330:(a guided reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion) can then be achieved by gradually approaching the feared stimulus while maintaining relaxation. Desensitization works best when individuals are directly exposed to the stimuli and situations they fear, so anxiety-evoking stimuli are paired with inhibitory responses. This is done either by clients performing in real-life situations (vivo desensitization) or, if it is not practical to directly act out the steps of hierarchy, by observing models performing the feared behaviour (known as vicarious desensitization). Clients slowly move up the hierarchy, repeating performances if necessary, until the last item on the list is performed without fear or anxiety. According to research, it is not necessary for the hierarchy of scenes to be presented in a specific order, nor is it essential for the client to have mastered a relaxation response. Recent research suggests that none of the three conditions listed above are required for successful desensitization when taken as a whole. The only prerequisite appears to be the ability to imagine frightening scenes, which need not be ordered in a particular order or lead to the relaxation of the muscles.
577:. However, this topic is debated in the scientific literature. Desensitization may arise from different media sources, including TV, video games, and movies. Some scholars suggest that violence may prime thoughts of hostility, possibly affecting how we perceive others and interpret their actions. Desensitization has been shown to lower arousal to violent scenes in heavy versus light television viewers at the physiological level. It has frequently been suggested that those who commit extreme violence have blunted sensibilities as a result of watching violent videos repeatedly. Desensitization to violence has been linked to a number of outcomes. It has been observed, for example, as less arousal and emotional disturbance when witnessing violence, as greater hesitancy to call an adult to intervene in a witnessed physical altercation, and as less sympathy for victims of domestic abuse. Recent school shootings have sparked a lot of discussion about the desensitizing effects of violent video games and the possible involvement of "shooter" games, which teach gun handling skills and provide intense desensitization training.
513:
when anxiety-inducing stimuli are present. In-person practise in actual anxiety-producing situations is encouraged. In many ways, it is comparable to other methods for controlling anxiety, like applied relaxation and anxiety management training. During self-control desensitization, clients are given a justification that is primarily coping skills oriented in nature. They are told that they have learned to react to certain situations by becoming anxious, tense, or nervous based on previous experience. Then it is explained to them that they will learn new coping skills to swap out their unfavorable reactions for more flexible ones. They are instructed to use relaxation techniques and other coping mechanisms in a hierarchy of anxiety-producing situations to reduce tensions and serve as covert rehearsal for eventualities. These techniques include breathing control, attention to internal sensations, and relaxation techniques. According to research, self-control desensitization is effective for various anxiety disorders but is not more effective than other cognitive or behavioural techniques.
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such as relaxation techniques and the development of an exposure hierarchy are redundant steps for effective desensitization. It would seem that crucial elements for a successful therapeutic outcome in both desensitisation and more conventional forms of psychotherapy are the cognitive and social aspects of the therapeutic situation. These factors include the expectation of therapeutic benefit, the therapist's ability to foster social reinforcement, the information-feedback of approximations towards successful fear reduction, training in attention control, and the vicarious learning of contingencies of non-avoidance behaviour in the fear situation (via instructed imagination).
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ladder to standing and taking the first step. The scenes are arranged in a commonly used version of this treatment to increase arousal. Secondly, the client is taught techniques that produce deep relaxation. This is repeated until the hierarchy element no longer causes anxiety or fear, at which point the next scene is shown. This procedure is repeated until the client has finished the hierarchy. It is impossible to feel both anxiety and relaxation simultaneously, so easing the client into deep relaxation helps inhibit any anxiety.
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violence. In addition, psychological research frequently focuses on how members of a group behave, and these studies demonstrate that media violence raises the likelihood that members of the group will become desensitized and act aggressively. However, more sensitive developmental studies might find that this effect can be moderated by some individual difference variables (such as empathy, perspective taking, or trait hostility).
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as a problem in this structure which leads to problems processing information leading to exaggerated fear responses. Using this information about fear networks, desensitization can be achieved accessing the fear network using matching stimuli to information in the fear network and then having the person engage with the stimuli to input new information into the network by disconfirming existing propositions.
493:,; when damaged, a phobic subject finds desensitization more difficult. Neurons in this area aren't fired during the desensitization process despite reducing spontaneous fear responses when artificially fired, suggesting the area stores extinction memories that reduce phobic responses to future stimuli related to the phobia (conditioned), which explains the long-term impact of desensitization.
