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cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When a pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the micropyle ( a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus) where fertilisation takes place. During this time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte's archegonium.
1521:. Pollination is necessary for plants to continue their populations and 3/4 of the plant species that contribute to the world's food supply are plants that require pollinators. Insect pollinators, like bees, are large contributors to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects. Pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which is necessary in producing fruit with nutritional value and various flavors. Crops that do not depend on animals for pollination but on the wind or self-pollination, like corn and potatoes, have doubled in production and make up a large part of the human diet but do not provide the micronutrients that are needed. The essential nutrients that are necessary in the human diet are present in plants that rely on animal pollinators. There have been issues in vitamin and mineral deficiencies and it is believed that if pollinator populations continue to decrease these deficiencies will become even more prominent.
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300% in the same time period. Additionally, in the past five years there has been a decline in winter managed beehives, which has reached an unprecedented rate of colony losses at near 30%. At present, there is an enormous demand for beehive rentals that cannot always be met. There is a clear need across the agricultural industry for a management tool to draw pollinators into cultivations and encourage them to preferentially visit and pollinate the flowering crop. By attracting pollinators like honey bees and increasing their foraging behavior, particularly in the center of large plots, we can increase grower returns and optimize yield from their plantings. ISCA Technologies, from
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destruction such as fragmentation and selective logging remove areas that are most optimal for the different types of pollinators, which removes pollinators food resources, nesting sites, and leads to isolation of populations. The effect of pesticides on pollinators has been debated because it is difficult to determine that a single pesticide is the cause as opposed to a mixture or other threats. Whether exposure alone causes damage, or if the duration and potency are also factors is unknown. However,
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to be brightly coloured and have little odor, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals, they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated. Night-blooming flowers have little color, but are often very aromatic. Plants with vertebrate pollinators also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if the pollination season were too short.
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way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. This means that pollinator species together can survive under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.
1509:. Butterfly populations were higher within the natural forest and were lower in open land. The reason for the difference in density is the fact that in open land the butterflies would be exposed to desiccation and predation. These open regions are caused by habitat destruction like logging for timber, livestock grazing, and firewood collection. Due to this destruction, butterfly species' diversity can decrease and it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity.
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similar seasons or time cycles, now have different responses to environmental changes and therefore no longer interact. For example, a tree may flower sooner than usual, while the pollinator may reproduce later in the year and therefore the two species no longer coincide in time. Spatial disturbances occur when two species that would normally share the same distribution now respond differently to climate change and are shifting to different regions.
435:, which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants. This can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues. The primary insect pollinators are
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a focus on neonicotinoids effects on honey bee populations. Neonicotinoids insecticides have been used due to its low mammalian toxicity, target specificity, low application rates, and broad spectrum activity. However, the insecticides are able to make its way throughout the plant, which includes the pollen and nectar. Due to this, it has been shown to effect on the nervous system and colony relations in the honey bee populations.
850:, when pollen is transferred from anther of a flower to stigma of another flower on the same plant. Plants adapted to self-fertilize often have similar stamen and carpel lengths. Plants that can pollinate themselves and produce viable offspring are called self-fertile. Plants that cannot fertilize themselves are called self-sterile, a condition which mandates cross-pollination for the production of offspring.
754:. In these plants, excess rain drains allowing the floating pollen to come in contact with the stigma. In some orchids ombrophily occurs, and rain water splashes cause the anther cap to be removed, allowing for the pollen to be exposed. After exposure, raindrops causes the pollen to be shot upward, when the stipe pulls them back, and then fall into the cavity of the stigma. Thus, for the orchid
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strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place.
838:, occurs when pollen is delivered from the stamen of one flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species. Plants adapted for cross-pollination have several mechanisms to prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs may be arranged in such a way that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and carpels may mature at different times.
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interactions are interrupted, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are threatened. Pollination by animals aids in the genetic variability and diversity within plants because it allows for out-crossing instead for self-crossing. Without this genetic diversity there would be a lack of traits for natural selection to act on for the survival of the plant species.
