Denazification - Knowledge

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to which the response was either yes or no. She concludes that this question was confusingly phrased (given that in the German language the affirmative answer to a question containing a negative statement is "no"): "Some interviewees may have responded 'no' they did not agree with the statement, when they actually did agree that the extermination was not necessary." She further highlights the discrepancy between the antisemitic implications of the survey results (such as those later identified by Judt) with the 77% percent of interviewees who responded that actions against Jews were in no way justified.

57: 3669:), with a staff of 22,000 of mostly lay judges, enough, perhaps, to start to work but too many for all the staff themselves to be thoroughly investigated and cleared. They had a case load of 900,000. Several new regulations came into effect in the setting up of the German-run tribunals, including the idea that the aim of denazification was now rehabilitation rather than merely punishment, and that someone whose guilt might meet the formal criteria could also have their specific actions taken into consideration for mitigation. Efficiency thus improved, while rigor declined. 5545: 4074: 3810:(valid until July 1947) and in the May 1946 order valid for all zones (rescinded in 1950), Allied Control Authority Order No. 4, "No. 4 – Confiscation of Literature and Material of a Nazi and Militarist Nature". All confiscated literature was reduced to pulp instead of burning. It was also directed by Directive No. 30, "Liquidation of German Military and Nazi Memorials and Museums". An exception was made for tombstones "erected at the places where members of regular formations died on the field of battle". 4570:), stating that the main culprits had been prosecuted. In 1951 several laws were passed, ending the denazification. Officials were allowed to retake jobs in the civil service, and hiring quotas were established for these previously-excluded individuals, with the exception of people assigned to Group I (Major Offenders) and II (Offenders) during the denazification review process. These individuals were referred to as "131-ers", after Article 131 of Federal Republic’s Basic Law. 3653:

be barred from public office and/or restricted to manual labor or "simple work". At the end of 1945, 3.5 million former Nazis awaited classification, many of them barred from work in the meantime. By the end of the winter of 1945–1946, 42% of public officials had been dismissed. Malnutrition was widespread, and the economy needed leaders and workers to help clear away debris, rebuild infrastructure, and get foreign exchange to buy food and other essential resources.

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French were the first to turn over the vetting process to Germans, while maintaining French power to reverse any German decision. Overall, the business of denazification in the French zone was considered a "golden mean between an excessive degree of severity and an inadequate standard of leniency", laying the groundwork for an enduring reconciliation between France and Germany. In the French zone only thirteen Germans were categorized as "major offenders".

3731:. Disabled veterans were also exempted. To avoid the necessity of a slow trial in open court, which was required for those belonging to the most serious categories, more than 90% of cases were judged not to belong to the serious categories and therefore were dealt with more quickly. More "efficiencies" followed. The tribunals accepted statements from other people regarding the accused's involvement in Nazism. These statements earned the nickname of 4840: 1494: 4680: 4826: 1429: 7110: 3745:, which had become nearly worthless. In Bavaria, the Denazification Minister, Anton Pfeiffer, bridled under the "victor's justice", and presided over a system that reinstated 75% of officials the Americans had dismissed and reclassified 60% of senior Nazis. The denazification process lost a great deal of credibility, and there was often local hostility against Germans who helped administer the tribunals. 4253: 3799:. As a consequence a list was drawn up of over 30,000 book titles, ranging from school textbooks to poetry, which were then banned. All the millions of copies of these books were to be confiscated and destroyed; the possession of a book on the list was made a punishable offense. The representative of the Military Directorate admitted that the order was in principle no different from the 7121: 3433:, and the country was stricter in opposing Nazism than its counterpart. However, not all former Nazis faced judgment. Doing special tasks for the occupation governments could protect Nazi members from prosecution, enabling them to continue working and in some cases reach prominence, as did special connections with the occupiers. One of the most notable cases involved 3413:. The British handed over denazification panels to the Germans in January 1946, while the Americans did likewise in March 1946. The French ran the mildest denazification effort. Denazification was carried out in an increasingly lenient and lukewarm way until being officially abolished in 1951. Additionally, the program was hugely unpopular in 4574:

victims to jails and camps; 20,000 other Nazis sentenced for "deeds against life" (presumably murder); 30,000 sentenced for causing bodily injury, and 5,200 who committed "crimes and misdemeanors in office". As a result, many people with a former Nazi past ended up again in the political apparatus of West Germany. In 1957, 77% of the

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further in April 1946. In industry, especially in the economically crucial Ruhr area, the British began by being lenient about who owned or operated businesses, turning stricter by autumn of 1945. To reduce the power of industrialists, the British expanded the role of trade unions, giving them some decision-making powers.

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paintings and thousands more were shipped to deposits in the US. Those confiscated paintings still surviving in US custody include for example a painting "depicting a couple of middle aged women talking in a sunlit street in a small town". Artists were also restricted in which new art they were allowed to create; "

6787:"Tausende von Deutschen, die in der Nähe dieser Orte leben, wurden durch die Lager geführt, um mit eigenen Augen zu sehen, welche Verbrechen dort in ihrem Namen begangen worden sind. Aber für die meisten Deutschen ist es nicht möglich, ein K.Z. zu besichtigen. Für sie ist dieser Bildbericht bestimmt." 3813:

Artworks were under the same censorship as other media: "all collections of works of art related or dedicated to the perpetuation of German militarism or Nazism will be closed permanently and taken into custody." The directives were very broadly interpreted, leading to the destruction of thousands of

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were, of course, filled out in German. The number of Americans working on denazification was inadequate to handle the workload, partly as a result of the demand in the US by families to have soldiers returned home. Replacements were mostly unskilled and poorly trained. In addition, there was too much

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had recommended that the Allies create a post-war Germany with all its industrial capacity destroyed, reduced to a level of subsistence farming; however, that plan was soon abandoned as unrealistic and, because of its excessive punitive measures, liable to give rise to German anger and aggression. As

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Consequently, the implications of these alarming results have been questioned and rationalized; as another example, Gordon singles out the question "Extermination of the Jews and Poles and other non-Aryans was not necessary for the security of the Germans", which included an implicit double negative

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state, and argued that the West German state was simply a continuation of the Nazi regime, employing the same officials that had administered the government during the Nazi dictatorship. From the 1950s, reasoning for these accusations focused on the fact that many former functionaries of Nazi regime