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317:. Wolpe's "reciprocal inhibition" desensitization process is based on well-known psychology theories such as Hull's "drive-reduction" theory and Sherrington's concept of "reciprocal inhibition." Individuals are gradually exposed to anxiety triggers while using relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety. It is an effective treatment for anxiety disorders.
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can be desensitized to the fearful elements (the creak of the gate, the starting bell, the enclosed space) one at a time, in small doses or at a distance. Clay et al. (2009) conducted an experiment whereby he allocated rhesus macaques to either a desensitization group or a control group, finding that
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during the desensitization process. Counterconditioning is the behavioural equivalent of reciprocal inhibition which is understood as a neurological process. Wolpe (1958) used this mechanism to explain the long-term effects of systematic desensitization as it reduces avoidance responses and therefore
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It is hypothesized that initial exposure to violence in the media may produce a number of aversive responses, such as increased heart rate, fear, discomfort, perspiration, and disgust. However, prolonged and repeated exposure to violence in the media may reduce or habituate the initial psychological
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With the widespread research and development of behavioural therapies and experiments being conducted in order to understand the mechanisms driving desensitization, a consensus often arises that exposure is the key element of desensitization. This suggests the steps leading up to the actual exposure
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Self-control desensitization is a variant of systematic desensitization, which Joseph Wolpe pioneered. Instead of using a passive counter-conditioning model, it uses an active, mediational, coping skills change model. It uses coping mechanisms like relaxation as an alternative to an anxiety response
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that express information about feared cues, response propositions that express information about behavioural and physiologic responses to these cues, and meaning propositions that elaborate on the significance of other elements in the fear structure". Excessive fear such as phobias can be understood
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Reciprocal inhibition is based on the idea that two opposing mental states cannot coexist and is used as both a psychological and biological mechanism. The theory that "two opposing states cannot occur simultaneously" i.e. relaxation methods that are involved with desensitization inhibit feelings of
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responsiveness to a negative, aversive, or positive stimulus after repeated exposure. Desensitization can also occur when an emotional response is repeatedly evoked when the action tendency associated with the emotion proves irrelevant or unnecessary. The process of desensitization was developed by
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The hierarchical list is constructed between client and therapist in an ordered series of steps from the least disturbing to the most alarming fears or phobias. The therapist and the patient for acrophobia create a list of escalating exposure scenarios. The patient progresses from using a low step
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readings, which the authors interpreted as displaying physiological desensitization to violence. However, other studies have failed to replicate this finding. Some scholars have questioned whether becoming desensitized to media violence specifically transfers to becoming desensitized to real-life
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This explanation for desensitization lacks an explanation for how heightened anticipation of fear reduction leads to reduced fear responses, and it does not address whether desensitization effectively occurs if an individual does not experience decreased fear responses, potentially leading their
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Phobic responses are decreased after exposure to stimuli without avoidance and with a lack of reinforcement. However, this cannot be used to explain why desensitization works, as it solely describes the functional relationship between absent reinforcement and phobic responses and lacks an actual
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theory explains that with increased exposure to stimulus, there will be a decreased response from the phobic subject. There is empirical evidence to suggest that overall phobia responses are reduced in people who have specific phobias with in vivo exposure. However, empirical evidence does not
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For similar reasons to reciprocal inhibition, counterconditioning is criticized as the underpinning mechanism for desensitization due to therapies that don't suggest a replacement emotion for anxiety being effective in desensitizing people. It is to be noted that there would be no behavioural
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suggests that because people expect that the therapy is going to work and change their view on how they are going to receive the phobic stimuli after speaking with the therapist, their responses will align with that and display reduced anxiety. Marcia et al. (1969) found that those with high
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According to Tryon (2005), being relaxed does not always imply being anxious, and it is critical to avoid tautology when discussing reciprocal inhibition. This phenomenon is only observed when two events have a strong negative correlation. Reflex research has revealed the biological basis of
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reciprocal inhibition, which occurs when a tap on the patellar tendon results in muscle relaxation (inhibition) of the flexors and muscle activation (excitation) of the extensors. This is an example of coordinated inhibition and excitation in different muscles.
565:. In addition, desensitization therapy is a useful tool in training domesticated dogs. Systematic desensitization used in conjunction with counter-conditioning was shown to reduce problem behaviours in dogs, such as vocalization and property destruction.