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76:. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example beetles or butterflies; birds, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves. Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in a vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants. When
702:, i.e., pollination by wind. This probably arose from insect pollination (entomophily), most likely due to changes in the environment or the availability of pollinators. The transfer of pollen is more efficient than previously thought; wind pollinated plants have developed to have specific heights, in addition to specific floral,
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Self-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates the same flower or other flowers of the same individual. It is thought to have evolved under conditions when pollinators were not reliable vectors for pollen transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species and plants that
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filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones
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Rader, Romina; Bartomeus, Ignasi; Garibaldi, Lucas A.; Garratt, Michael P. D.; Howlett, Brad G.; Winfree, Rachael; Cunningham, Saul A.; Mayfield, Margaret M.; Arthur, Anthony D.; Andersson, Georg K. S.; Bommarco, Riccardo; Brittain, Claire; Carvalheiro, Luísa G.; Chacoff, Natacha P.; Entling, Martin
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The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific
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has been studied the most and in the United States, there has been a loss of 59% of colonies from 1947 to 2005. The decrease in populations of the honey bee have been attributed to pesticides, genetically modified crops, fragmentation, parasites and diseases that have been introduced. There has been
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In some instances growers' demand for beehives far exceeds the available supply. The number of managed beehives in the US has steadily declined from close to 6 million after WWII, to less than 2.5 million today. In contrast, the area dedicated to growing bee-pollinated crops has grown over
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Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the
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obligate out-crossers. It is also estimated that about 42% of flowering plants have a mixed mating system in nature. In the most common kind of mixed mating system, individual plants produce a single type of flower and fruits may contain self-pollinated, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types.
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are attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested that some orchid species intoxicate bees during visits which can last up to 90 minutes. However, in general, plants that rely on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated species tend
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The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument and the
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production in the United States, an $ 11 billion industry based almost exclusively in the state of
California, is heavily dependent on imported honeybees for pollination of almond trees. Almond industry uses up to 82% of the services in the pollination market. Each February, around 60% of the
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Wild pollinators often visit a large number of plant species and plants are visited by a large number of pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of
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has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced, enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take
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L.) provides highly valued pollination services for a wide variety of agricultural crops, and ranks as the most frequent single species of pollinator for crops worldwide. Since the early 1900s, beekeepers in the United States started renting out their colonies to farmers to increase the farmer's
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Progress Report it can be traced to factors such as pollution, pesticides, and pathogens from evidences found in areas of the colonies affected and the colonies themselves. Pollution and pesticides are detrimental to the health of the bees and their colonies as the bees' ability to pollinate and
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is also important for plant fitness because it allows plants the ability to expand their populations. More than that, it permits plants to escape environments that have changed and have become difficult to reside in. All of these factors show the importance of pollinators for plants, which are a
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can improve their yield by about 20%. The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers can also raise native crops in order to promote
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and angiosperms. Flowers provide bees with nectar (an energy source) and pollen (a source of protein). When bees go from flower to flower collecting pollen they are also depositing pollen grains onto the flowers, thus pollinating them. While pollen and nectar, in most cases, are the most notable
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is perhaps the most well known) has been noticed in recent years. These loss of pollinators have caused a disturbance in early plant regeneration processes such as seed dispersal and pollination. Early processes of plant regeneration greatly depend on plant-animal interactions and because these
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flowers that open and are then pollinated. Cleistogamous flowers are by necessity found on self-compatible or self-fertile plants. Although certain orchids and grasses are entirely cleistogamous, other plants resort to this strategy under adverse conditions. Often there may be a mixture of both
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Despite losing about a third of their workforce every year, beekeepers continue to rent out their bees to almond farms due to the high pay from the almond industry. In 2016, a colony rented out for almond pollination gave beekeepers an income of $ 165 per colony rented, around three times from
