
1952:.
1942:11
1940:.
1890:.
1882:.
1870:86
1868:.
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1672:.
1660:^
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1636:.
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