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could be the explanatory mechanism of how desensitization occurs with therapies based on exposure, as he believed that repeated exposure was insufficient and had likely already happened during the lives of people with specific phobias.
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Ramos RA, Ferguson CJ, Frailing K, Romero-Ramirez M (2013). "Comfortably numb or just yet another movie? Media violence exposure does not reduce viewer empathy for victims of real violence among primarily
Hispanic viewers".
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A review of Taylor's (2002) classification of reciprocal inhibition as being short-term but with long-term effects within the understanding of desensitization doesn't make sense due to it being theoretically similar to
301:(1958) developed a method of a hierarchal list of anxiety-evoking stimuli in order of intensity, which allows individuals to undergo adaptation. Although medication is available for individuals with anxiety,
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expectancy change (receiving full expectancy treatment) had comparable results to those who had systematic desensitization therapy suggesting its just a change in expectancy that reduces fear responses.
359:, work without pre-emptive, inhibitory relaxation techniques. A review of empirical evidence confirmed that therapy without relaxation was equally effective and gave birth to exposure therapy.
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have been found to play a key role in the extinction of fear, and therefore, the use of an agonist would accelerate the reduction in fear responses during the process of desensitization.
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C. M., D. F., B. A., R. K., Chemtob, Tolin, , van der Kolk, Pitman (2000). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, & M. J. Friedman (Eds.)".
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the avoidant behaviour (prominent feature of specific phobias and anxiety disorders). Therefore, exposure with non-avoidance is seen as essential in the desensitization process.
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Exposure to phobic stimuli and then a subsequent avoidance response may strengthen the future anxiety as the avoidance response reduces the stress, which therefore
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One criticism is that reciprocal inhibition isn't a necessary part of the process of desensitizing people as other therapies that are along similar lines, such as
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and having confirmatory experiences of coping from the lower levels. The increase in self-efficacy then explains fear reduction i.e. desensitization to stimuli.
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Between Exposure to Human Violence and Unethical Behavior".
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Butler R, Sargisson RJ, Elliffe D (2011). "The efficacy of systematic desensitization for treating the separation-related problem behaviour of domestic dogs".
297:. Desensitization is a psychological process where a response is repeatedly elicited in circumstances where the emotion's propensity for action is irrelevant.
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Russell RK, Lent RW (January 1982). "Cue-controlled relaxation and systematic desensitization versus nonspecific factors in treating test anxiety".
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Carnagey NL, Anderson CA, Bushman BJ (1 May 2007). "The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence".
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those in the desensitization group showed a significant reduction in both the rate and duration of fearful behavior. This supports the use of
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anxiety that come with being exposed to phobic stimuli. Deep muscle relaxation techniques are the primary method used by Wolpe to increase
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Horses have a natural fear of unpredictable movement. Pictured is a horse being desensitized to accept the fluttering skirt of a lady's
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Nawas MM, Mealiea WL, Fishman ST (July 1971). "Systematic desensitization as counterconditioning: A retest with adequate controls".
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excessive avoidance behaviours contributing to anxiety disorders. However, this explanation is not supported by empirical evidence.
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desensitized to media violence. In one experiment, participants who played violent video games showed lower heart rate and
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impact until violent images do not elicit these negative responses. Eventually, the observer may become emotionally and
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is the view that a person's belief in themselves of being able to cope increases, especially when moving up the
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Effective
Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies
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support habituation as an explanation of desensitization due to its reversible and short-term nature.
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difference if reciprocal inhibition or counterconditioning were the functioning Ă—mechanisms.
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supports desensitization with high rates of cure, particularly in clients with depression or
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Desensitization also refers to the potential for reduced responsiveness to actual violence
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Davison, Gerald C. (1968). "Systematic desensitization as a counterconditioning process".
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R. J. McNally explains, "fear is represented in memory as a network comprising
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Violence and its effect on aggression: assessing the scientific evidence
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Animals can also be desensitized to their rational or irrational fears. A
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1063:"Possible mechanisms for why desensitization and exposure therapy work"
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645:"An Experimental Investigation of Desensitization in Phobic Patients"
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Diminished responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure
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Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science
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561:. Desensitization is commonly used with simple phobias like
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and is primarily used to assist individuals in unlearning
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Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback
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activity, the nervous system the body uses to relax.