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In the agriculture industry, climate change is causing a "pollinator crisis". This crisis is affecting the production of crops, and the relating costs, due to a decrease in pollination processes. This disturbance can be phenological or spatial. In the first case, species that normally occur in
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Reptile pollinators are known, but they form a minority in most ecological situations. They are most frequent and most ecologically significant in island systems, where insect and sometimes also bird populations may be unstable and less species-rich. Adaptation to a lack of animal food and of
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In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form the female gametophytes, which are very
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is also an important driver. These alterations are especially harmful due to the sensitivity of the pollination process of plants. Research on tropical palms found that defaunation has caused a decline in seed dispersal, which causes a decrease in genetic variability in this species. Habitat
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Over the past decade, beekeepers across the US have reported that the mortality rate of their bee colonies has stayed constant at about 30% every year, making the deaths an expected cost of business for the beekeepers. While the exact cause of this phenomenon is unknown, according to the
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The most known and understood pollinator, bees, have been used as the prime example of the decline in pollinators. Bees are essential in the pollination of agricultural crops and wild plants and are one of the main insects that perform this task. Out of the bees species, the honey bee or
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that any of them could be carrying. The deaths do not stop at commercial honeybees as there is evidence of significant pathogen spillover to other pollinators including wild bumble bees, infecting up to 35-100% of wild bees within 2 km radius of commercial pollination. The negative
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predation pressure, might therefore favour reptiles becoming more herbivorous and more inclined to feed on pollen and nectar. Most species of lizards in the families that seem to be significant in pollination seem to carry pollen only incidentally, especially the larger species such as
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fears is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators. Changes in land use, harmful pesticides, and advancing climate change threaten wild pollinators, key insect species that increase yields of three-fourths of crop varieties and are critical to growing healthy foods.
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from one flower to another. Abiotic pollination relies on wind, water or even rain. Adding natural habitat areas into farm systems generally improves pollination, as farms that are closer to natural habitat have higher crop yield because they are visited by more pollinators.
858:: is self-pollination that occurs before the flower opens. The pollen is released from the anther within the flower or the pollen on the anther grows a tube down the style to the ovules. It is a type of sexual breeding, in contrast to asexual systems such as apomixis. Some
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While there are 200,000 - 350,000 different species of animals that help pollination, honeybees are responsible for majority of the pollination for consumed crops, providing between $ 235 and $ 577 US billion of benefits to global food production. The western honey bee
1570:. As of 2016, 41% of an average US beekeeper's revenue comes from providing such pollination service to farmers, making it the biggest proportion of their income, with the rest coming from sales of honey, beeswax, government subsidy, etc. This is an example of how a
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pollination management, a good pollenizer is a plant that provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms at the same time as the plant that is to be pollinated or has pollen that can be stored and used when needed to pollinate the desired flowers.
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are wind pollinated or self pollinating. When considering the top 15 crops contributing to the human diet globally in 2013, slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops (211 out of 1916 kcal/person/day) is dependent upon insect pollination.
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identical. An orchard block of apples of one variety is genetically a single plant. Many growers now consider this a mistake. One means of correcting this mistake is to graft a limb of an appropriate pollenizer (generally a variety of
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flowers have opened their anthers, but not yet their stigmas. Note the change of colour that signals to pollinators that they are ready for visits. The uppermost flower is somewhat more mature than the others and has already shed its
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of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of another. Between 100,000 and 200,000 species of animal act as pollinators of the world's 250,000 species of flowering plant. The majority of these pollinators are
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Hind leg of a honey bee with pollen pellet stuck on the pollen basket or corbicula. When the worker bee is collecting pollen, their legs make the transfer of pollen from the inner basitarsal combs to the outer pollen basket (shown in
157:, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary. Details of the process vary according to the
1623:. Almond pollinating bees, approximately 60% of the bees in the US as mentioned above, will be mixed with bees from thousands of other hives provided by different beekeepers, making them exponentially susceptible to diseases and
724:, an unopened male flower floats to the surface of the water, and, upon reaching the surface, opens up and the fertile anthers project forward. The female flower, also floating, has its stigma protected from the water, while its
366:, but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals visit flowers and may transfer pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which are the most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs, squirrels, rodents and possums.