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Pressure also came from the need to find Germans to run their own country. In January 1946 a directive came from the Control Council entitled "Removal from Office and from Positions of Responsibility of Nazis and Persons Hostile to Allied Purposes". One of the punishments for Nazi involvement was to

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The first difficulty was the enormous number of Germans who might have to be first investigated, then penalized if found to have supported the Nazi state to an unacceptable degree. In the early months of denazification there was a great desire to be utterly thorough, to investigate every suspect and

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Steven Casey, (2005), The Campaign to sell a harsh peace for Germany to the American public, 1944–1948, . London: LSE Research Online. Originally published in History, 90 (297). pp. 62–92 (2005) Blackwell Publishing, "Indeed, in 1944 their main motive for launching a propaganda campaign was to try

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crowd is gathered around a series of photographs which though initially seeming to depict garbage instead reveal dead human bodies. Each photograph has a heading "WHO IS GUILTY?". The spectators are silent, appearing hypnotised and eventually retreat one by one. The placards are later replaced with

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Using the German press, which was under Allied control, as well as posters and pamphlets, a program was conducted which was intended to acquaint ordinary Germans with what had taken place in the concentration camps. An example of this was the use of posters with images of concentration camp victims

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of the US Army had by July 1946 taken control of 37 German newspapers, six radio stations, 314 theaters, 642 cinemas, 101 magazines, 237 book publishers, and 7,384 book dealers and printers. Its main mission was democratization but part of the agenda was also the prohibition of any criticism of the

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The British prepared a plan from 1942 onwards, assigning a number of quite junior civil servants to head the administration of liberated territory in the rear of the Armies, with draconian powers to remove from their post, in both public and private domains, anyone suspected, usually on behavioral

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However, in reality substantial numbers of former Nazis rose to senior levels in East Germany. For example, those who had collaborated after the war with the Soviet occupation forces could protect Nazi members from prosecution, enabling them to continue working. Having special connections with the

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began in to issue directives to officers in charge of producing newspapers and radio broadcasts for the German population to emphasize "the moral responsibility of all Germans for Nazi crimes". Similarly, among US authorities, such a sense of collective guilt was "considered a prerequisite to any

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When the nearly complete list of Nazi Party memberships was turned over to the Allies (by a German anti-Nazi who had rescued it from destruction in April 1945 as American troops advanced on Munich), it became possible to verify claims about participation or non-participation in the Party. The 1.5

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The denazification process was often completely disregarded by both the Soviets and the Western powers for German rocket scientists and other technical experts, who were taken out of Germany to work on projects in the victors' own countries or simply seized in order to prevent the other side from

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In August 1946 the order was amended so that "In the interest of research and scholarship, the Zone Commanders (in Berlin the Komendantura) may preserve a limited number of documents prohibited in paragraph 1. These documents will be kept in special accommodation where they may be used by German

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Because teachers had been strongly Nazified, the French began by removing three-quarters of all teachers from their jobs. However, finding that the schools could not be run without them, they were soon rehired, although subject to easy dismissal. A similar process governed technical experts. The

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In October 1945, in order to constitute a working legal system, and given that 90% of German lawyers had been members of the Nazi Party, the British decided that 50% of the German Legal Civil Service could be staffed by "nominal" Nazis. Similar pressures caused them to relax the restriction even

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As a result of these various pressures, and following a January 15, 1946, report of the Military Government decrying the efficiency of denazification, saying, "The present procedure fails in practice to reach a substantial number of persons who supported or assisted the Nazis", it was decided to

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Eric Voegelin, Brenden Purcell "Hitler and the Germans", Footnote 12, p. 5 "In the summer of 1945, the Allies publicly displayed horrifying posters and reports from the Dachau and Belsen concentration camps with the accusatory headline 'Diese Schandtaten: Eure Schuld!' ('These atrocities: Your

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Several amnesty laws were also passed which affected an estimated 792,176 people. Those pardoned included people with six-month sentences, 35,000 people with sentences of up to one year and include more than 3,000 functionaries of the SA, the SS, and the Nazi Party who participated in dragging

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grounds, of harboring Nazi sympathies. For the British government, the rebuilding of German economic power was more important than the imprisonment of Nazi criminals. Economically hard pressed at home after the war, they did not want the burden of feeding and otherwise administering Germany.

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alluded to this problem: "though all Germans might not be guilty for the war, it would be too difficult to try to single out for better treatment those who had nothing to do with the Nazi regime and its crimes." Denazification was from then on supervised by special German ministers, like the

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Another concern leading to the Americans relinquishing responsibility for denazification and handing it over to the Germans arose from the fact that many of the American denazifiers were German Jews, former refugees returning to administer justice against the tormentors and killers of their

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that held the American vetting list in Paris. As many as 40,000 forms could arrive in a single day to await processing. By December 1945, even though a full 500,000 forms had been processed, there remained a backlog of 4,000,000 forms from POWs and a potential case load of 7,000,000. The

3484:, and others. It was through the Party and these organizations that the Nazi state was run, involving as many as 45 million Germans in total. In addition, Nazism found significant support among industrialists, who produced weapons or used slave labor, and large landowners, especially the 4276:

As early as 1944, prominent US opinion makers had initiated a domestic propaganda campaign (which was to continue until 1948) arguing for a harsh peace for Germany, with a particular aim to end the apparent habit in the US of viewing the Nazis and the German people as separate entities.

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in the Soviet government. According to official records, 122,600 people were interned. 34,700 of those interned in this process were considered to be Soviet citizens, with the rest being German. This process happened at the same time as the expropriation of large landowners and

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originated not with the US and British people, but on higher policy levels. Not until late in the war did the US public assign collective responsibility to the German people. The most notable policy document containing elements of collective guilt and collective punishment is

4810:). This led to an opposition campaign by Hindu groups across Europe against a ban on the swastika. They pointed out that the swastika has been around for 5,000 years as a symbol of peace. The proposal to ban the swastika was dropped by the German government from the proposed 4403:

Immediately upon the liberation of the concentration camps, many German civilians were forced to see the conditions in the camps, bury rotting corpses and exhume mass graves. In some instances, civilians were also made to provide items for former concentration camp inmates.