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447:anxiety response to reaffirm their phobia instead.
145:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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575:caused by exposure to violence in the media
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53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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1738:Advances in Child Development and Behavior
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277:is a treatment or process that diminishes
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1364:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
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1876:Functional analytic psychotherapy
1871:Acceptance and commitment therapy
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1138:Hofmann SG, Hay AC (April 2018).
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154:"Desensitization" psychology
34:This article has multiple issues.
1394:Applied Animal Behaviour Science
918:Journal of Counseling Psychology
792:. Canada: John Wiley & Sons.
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42:or discuss these issues on the
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1196:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
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1117:10.1016/s0005-7894(71)80068-0
649:British Journal of Psychiatry
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1893:Dialectical behavior therapy
1883:Cognitive behavioral therapy
1624:10.1371/journal.pone.0068382
1144:Journal of Anxiety Disorders
508:Self-control desensitization
7:
1923:Emotionally focused therapy
1597:Tear MJ, Nielsen M (2013).
1544:, in Chadwick, Ruth (ed.),
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463:Emotional processing theory
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2644:Anxiety disorder treatment
2194:Systematic desensitization
2123:Practitioner–scholar model
1866:Clinical behavior analysis
1504:Journal of Business Ethics
1469:Journal of Business Ethics
1376:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.003
1337:The Behavior Analyst Today
1250:Clinical Psychology Review
1067:Clinical Psychology Review
930:10.1037/0022-0167.29.1.100
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1061:Tryon WW (January 2005).
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1244:McNally RJ (July 2007).
481:medial prefrontal cortex
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2227:Cognitive restructuring
1948:Person-centered therapy
610:Extinction (psychology)
2158:Contingency management
2037:Transtheoretical model
2027:Eclectic psychotherapy
2004:Transactional analysis
971:Psychological Bulletin
722:Psychological Bulletin
587:galvanic skin response
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2108:Common factors theory
2072:Residential treatment
1456:. USA: ABC-CLIO, LLC.
945:Psychology: A Journey
768:www.sciencedirect.com
661:10.1192/bjp.124.4.392
605:Flooding (psychology)
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469:stimulus propositions
411:Wolpe disagreed that
339:Reciprocal inhibition
2537:Lorna Smith Benjamin
2372:Harry Stack Sullivan
2297:Sensitivity training
2098:Clinical formulation
1439:10.3138/j.ctt1287sxj
788:Nemeroff CB (2001).
690:Stolerman I (2010).
334:Suggested mechanisms
139:improve this article
2269:Group psychotherapy
2180:Counterconditioning
2057:Brief psychotherapy
1928:Existential therapy
1615:2013PLoSO...868382T
1582:Gentile DA (2003).
569:Effects on violence
376:Counterconditioning
371:Counterconditioning
365:reactive inhibition
2397:Milton H. Erickson
2232:Emotion regulation
2212:Autogenic training
2103:Clinical pluralism
2032:Multimodal therapy
1831:Analytical therapy
1452:Paludi MA (2011).
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526:Effects on animals
441:exposure hierarchy
311:empirical evidence
83:You can assist by
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2542:Marsha M. Linehan
2512:Jean Baker Miller
2472:Salvador Minuchin
2352:Ludwig Binswanger
2305:
2304:
2140:Behaviour therapy
2067:Online counseling
2045:
2044:
1984:Narrative therapy
1888:Cognitive therapy
1563:978-0-12-373932-2
487:prefrontal cortex
456:Expectancy theory
451:Expectancy theory
267:
266:
233:
232:
225:
215:
214:
207:
189:
113:
112:
105:
57:
2661:
2649:Behavior therapy
2547:Vittorio Guidano
2517:Otto F. Kernberg
2387:Donald Winnicott
2244:Free association
2189:Exposure therapy
2168:Stimulus control
2148:Aversion therapy
2136:
2135:
1999:Systemic therapy
1974:Feminist therapy
1826:Adlerian therapy
1814:
1813:
1796:
1789:
1782:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1744:, JAI: 215–244,
1729:
1720:
1719:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1681:10.1037/a0030119
1674:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1636:
1626:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1537:
1528:
1527:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1400:(2–4): 136–145.