1574:, pollination of crops from beekeeping and honey-making, was successfully accounted for and incorporated into the overall market for agriculture. On top of assisting food production, pollination service provide beneficial
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significant part of the foundation for a stable ecosystem. If only a few species of plants depended on Loss of pollinators is especially devastating because there are so many plant species rely on them. More than 87.5% of
1590:. There is even further spillover as biodiversity increases ecosystem resistance for wildlife and crops. Due to their role of pollination in crop production, commercial honeybees are considered to be livestock by the
889:, like most geraniums and pelargoniums, sheds its anthers, sometimes its stamens as well, as a barrier to self-pollination. This young flower is about to open its anthers, but has not yet fully developed its pistil.
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Butt N, Seabrook L, Maron M, Law BS, Dawson TP, et al. Cascading effects of climate extremes on vertebrate fauna through changes to low latitude tree flowering and fruiting phenology. Global Change
Biology. 2015;
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place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of
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reward attained from flowers, bees also visit flowers for other resources such as oil, fragrance, resin and even waxes. It has been estimated that bees originated with the origin or diversification of
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Rain pollination is used by a small percentage of plants. Heavy rain discourages insect pollination and damages unprotected flowers, but can itself disperse pollen of suitably adapted plants, such as
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Mammals are not generally thought of as pollinators, but some rodents, bats and marsupials are significant pollinators and some even specialise in such activities. In South Africa certain species of
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Biesmeijer JC, Roberts SP, Reemer M, Ohlemüller R, Edwards M, Peeters T, et al. (July 2006). "Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in
Britain and the Netherlands".
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to form haploid microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the
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too have suffered due to these modifications. Butterflies are helpful ecological indicators since they are sensitive to changes within the environment like the season, altitude, and above all,
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flower has shed its stamens, and deployed the tips of its pistil without accepting pollen from its own anthers. (It might of course still receive pollen from younger flowers on the same plant.)
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In some situations, farmers or horticulturists may aim to restrict natural pollination to only permit breeding with the preferred individuals plants. This may be achieved through the use of
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economy nearly an estimated $ 3.1 billion annually through natural crop production; pollination produces some $ 40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone.
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content. The mice apparently can digest the xylose and they eat large quantities of the pollen. In
Australia pollination by flying, gliding and earthbound mammals has been demonstrated.
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Isbell F, Craven D, Connolly J, Loreau M, Schmid B, Beierkuhnlein C, et al. (October 2015). "Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes".
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the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.
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Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J (April 2009). "The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity".
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Ollerton, J. & S. Liede. 1997. Pollination systems in the
Asclepiadaceae: a survey and preliminary analysis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society (1997), 62: 593–610.
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Harder LD, Williams NM, Jordan CY, Nelson WA (2001). "The effects of Floral design and display on pollinator economics and pollen dispersal". In
Chittka L, Thomson JD (eds.).
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Rader, Romina; Howlett, Bradley G.; Cunningham, Saul A.; Westcott, David A.; Newstrom-Lloyd, Linda E.; Walker, Melanie K.; Teulon, David A.J.; Edwards, Will (October 2009).
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are considered self-fertile because a commercial crop can be produced without cross-pollination, though cross-pollination usually gives a better crop. Apples are considered
273:. A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia divide by
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Fidalgo, Adriana De O.; Kleinert, Astrid De M. P. (2009-12-01). "Reproductive biology of six
Brazilian Myrtaceae: - is there a syndrome associated with buzz-pollination?".
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period. Many fossilized pollen grains show characteristics similar to the biotically dispersed pollen today. Furthermore, the gut contents, wing structures, and mouthpart
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period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late
Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in late Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the
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Goodwillie C, Kalisz S, Eckert CG (2005). "The evolutionary enigma of mixed mating systems in plants: Occurrence, theoretical explanations, and empirical evidence".