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The West German political system, as it emerged from the occupation, was increasingly opposed to the Allied denazification policy. As denazification was deemed ineffective and counterproductive by the Americans, they did not oppose the plans of the West German chancellor,

3601:'s policy of denazification. A report of the Institute on Re-education of the Axis Countries in June 1945 recommended: "Only an inflexible long-term occupation authority will be able to lead the Germans to a fundamental revision of their recent political philosophy." The 3532:

in order to publicize their crimes while demonstrating, especially to the German people, that the trials and the sentences were just. However, the legal foundations of the trials were questioned, and many Germans were not convinced that the trials were anything more than

3851:, claimed to have the aim of educating the German people about democracy. In 1947 its publication was blocked by the American forces for being overly critical of occupational government. Richter attempted to print many of the controversial pieces in a volume entitled 5716: 4121:

The French were less vigorous, for a number of reasons, than the other Western powers, not even using the term "denazification", instead calling it "épuration" (purification). At the same time, some French occupational commanders had served in the collaborationist

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The contents of this book received substantial attention in West Germany and other countries. The West German government stated, at that time, that it was "all falsification". Later on, however, it became clear that the data of the book were largely correct.

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To the question of whether an Aryan who marries a Jew should be condemned, 91% responded "No". To the question of whether "All those who ordered the murder of civilians or participated in the murdering should be made to stand trial", 94% responded "Yes".

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Again because the caseload was impossibly large, the German tribunals began to look for ways to speed up the process. Unless their crimes were serious, members of the Nazi Party born after 1919 were exempted on the grounds that they had been

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pursued denazification in a zealous and bureaucratic fashion, especially during the first months of the occupation. It had been agreed among the Allies that denazification would begin by requiring Germans to fill in a questionnaire (German:

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Thousands of Germans who live near these places were led through the camps to see with their own eyes which crimes were committed in their name. But it is not possible for most Germans to view a KZ. This pictorial report is intended for

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Because part of the intended goal of denazification in the Soviet zone was also the removal of anti-socialist sentiment, the committees in charge of the process were politically skewed. A typical panel would have one member from the

4645: – he was conscripted into the Waffen-SS while barely seventeen years old and his duties were military in nature. Statistically, it was likely that there were many more Germans of Grass's generation (also called the " 3665:) came into effect, turning over responsibility for denazification to the Germans. Each zone had a Minister of Denazification. On April 1, 1946, a special law established 545 civilian tribunals under German administration (German: 5713: 3632:. The Americans, unlike the British, French, and Soviets, interpreted this to apply to every German over the age of eighteen in their zone. Eisenhower initially estimated that the denazification process would take 50 years. 4097:

They were, however, especially zealous during the early months of occupation in bringing to justice anyone, soldiers or civilians, who had committed war crimes against POWs or captured Allied aircrew. In June 1945 an

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In practice, denazification was not limited to Germany and Austria. In several European countries with a vigorous Nazi or fascist party, measures of denazification were carried out. In France the process was called

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Former Nazi officials quickly realized that they would face fewer obstacles and investigations in the zones controlled by the Western Allies. Many of them saw a chance to defect to the West on the pretext of

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unless they were applying for an official or responsible position. This difference between American and British policy was decried by the Americans and caused some Nazis to seek shelter in the British zone.

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To shake and humiliate the Germans and prove to them beyond any possible challenge that these German crimes against humanity were committed and that the German people – and not just the Nazis and SS – bore

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In 1952, 10% of Germans thought that Hitler was the greatest statesman and that his greatness would only be realized at a later date; and 22% thought he had made "some mistakes" but was still an excellent

4204:. The book was translated into 10 languages. Amongst the reactions to it was also a similar West German book of the same name, covering the topic of Nazis re-emerging in high-level positions in the GDR. 9460: 3893:

From the beginning, denazification in the Soviet zone was considered a critical element of the transformation into a socialist society and was quickly and effectively put into practice. Members of the

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was opened, where detainees were allegedly tortured via buckets of cold water, beatings, being burnt with lit cigarettes, etc. A public scandal ensued, with the center eventually being closed down.

3752:; another 1,900,000 were forbidden to work as anything but manual laborers. From 1945 to 1950, the Allied powers detained over 400,000 Germans in internment camps in the name of denazification. 3497:

time went on, another consideration that moderated the denazification effort in the West was the concern to keep enough good will of the German population to prevent the growth of communism.

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during the war where they had formed friendly relationships with Germans. As a result, in the French zone mere membership in the Nazi Party was much less important than in the other zones.

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Because many of the functionaries of the Soviet occupation zone were themselves formerly prosecuted by the Nazi regime, mere former membership in the NSDAP was initially judged as a crime.

3741:. There was corruption in the system, with Nazis buying and selling denazification certificates on the black market. Nazis who were found guilty were often punished with fines assessed in 7508: 6426:

Erinnerungspolitik der DDR. Dargestellt an der Berichterstattung der Tageszeitung "Neues Deutschland" über die Nationalen Mahn- und Gedenkstätten Buchenwald, Ravensbrück und Sachsenhausen

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Erinnerungspolitik der DDR. Dargestellt an der Berichterstattung der Tageszeitung "Neues Deutschland" über die Nationalen Mahn- und Gedenkstätten Buchenwald, Ravensbrück und Sachsenhausen

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and sent back to Germany and Austria in British uniform. However, German-speakers were small in number in the British zone, which was hampered by the language deficit. Due to its large

14971: 8315: 4578:'s senior officials were former Nazi Party members. Included in this ministry was Franz Massfeller, a former Nazi official who had participated in the meetings which followed the 4432:

In 1946, 37% in the US occupation zone answered “no” to the statement "the extermination of the Jews and Poles and other non-Aryans was not necessary for the security of Germans".

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The delicate task of distinguishing those truly complicit in or responsible for Nazi activities from mere "followers" made the work of the courts yet more difficult. US President

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and others. In early 2007, while Germany held the European Union presidency, Berlin proposed that the European Union should follow German Criminal Law and criminalize the

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Allied occupation forces. In addition, on May 13, 1946, the Allied Control Council issued a directive for the confiscation of all media that could contribute to Nazism or

118: 22: 11629: 3942:. Conditions in the internment camps were terrible, and between 42,000 and 80,000 prisoners died. When the camps were closed in 1950, prisoners were handed over to the 3639:

Progress was slowed by the overwhelming numbers of Germans to be processed, but also by difficulties such as incompatible power systems and power outages, as with the

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from early 1945. Eventually horrific footage from the concentration camps would serve to harden public opinion and bring it more in line with that of policymakers.