1389:
1380:
1379:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1349:10.1037/h0100057
1332:
1326:
1325:
1299:
1274:
1273:
1241:
1220:
1219:
1208:10.1037/h0027596
1187:
1178:
1177:
1167:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1105:Behavior Therapy
1100:
1091:
1090:
1058:
1003:
1002:
983:10.1037/h0031722
962:
949:
948:
940:
934:
933:
913:
907:
906:
900:
892:
884:
878:
877:
851:
834:
833:
822:10.1037/h0025501
805:
794:
793:
785:
779:
778:
776:
774:
762:Cantor, Cantor.
759:
746:
745:
717:
711:
710:
708:
702:
696:
695:
687:
681:
680:
655:(581): 392–401.
640:
420:Two-factor model
287:Mary Cover Jones
260:edit on Wikidata
252:
235:
234:
228:
221:
210:
203:
199:
196:
190:
188:
147:
123:
115:
108:
101:
97:
94:
88:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2581:
2562:Steven C. Hayes
2492:Paul Watzlawick
2477:Paul Watzlawick
2432:Virginia Axline
2342:Sándor Ferenczi
2301:
2282:Couples therapy
2263:
2237:Affect labeling
2200:
2185:Desensitization
2127:
2113:Discontinuation
2086:
2041:
2013:
1994:Reality therapy
1952:
1938:Gestalt therapy
1909:
1857:
1850:
1805:
1800:
1770:
1762:
1760:
1730:
1723:
1692:
1688:
1654:
1650:
1595:
1591:
1580:
1576:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1538:
1531:
1500:
1496:
1465:
1461:
1450:
1446:
1431:
1417:
1413:
1390:
1383:
1360:
1356:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1300:
1277:
1242:
1223:
1188:
1181:
1136:
1132:
1101:
1094:
1059:
1006:
963:
952:
941:
937:
914:
910:
894:
893:
885:
881:
874:
852:
837:
806:
797:
786:
782:
772:
770:
760:
749:
718:
714:
706:
703:
699:
688:
684:
641:
637:
633:
596:
571:
546:
528:
519:
510:
499:
489:works with the
483:
478:
465:
453:
434:
422:
405:
393:
373:
341:
336:
323:
275:desensitization
263:
248:
238:Desensitization
229:
218:
217:
216:
211:
200:
194:
191:
148:
146:
136:
124:
109:
98:
92:
89:
82:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2667:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2532:Arnold Lazarus
2529:
2527:Irvin D. Yalom
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2502:Eugene Gendlin
2499:
2494:
2489:
2487:Ogden Lindsley
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2462:Virginia Satir
2459:
2454:
2452:James Bugental
2449:
2447:Silvano Arieti
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2317:Philippe Pinel
2313:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2287:Family therapy
2284:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2229:
2224:
2222:Clean language
2219:
2214:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2155:
2150:
2144:
2142:
2133:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2082:Support groups
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2023:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1919:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1862:
1860:
1856:Cognitive and
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1841:Psychoanalysis
1838:
1833:
1828:
1822:
1820:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1799:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1776:
1769:
1768:
1721:
1686:
1648:
1589:
1574:
1562:
1529:
1494:
1475:(3): 705–716.
1459:
1444:
1429:
1411:
1381:
1370:(3): 489–496.
1354:
1343:(2): 109–110.
1327:
1320:
1275:
1221:
1179:
1130:
1111:(3): 345–356.
1092:
1004:
977:(5): 311–317.
950:
935:
924:(1): 100–103.
908:
879:
872:
835:
795:
780:
747:
728:(2): 283–303.
712:
709:. p. 101.
697:
682:
634:
632:
629:
628:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
595:
592:
570:
567:
552:who fears the
542:Main article:
527:
524:
518:
515:
509:
506:
502:NMDA receptors
498:
495:
482:
479:
477:
474:
464:
461:
452:
449:
433:
430:
421:
418:
404:
401:
392:
389:
372:
369:
340:
337:
335:
332:
322:
319:
265:
264:
257:
254:
253:
246:
240:
239:
231:
230:
213:
212:
127:
125:
118:
111:
110:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2666:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2572:Jeffrey Young
2570:
2568:
2567:Michael White
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2552:Les Greenberg
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2437:Carl Whitaker
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2417:Viktor Frankl
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2402:Jacques Lacan
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2392:Wilhelm Reich
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2357:Melanie Klein
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2327:Sigmund Freud
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2173:Token economy
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1979:Music therapy
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:Dance therapy
1967:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1818:Psychodynamic
1815:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:Psychotherapy
1797:
1792:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1726:
1717:
1713:
1709:
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1701:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1672:10.1.1.395.67
1668:
1664:
1660:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1609:(7): e68382.