4256:"Diese Schandtaten: Eure Schuld!" ("These atrocities: your fault!"), one of the propaganda posters distributed by US occupation authorities in the summer of 1945 12064: 11405: 3378:

members from positions of power and influence, by disbanding or rendering impotent the organizations associated with Nazism, and by trying prominent Nazis for

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After the defeat of Nazi Germany, German civilians were sometimes forced to tour concentration camps and in some cases to exhume mass graves of Nazi victims.

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The Allied costs for occupation were charged to the German people. A newspaper which revealed the charges (including, among other things, thirty thousand

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While judicial efforts were handed over to German authorities, the US Army continued its efforts to denazify Germany through control of German media. The

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The British to some extent avoided being overwhelmed by the potential numbers of denazification investigations by requiring that no one need fill in the

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About 8 million Germans, or 10% of the population, had been members of the Nazi Party. Nazi-related organizations also had huge memberships, such as the

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scholars and other German persons who have received permission to do so from the Allies only under strict supervision by the Allied Control Authority."

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were employed in positions in the West German government. However, East German propaganda also attempted to denounce as Nazis even politicians such as

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taking them. The US took 785 scientists and engineers from Germany to the United States, some of whom formed the backbone of the US space program (see

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THE U.S. MILITARY GOVERNMENT AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMOCRATIC REFORM, FEDERALISM, AND CONSTITUTIONALISM DURING THE OCCUPATION OF BAVARIA, 1945–47

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work to be done to complete the process of denazification by 1947, the year American troops were expected to be completely withdrawn from Europe.

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Herbert Hoover's press release of The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report No. 1: German Agriculture and Food Requirements

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officials in Thuringia were former members of the Nazi Party. Notable ex-Nazis who eventually became prominent East German politicians included

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Many refugees from Nazism were Germans and Austrians, and some had fought for Britain in the Second World War. Some were transferred into the

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The introduction text of one pamphlet published in 1945 by the American War Information Unit (Amerikanischen Kriegsinformationsamt) entitled

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relatives. It was felt, both among Germans and top American officials, that their objectivity might be contaminated by a desire for revenge.

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Executioners, bystanders and victims: collective guilt, the legacy of denazification and the birth of twentieth-century transitional justice

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alleged were then working in collaboration with the Western government with the ultimate aim of restoring Nazi rule throughout Germany. The

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occupiers in order to have someone vouch for them could also shield a person from the denazification laws. In particular, the districts of

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and the display of Nazi symbols including the swastika, which is based on the Ban on the Symbols of Unconstitutional Organizations Act (

4641:, occasionally viewed as a spokesman of "the nation's moral conscience", spoke publicly about the fact that he had been a member of the 15031: 12363: 11924: 8320: 6615: 4053:'s notorious Volksgerichthof trying opponents of the Nazi government as an effective "kangaroo court". Von Lenski was a member of the 3405:

and the economic importance of Germany caused the United States in particular to lose interest in the program, somewhat mirroring the

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was directly in charge of this process, and oversaw the camps. In 1948, the camps were placed under the same administration as the

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Merritt, Anna J.; Merritt, Richard L.; United States. Office of High Commissioner for Germany. Reactions Analysis Staff (1980).

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Denazification was also practiced in many countries which came under German occupation, including Belgium, Norway, Greece and

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In 1946, 1 in 3 in the US occupation zone said that Jews should not have the same rights as those belonging to the Aryan race.

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Braunbuch – Kriegs- und Naziverbrecher in der Bundesrepublik: Staat – Wirtschaft – Verwaltung – Armee – Justiz – Wissenschaft

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hold every supporter of Nazism accountable; however, it was decided that the numbers simply made this goal impractical. The

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in Prussia. Denazification after the surrender of Germany was thus an enormous undertaking, fraught with many difficulties.

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in Allied countries were also subject to denazification qualifications before being returned to their countries of origin.

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and state secretaries, 100 admirals and generals, 828 judges or state lawyers and high law officers, 245 officials of the

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Entnazifizierung und Personalpolitik in der sowjetischen Besatzungszone Köthen/Anhalt. Eine Vergleichsstudie (1945–1948)

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involve Germans in the process. In March 1946 the Law for Liberation from National Socialism and Militarism (German:

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Die Vereinigung der Verfolgten des Naziregimes (VNN) in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone und in Berlin 1945 bis 1948

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Denazification and personal politics in the Soviet Occupied Zone of Köthen/Anhalt. A comparative study (1945–1948).

4799: 4162:

Brown Book – War and Nazi Criminals in the Federal Republic: State, Economy, Administration, Army, Justice, Science

4062: 4038: 4018: 3966: 3923: 3548:

population, the US authorities were able to bring a larger number of German-speakers to the task of working in the

2572: 2557: 1011: 388: 15979: 5521: 4013:, in particular, was denounced during the official commemorations of the liberation of the concentration camps of 3417:, where many Nazis maintained positions of power. Denazification was opposed by the new West German government of 16695: 16281: 16081: 15615: 15584: 15307: 14572: 14441: 12685: 12467: 12323: 12303: 12286: 11729: 11692: 11490: 11382: 10861: 10777: 10212: 9572: 8782: 8537: 8462: 8352: 7971: 7966: 7956: 7951: 7855: 7801: 4697: 3926:, and three from political mass organizations (who were typically also supportive of the Socialist Unity Party). 2987: 2688: 2457: 1387: 1165: 442: 195: 123: 15820: 15815: 14123: 11734: 10114: 3722:). Subject to immediate arrest, death, imprisonment with or without hard labor, plus a list of lesser sanctions. 2894: 1940: 17102: 16364: 16046: 15989: 15690: 15685: 15006: 14911: 14672: 14406: 14270: 13374: 12545: 11999: 11495: 11299: 11183: 10544: 8467: 7774: 7462: 7061: 6921: 4701: 4391: 4296: 4061:

explicitly to appeal to former Nazi members and sympathisers, and which functioned as a loyal satellite of the

2447: 1890: 128: 11891: 10078: 7468: 6770:

Vereinigung der Verfolgten des Naziregimes – Bund der Antifaschistinnen und Antifaschisten Nordrhein-Westfalen

6448:

Jeffrey K. Olick, "In the house of the hangman: the agonies of German defeat, 1943–1949", p. 98, footnote 12(

4874: 2858: 16903: 16221: 16004: 15484: 14976: 14326: 12575: 12296: 11450: 11063: 10886: 10344: 9835: 9823: 8950: 8920: 8908: 7417:

Allied Internment Camps in Occupied Germany: Extrajudicial Detention in the Name of Denazification, 1945–1950

4927: 4365: 4014: 3327: 3119: 1679: 1667: 988: 610: 580: 568: 16536: 7356: 16024: 15890: 15748: 15715: 15137: 14921: 13664: 12794: 12750: 12725: 12643: 12623: 12024: 11934: 11929: 11831: 11826: 11821: 11592: 11540: 11515: 11193: 11030: 11005: 10948: 10654: 10391: 9681: 9440: 8723: 7741: 4384:

in June 1945. A film that was never finished due partly to delays and the existence of the other films was

3976: 3965:, who had been imprisoned by the Nazi regime himself. Such allegations appeared frequently in the official 3791: 2380: 1513: 1453: 1284: 1111: 383: 16206: 15880: 14827: 14587: 14118: 14103: 13284: 13048: 10246: 5842: 4948: 3021: 1975: 16141: 16014: 16009: 15725: 15408: 15117: 14946: 14230: 12648: 12555: 12492: 12440: 12368: 12139: 12069: 11749: 11545: 11360: 11113: 10726: 10534: 10087: 9219: 8096: 5856: 4889: 4807: 2867: 2611: 2033: 1825: 1075: 999: 879: 14617: 11652: 10278: 10187: 9254: 5006: 3053: 2118: 914: 16876: 16768: 16261: 15665: 15051: 14941: 14537: 13649: 13169: 12745: 12730: 12655: 12633: 12628: 12565: 12281: 12243: 12099: 12079: 12054: 11851: 11816: 11811: 11535: 11338: 11264: 11223: 11088: 10985: 10933: 10821: 10614: 10554: 10474: 9394: 9319: 8940: 8687: 8532: 7885: 7548: 7243: 7182:"Germany's post-war justice ministry was infested with Nazis protecting former comrades, study reveals" 4372:

A number of films showing the concentration camps were made and screened to the German public, such as

3549: 3458: 3386:

of 1946. The program of denazification was launched after the end of the war and was solidified by the

3362:

initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary, and politics of the

3228: 2589: 2562: 2412: 2397: 2277: 1613: 1239: 600: 350: 190: 14837: 14093: 13982: 11445: 8738: 4509:

Hitler went too far in his treatment of the Jews, but something had to be done to keep them in bounds:

2641: 398: 16216: 15845: 15680: 15428: 15026: 14225: 13749: 12710: 12535: 12487: 12482: 12373: 12204: 12164: 12059: 11861: 11806: 11801: 11253: 11198: 11143: 11108: 11040: 10953: 10906: 10841: 9946: 7113:

Gesetz zur Regelung der Rechtsverhältnisse der unter Artikel 131 des Grundgesetzes fallenden Personen

5913: 4811: 4463: 4289: 3248: 2385: 2128: 1787: 1104: 1094: 13028: 10222: 10151: 7496: 5544: 4590: 2997: 2931: 17087: 16526: 16276: 16251: 16146: 16131: 15944: 15793: 15675: 15635: 15574: 15448: 15222: 14436: 14138: 13769: 13512: 13471: 13073: 12720: 12600: 12560: 12525: 12472: 12423: 12253: 12194: 12094: 12084: 12049: 12039: 12034: 11974: 11939: 11779: 11677: 11510: 11475: 11138: 11093: 11010: 10995: 10815: 10644: 10411: 9786: 9751: 9691: 9544: 9488: 9304: 9290: 8820: 8733: 8657: 8585: 8561: 8527: 8325: 7895: 7880: 4907: 4746: 4169:

in 1965. In this book Norden detailed 1,800 Nazis who maintained high-ranking positions in postwar

3929: 3749: 3320: 3253: 3178: 3166: 2584: 2532: 2499: 2442: 2432: 2407: 2402: 2148: 1630: 1618: 1523: 1359: 480: 393: 320: 243: 219: 185: 15367: 14762: 13314: 13164: 12962: 9224: 8106: 7999: 7204: 6714: 4412:

The US conducted opinion surveys in the American zone of occupied Germany. Tony Judt, in his book

4184:

and of embassies and consulates in leading position, 297 high police officers and officers of the

3573: 2048: 1935: 884: 16851: 16725: 16019: 15875: 15865: 15783: 15418: 15107: 15046: 14926: 14906: 14662: 14481: 13921: 12845: 12618: 12029: 12014: 11786: 11774: 11259: 11128: 11025: 10696: 10671: 10624: 10519: 10290: 9539: 9498: 9445: 9279: 8026: 7941: 6507:

to put an end to the persistent American habit 'of setting the Nazis apart from the German people

4937: 4690: 4228: 4037:

had significant amounts of former Nazi Party members in their government, whilst 13.6% of senior

3466: 3430: 3223: 3065: 2718: 2487: 2257: 2247: 1845: 1446: 1354: 1289: 939: 867: 15217: 14366: 14133: 10065: 6978: 6972: 6944: 6938: 5475: 5442: 5409: 5376: 5343: 5277: 5244: 5206: 5039: 2845: 16557: 16389: 16171: 16061: 15860: 15830: 15808: 15773: 15763: 15758: 15650: 15500: 15377: 15177: 14547: 14426: 14275: 13629: 13466: 13415: 13319: 12680: 12665: 12455: 12238: 12174: 11984: 11964: 11944: 11876: 11866: 11836: 11769: 11754: 11657: 11624: 11284: 11218: 11118: 11050: 10943: 10891: 10828: 10748: 10706: 10649: 10559: 10499: 10339: 10175: 9931: 9880: 9164: 9025: 8853: 8702: 8442: 8206: 8201: 7946: 6765: 5310: 4932: 4280:

Statements made by the British and US governments, both before and immediately after Germany's

4078: 3602: 3577:

Eagle above the rear main entry to the Robert-Piloty building, department of Computer Science,

3517: 3422: 3359: 3114: 2955: 2579: 2309: 2043: 1772: 1623: 824: 685: 513: 365: 103: 32:

Workers removing the signage from a former "Adolf Hitler-Straße" (today "Steinbrückstraße") in

14777: 14622: 14083: 13956: 12219: 10099: 7086: 5073: 5067: 4001:) by the East German government. As part of the propagandistic campaign against West Germany, 3636:

million Germans who had joined before Hitler came to power were deemed to be hard-core Nazis.