1608:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1585:
1578:
1565:
1559:
1555:
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1534:
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1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
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1498:
1490:
1486:
1482:
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1474:
1470:
1463:
1455:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1430:9780802084255
1426:
1422:
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1338:
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1321:9780123430106
1317:
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1153:
1149:
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1141:
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1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1097:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
961:
959:
957:
955:
946:
943:Coon (2008).
939:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
904:
898:
890:
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875:
873:9780080970875
869:
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666:
662:
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654:
650:
646:
639:
635:
626:
625:Alarm fatigue
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
600:Sensitization
598:
597:
591:
588:
584:
578:
576:
566:
564:
563:insect phobia
560:
555:
554:starting gate
551:
545:
537:
532:
523:
514:
505:
503:
494:
492:
488:
473:
470:
460:
457:
448:
444:
442:
438:
437:Self-efficacy
432:Self-efficacy
429:
427:
417:
414:
409:
400:
397:
388:
384:
381:
377:
368:
366:
360:
358:
353:
349:
347:
331:
329:
318:
316:
315:schizophrenia
312:
308:
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300:
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292:
288:
285:
280:
276:
272:
261:
255:
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224:
209:
206:
198:
187:
184:
180:
177:
173:
170:
166:
163:
159:
156: –
155:
151:
150:Find sources:
144:
140:
134:
133:
128:This article
126:
122:
117:
116:
107:
104:
96:
86:
80:
78:
73:This article
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2586:Associations
2577:Peter Fonagy
2522:Nathan Azrin
2497:Arthur Janov
2457:Joseph Wolpe
2442:Albert Ellis
2422:George Kelly
2407:Erik Erikson
2367:Karen Horney
2337:Alfred Adler
2332:Pierre Janet
2322:Josef Breuer
2254:Hypnotherapy
2184:
1989:Play therapy
1761:, retrieved
1741:
1737:
1699:
1695:
1689:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1606:
1602:
1592:
1583:
1577:
1567:, retrieved
1545:
1507:
1503:
1497:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1453:
1447:
1420:
1414:
1397:
1393:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1303:
1256:(6): 750–9.
1253:
1249:
1202:(3): 382–7.
1199:
1195:
1147:
1143:
1133:
1108:
1104:
1073:(1): 67–95.
1070:
1066:
974:
970:
944:
938:
921:
917:
911:
897:cite journal
888:
882:
855:
816:(2): 91–99.
813:
809:
789:
783:
771:. Retrieved
767:
725:
721:
715:
700:
691:
685:
652:
648:
638:
620:Conditioning
579:
572:
559:PRT training
547:
536:riding habit
520:
511:
500:
484:
476:Neuroscience
466:
454:
445:
435:
423:
410:
406:
394:
385:
380:conditioning
374:
361:
354:
350:
342:
324:
299:Joseph Wolpe
284:psychologist
274:
268:
219:
201:
195:January 2024
192:
182:
175:
168:
161:
149:
137:Please help
132:verification
129:
99:
93:January 2024
90:
77:copy editing
75:may require
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
2654:Behaviorism
2507:R. D. Laing
2482:Haim Ginott
2412:Carl Rogers
2377:Fritz Perls
2292:Psychodrama
2217:Biofeedback
2019:Integrative
1964:Art therapy
1943:Logotherapy
1306:: 591–593.
858:: 764–770.
615:Habituation
583:cognitively
544:Sacking out
485:The medial
396:Habituation
391:Habituation
2638:Categories
2467:Aaron Beck
2382:Anna Freud
2277:Co-therapy
2132:Techniques
2062:Counseling
2050:Approaches
1915:Humanistic
1858:behavioral
1763:2023-03-27
1569:2023-03-27
631:References
550:race horse
426:reinforces
413:extinction
403:Extinction
271:psychology
165:newspapers
85:editing it
39:improve it
2427:Rollo May
2362:Otto Rank
2347:Carl Jung
2077:Self-help
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