2879: 17007: 16834: 16323: 16266: 16226: 16166: 16136: 15964: 15738: 15302: 15297: 15272: 15262: 15252: 15127: 14956: 14752: 14717: 14627: 14577: 14521: 14471: 14466: 14386: 14057: 13739: 13420: 13259: 12660: 12638: 12590: 12530: 12520: 12477: 12318: 12189: 12169: 12089: 11949: 11682: 11604: 11587: 11525: 11455: 11440: 11294: 10753: 10721: 10716: 10676: 10666: 10599: 10529: 10494: 10469: 10013: 9870: 9629: 9587: 9420: 9015: 8965: 8960: 8294: 8285: 8017: 7054:

Coping with the Nazi Past: West German Debates on Nazism and Generational Conflict, 1955-1975

6449: 5972: 5890: 5677:

Adam, p. 275. Also see Katrin Himmler's book "The Brothers Himmler", about the Himmler family

4902: 4864: 4734: 4265: 4197: 4177: 3610:) about their activities and memberships during Nazi rule. Five categories were established: 2783: 2467: 2437: 2188: 1995: 1950: 1930: 1714: 1402: 1265: 1160: 1120: 675: 625: 620: 15122: 14062: 13224: 11317: 10234: 7319: 7147: 7078: 6668: 5784: 5111:

Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program that Brought Nazi Scientists to America

4606:

Membership in Nazi organizations is still not an open topic of discussion. German President

4002: 3009: 16778: 16740: 16597: 16572: 16374: 15931: 15927: 15840: 15768: 15655: 15579: 15505: 15443: 15332: 15267: 15152: 14951: 14822: 14817: 14582: 14128: 14067: 13476: 12608: 12497: 12333: 12328: 12119: 11994: 11609: 11430: 11269: 11083: 11015: 11000: 10797: 10711: 10701: 10661: 10589: 10569: 10479: 10454: 10253: 10136: 9941: 9936: 9818: 9808: 9577: 9470: 9353: 9174: 8580: 8378: 8310: 8236: 7875: 4942: 4611: 4548: 4422:

A majority in the years 1945–1949 stated Nazism to have been a good idea but badly applied.

4327: 4285: 4281: 3598: 3028: 2916: 2830: 2733: 2547: 2163: 1945: 1782: 1777: 1662: 1652: 1392: 1314: 1198: 1047: 834: 238: 17002: 15172: 14742: 14088: 12921: 11719: 10156: 9008: 9003: 7377:

Germany and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia

6798: 3590: 2936: 668: 663: 8: 16602: 15949: 15835: 15700: 15695: 15640: 15463: 15453: 15393: 15207: 15202: 14702: 14516: 14381: 14174: 14098: 14052: 14032: 13987: 13814: 13784: 13654: 13497: 13441: 13058: 13018: 12931: 12911: 12809: 12418: 12353: 12313: 11614: 11599: 11577: 11289: 11103: 11070: 10938: 10928: 10686: 10564: 10459: 10322: 10297: 9731: 9716: 9517: 9343: 8794: 8763: 8600: 8231: 8186: 7981: 7865: 7794: 7769: 7559: 7458: 4788: 4189: 3981: 3840: 3823: 3534: 3502: 3438: 3410: 3159: 3097: 3072: 2601: 2594: 2341: 1563: 1548: 1332: 1188: 1155: 454: 423: 258: 14682: 13895: 13023: 11796: 11724: 11707: 8775: 2028: 1885: 435: 56: 16824: 16577: 15798: 15705: 15610: 15479: 15403: 15317: 15312: 15237: 15097: 15067: 15041: 15036: 14961: 14936: 14847: 14677: 14607: 14501: 14496: 14491: 14316: 14012: 13507: 13405: 12941: 11355: 11343: 10619: 10604: 10334: 10317: 10146: 10028: 9905: 9855: 9567: 9309: 9244: 9040: 8925: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8848: 8672: 8430: 8008: 7707: 7691: 7617: 7601: 7552: 7484: 6893: 6596: 6580: 6489: 6469: 6103: 5468: 5435: 5402: 5369: 5336: 5303: 5270: 5237: 5199: 5032: 4772: 4579: 4380: 4304: 3800: 3640: 3473: 3188: 3109: 3092: 2926: 2803: 2646: 2552: 2098: 1744: 1699: 1382: 904: 700: 585: 563: 558: 553: 508: 335: 91: 14632: 13880: 13088: 10835: 8714: 3711:

II. Offenders: Activists, Militants, and Profiteers, or Incriminated Persons (German:

3708:). Placed on probation for two–three years with a list of restrictions. No internment. 16960: 16866: 16607: 16333: 15743: 15525: 15520: 15322: 15187: 15132: 15112: 14986: 14931: 14637: 14416: 14341: 14209: 13946: 13890: 13860: 13799: 13719: 13624: 13563: 13502: 13369: 13264: 13244: 13078: 13038: 12875: 12735: 12705: 12580: 12348: 12261: 12114: 11906: 11856: 11846: 11841: 11714: 11702: 11667: 11644: 11410: 11397: 11098: 10846: 10807: 10584: 10574: 10192: 10023: 10008: 9996: 9951: 9761: 9721: 9527: 9522: 9493: 9348: 9134: 9063: 8888: 8768: 8667: 8590: 8551: 8340: 8171: 8161: 7900: 7714: 7677: 7671: 7656: 7647:

Lewkowicz, N. The German Question and the Origins of the Cold War (IPOC:Milan) (2008)

7634: 7609: 7533: 7514: 7443: 7424: 7401: 7380: 7267:"POPE BENEDICT XVI: THE NAZI YEARS; Few See Taint in Service By Pope in Hitler Youth" 7155: 7090: 7079: 7057: 7032: 7007: 6982: 6948: 6917: 6875: 6833: 6720: 6648: 6621: 6588: 6572: 6528: 6479: 6429: 6408: 6407:

Olaf Kappelt: Braunbuch DDR. Nazis in der DDR. Reichmann Verlag, Berlin (West) 1981.

6374: 6211: 6186: 6135: 6089: 6047: 6009: 5766: 5479: 5446: 5413: 5380: 5347: 5314: 5281: 5248: 5210: 5181: 5154: 5077: 5043: 4859: 4784: 4776: 4653: 4634:

was confronted with allegations he had lied about his wartime record in the Balkans.

4323:

coupled to text such as "YOU ARE GUILTY OF THIS!" or "These atrocities: your fault!"

4315: 4185: 4113:

In January 1946, the British handed over their denazification panels to the Germans.

3971: 3874:

was blocked and not widely distributed. Unable to publish his works, Richter founded

3832: 3778:

Contemporary American critics of denazification denounced it as a "counterproductive

3434: 3387: 3171: 3154: 2967: 2798: 2778: 2766: 2567: 2477: 2422: 2207: 2143: 2005: 1895: 1792: 1588: 1553: 1342: 1337: 1193: 1125: 794: 723: 548: 428: 330: 248: 209: 16286: 15342: 14832: 14802: 14552: 13269: 13209: 13063: 12906: 11662: 10258: 10073: 9154: 8156: 7621: 6600: 4010: 3509: 3033: 2853: 1985: 1960: 814: 17024: 16861: 16648: 16592: 16516: 16338: 15423: 15282: 14812: 14767: 14687: 14667: 14652: 14642: 14597: 14376: 14306: 14235: 14199: 14194: 14108: 14037: 14017: 13992: 13926: 13764: 13744: 13734: 13714: 13699: 13568: 13553: 13492: 13400: 13359: 13329: 13309: 13274: 13249: 13139: 13129: 12916: 12885: 12804: 12515: 12445: 11954: 11077: 11056: 10881: 10866: 10434: 10035: 9890: 9828: 9706: 9696: 9622: 9551: 9363: 9269: 9194: 9139: 9035: 8913: 8748: 8641: 8518: 8256: 8216: 8176: 7860: 7593: 7504: 7251: 6564: 5884:

Cora Goldstein "PURGES, EXCLUSIONS, AND LIMITS: ART POLICIES IN GERMANY 1933–1949,

5063: 4884: 4879: 4803: 4742: 4669: 4630:

in Nazi Germany. In the 1980s former UN Secretary General and President of Austria

4566: 4426: 4335:

clearer photographs and placards proclaiming "THIS TOWN IS GUILTY! YOU ARE GUILTY!"

4261: 4073: 3529: 3521: 3485: 3383: 3367: 3243: 3233: 2810: 2653: 2522: 2492: 2168: 2088: 2053: 2038: 1905: 1870: 1729: 1672: 1538: 1528: 1477: 1366: 1208: 1023: 929: 854: 799: 695: 573: 408: 301: 15803: 13865: 13324: 12840: 10514: 9264: 8806: 7747: 5754: 4656:), on the other hand, was open about his membership at the age of fourteen of the 4288:

for the actions of the Nazi regime, often using the terms "collective guilt" and "

2093: 1860: 924: 466: 17036: 16856: 16541: 16056: 15753: 15733: 15247: 15192: 14916: 14772: 14612: 14567: 14451: 14411: 14391: 14356: 14265: 14159: 14047: 13997: 13916: 13819: 13809: 13779: 13774: 13759: 13679: 13659: 13639: 13598: 13588: 13558: 13538: 13533: 13451: 13349: 13204: 13179: 13134: 12715: 12343: 11886: 11881: 11764: 11759: 11420: 11415: 11377: 11349: 11239: 10609: 10489: 10484: 10464: 10421: 10271: 10207: 10202: 10131: 10018: 9915: 9900: 9840: 9676: 9605: 9560: 9324: 9239: 9234: 9214: 9184: 9149: 9052: 9045: 8930: 8633: 8371: 8246: 8151: 8136: 8121: 7754: 7395: 6900: 6782: 6757: 6230: 5763: 5720: 4895: 4869: 4780: 4760:

had been established in these countries with the support of local collaborators.

4757: 4619: 4561: 4050: 4046: 3962: 3836: 3775:

Gottlob Kamm in Baden-Württemberg, with the support of the US occupation forces.

3767: 3553: 3545: 3493: 3418: 3351: 3308: 3218: 3183: 3149: 3046: 2982: 2977: 2911: 2788: 2537: 2153: 2078: 2068: 2063: 2023: 1970: 1920: 1915: 1830: 1754: 1739: 1684: 1508: 1420: 1375: 1099: 899: 894: 874: 844: 809: 712: 705: 590: 291: 15907: 15287: 13885: 13379: 13159: 13033: 12936: 12926: 11310: 7905: 7546: 7291: 6002:

Das Speziallager Nr. 2 1945–1950. Katalog zur ständigen historischen Ausstellung

4791:

were quickly integrated into the strongly anti-Communist postwar establishment.

4638: 4176:

Altogether 1,800 West German persons and their past were covered: especially 15

4081:

state elections 1947, with the slogan "For a quick and just denazification vote

4057:, a political party set up by East German authorities upon the encouragement of 4049:, a parliamentarian and major-general in the East German army who had worked in 3556:, collecting evidence for the War Crimes Investigation Unit, and the search for 2368: 1925: 1910: 1493: 16977: 16955: 16898: 16871: 16506: 16301: 16256: 16246: 16241: 16071: 16051: 16041: 15974: 15939: 15855: 15625: 15510: 15398: 15102: 14862: 14737: 14722: 14697: 14506: 14446: 14371: 14336: 14280: 14204: 14164: 14154: 14027: 13829: 13754: 13689: 13684: 13669: 13614: 13548: 13456: 13446: 13364: 13339: 13289: 13219: 13184: 13144: 13103: 13093: 13068: 12992: 12987: 12977: 12799: 12585: 12308: 12291: 12184: 12159: 11365: 11328: 11203: 11123: 11045: 10923: 10681: 10429: 10406: 10312: 10307: 10165: 10055: 10040: 9910: 9781: 9766: 9686: 9534: 9399: 9314: 9259: 9249: 9205: 9114: 9094: 8883: 8860: 8753: 8651: 8595: 8493: 8126: 7910: 7838: 7787: 6040:

Entnazifizierung in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: Herrschaft und Verwaltung 1945–1948

5537: 4845: 4831: 4627: 4599: 4181: 3939: 3759:

was clearly in progress and the US began to worry more about a threat from the

3437:, who was among other German scientists recruited by the United States through 3406: 3278: 3238: 3087: 3082: 2945: 2835: 2815: 2417: 2346: 2183: 2133: 2123: 2103: 2000: 1865: 1850: 1840: 1749: 1608: 1593: 1518: 1433: 1349: 1244: 1170: 919: 909: 774: 754: 543: 520: 413: 313: 253: 154: 15337: 13053: 12997: 12880: 12865: 9104: 9072: 8181: 8116: 8062: 7004:

Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergangenheit

2138: 1855: 1139: 764: 732: 23:

Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine § Allegations of Nazism

17051: 16935: 16886: 16633: 16501: 16296: 16231: 16126: 16066: 16034: 15912: 15372: 15362: 15232: 14852: 14797: 14757: 14732: 14712: 14657: 14592: 14562: 14557: 14542: 14461: 14456: 14401: 14396: 14311: 14260: 14169: 14042: 13941: 13911: 13875: 13804: 13724: 13674: 13634: 13593: 13583: 13573: 13461: 13410: 13395: 13354: 13344: 13304: 13294: 13234: 13154: 13043: 13002: 12972: 12957: 12870: 12855: 12850: 12835: 12408: 12271: 11959: 11634: 11213: 11020: 10871: 10741: 10691: 10634: 10579: 10356: 10119: 10003: 9845: 9741: 9701: 9668: 9455: 9189: 9124: 9109: 8996: 8987: 8876: 8825: 8815: 8743: 8628: 8607: 8503: 8251: 8221: 8196: 8141: 8083: 7976: 7931: 7915: 7826: 7770:

Denazification, cumulative review. Report, 1 April 1947 – 30 April 1948.

7159: 6576: 4631: 4607: 4201: 4166: 4058: 3701:). Possible restrictions on travel, employment, political rights, plus fines. 3268: 3131: 2899: 2773: 2631: 2621: 2616: 2606: 2517: 2351: 1980: 1955: 1900: 1875: 1835: 1810: 1689: 1573: 1533: 1299: 1087: 849: 784: 769: 656: 647: 536: 485: 475: 403: 286: 265: 164: 15082: 14747: 14647: 9169: 8211: 6493: 6473: 6353: 5178:

Vom spurlosen Verschwindenlassen zur Benachrichtigungspflicht bei Festnahmen

4310:

In 1945, the Public Relations and Information Services Control Group of the

4295:

To that end, as the Allies began their post-war denazification efforts, the

829: 16950: 16930: 16925: 16920: 16910: 16846: 16841: 16790: 16685: 16623: 16316: 16311: 16271: 16116: 16091: 16086: 15954: 15788: 15515: 14901: 14857: 14807: 14782: 14727: 14692: 14602: 14361: 14331: 14255: 14250: 14245: 14240: 14189: 14179: 14002: 13794: 13709: 13704: 13694: 13619: 13528: 13436: 13334: 13279: 13254: 13199: 13083: 12901: 12860: 12550: 12435: 11560: 11323: 11035: 10787: 10782: 10763: 10736: 10504: 9991: 9983: 9885: 9736: 9409: 9274: 9229: 9179: 9159: 9144: 9099: 9030: 8955: 8799: 8682: 8623: 8568: 8556: 8437: 8330: 8241: 8146: 8111: 8101: 8091: 7936: 7832: 7673:

Public opinion in semisovereign Germany : the HICOG surveys, 1949–1955

7613: 6592: 6235:

A failed empire: the Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev.

6044:

Denazification in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: Rule and Administration 1945–1948

4657: 4477:

In 1953, 14% of Germans said they would vote for someone like Hitler again.

4441:

In 1952, 37% said Germany was better off without the Jews on its territory.

4307:

for the purpose of developing a German sense of collective responsibility.

4243: 4170: 4123: 3957: 3953: 3943: 3885:) was banned by the occupation authorities for revealing this information. 3760: 3733: 3728: 3557: 3525: 3462: 3426: 3414: 3395: 3288: 3263: 3258: 3213: 2761: 2753: 2678: 2626: 2462: 2427: 2336: 2173: 2083: 2073: 2058: 1880: 1724: 1568: 1254: 1148: 934: 889: 839: 819: 804: 759: 690: 615: 459: 345: 281: 226: 214: 98: 15277: 13855: 8053: 7653:

Legacies of Dachau: The Uses and Abuses of a Concentration Camp, 1933–2001

7582:

Janowitz, Morris (September 1946). "German Reactions to Nazi Atrocities".

3697: 3624: 16992: 16982: 16940: 16797: 16582: 16531: 16405: 16343: 16181: 16156: 15984: 15959: 15917: 15620: 15594: 15433: 15347: 15092: 15072: 14792: 14431: 14022: 13977: 13936: 13850: 13824: 13729: 13644: 13578: 13543: 13299: 13239: 13214: 13174: 13149: 13108: 13098: 12967: 12830: 12338: 12266: 11896: 11871: 11425: 10958: 10911: 10758: 10449: 10327: 10266: 10241: 10229: 9813: 9776: 9726: 9582: 9129: 8975: 8945: 8789: 8662: 8276: 8272: 8166: 8071: 8044: 8035: 7324: 5820: 4623: 4595: 4449: 4374: 4006: 3994: 3986: 3513: 3283: 3273: 3102: 3041: 3016: 3004: 2472: 2314: 2178: 2108: 1820: 1815: 1657: 1603: 1558: 1397: 789: 635: 605: 449: 325: 17031: 16151: 15167: 13951: 7029:

The Impact of Nazism: New Perspectives on the Third Reich and Its Legacy

6762:

Association of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime/Federation of Antifascists

6747:] (pamphlet) (in German), Amerikanischen Kriegsinformationsamt, 1945 4462:

In 1945, 42% of young Germans and 22% of adult Germans thought that the

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The censorship in the US zone was regulated by the occupation directive

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Hungarian National Socialist Agricultural Labourers' and Workers' Party

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writes about the various surveys carried out at the German population:

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recounted an example in a German town soon after the German surrender:

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were created after 1945 to try former collaborators. The three Greek "

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The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War: A Handbook

6799:"Frequently Asked Questions | Memory Of The Camps | FRONTLINE | PBS" 6132:

The Greatest Plan: Everyday life and governance in the GDR 1949–1961

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Example of a poster used by US forces to create "collective guilt"

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The Mental Aftermath: The Mentality of German Physicists 1945–1949

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Entnazifizierung, Politische Säuberung unter alliierter Herrschaft

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Control Council Directive No. 38, Articles 7–13 (October 12, 1946)

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was setting explicit political limits on art and representation".

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An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus

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The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia

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Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust

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fault!')." See Christoph Klessmann, Die doppelte Staatsgrundung:

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For Russian use of the term during the invasion of Ukraine, see

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