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1462:. The more destructive forms of human disturbances are land use changes such as fragmentation, selective logging, and the conversion to secondary forest habitat.
1413:, created a semiochemical formulation called SPLAT Bloom, that modifies the behavior of honey bees, inciting them to visit flowers in every portion of the field.
718:, uses water to transport pollen, sometimes as whole anthers; these can travel across the surface of the water to carry dry pollen from one flower to another. In
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Visser ME, Both C. Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London B. 2005; 272:2561–2569
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have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species. Later,
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Stout JC, Allen JA, Goulson D (December 1998). "The influence of relative plant density and floral morphological complexity on the behaviour of bumblebees".
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that harm bee colonies. Many researchers believe it is the synergistic effects of these factors which are ultimately detrimental to pollinator populations.
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or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong
1096:, which have long spur lengths that are selected for in order to deposit pollen on the oil-collecting bee, which in turn selects for even longer legs in
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crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination
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Aguiar JM, Pansarin LM, Ackerman JD, Pansarin ER (2012). "Biotic versus abiotic pollination in
Oeceoclades maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. (Orchidaceae)".
1297:, improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. The vicinity of a
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is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in
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Potts SG, Biesmeijer JC, Kremen C, Neumann P, Schweiger O, Kunin WE (June 2010). "Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers".
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1652:, summer management, and the replacement dying bees are considered, almond pollination is barely or not profitable for average beekeepers.
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average of other crops that use the pollination rental service. However, a recent study published in Oxford Academic's Journal of Economic
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between bee species and flowering plants have been illustrated by specialized adaptations. For example, long legs are selected for in
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Chittka L, Gumbert A, Kunze J (1997). "Foraging dynamics of bumble bees: correlates of movement within and between plant species".
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Runions CJ, Owens JN (1999). "Sexual reproduction of interior spruce (Pinaceae). I. Pollen germination to archegonial maturation".
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species). The flowers are borne near the ground, are yeasty smelling, not colourful, and sunbirds reject the nectar with its high
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that look at the positives and negatives of pollination, focused on bees, and how the process affects the pollinators themselves.
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occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species, it can produce
5071:"The Economics of Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Management and Overwintering Strategies for Colonies Used to Pollinate Almonds"
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Humpden NN, Nathan GN (2010-06-01). "Effects of plant structure on butterfly diversity in Mt. Marsabit Forest – northern Kenya".
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Maglianesi Sandoz, M.A. (2016). Efectos del cambio climático sobre la polinización y la producción agrícola en América Tropical.
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Hill PS, Wells PH, Wells H (September 1997). "Spontaneous flower constancy and learning in honey bees as a function of colour".
1439:, over 75% of tropical tree species, and 30-40% of tree species in temperate regions depend on pollination and seed dispersal.
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cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers, sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed inflorescences. The
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to another. This allows the plant to spend energy directly on pollen rather than on attracting pollinators with flowers and
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Igic B, Kohn JR (May 2006). "The distribution of plant mating systems: study bias against obligately outcrossing species".
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Labandeira CC, Kvacek J, Mostovski MB (2007). "Pollination drops, pollen and insect pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms".
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It is possible for a plant to have varying pollination methods, including both biotic and abiotic pollination. The orchid
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760:, this allows the plant to self-pollinate, which is useful when biotic pollinators in the environment have decreased.
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and flower at night, whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red petals.
482:" (or "sonication"), where a bee must vibrate at a certain frequency in order to cause pollen to be released from the
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species), or require specialized behaviors or morphology in order to extract pollen or nectar. One such syndrome is "
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Ackerman JD (2000-03-01). "Abiotic pollen and pollination: Ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives".
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return to their colonies are great greatly compromised. Moreover, California's Central Valley is determined by the
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Steiner KE, Whitehead VB (September 1990). "Pollinator Adaptation to Oil-Secreting Flowers-Rediviva and Diascia".
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rely on biotic pollination. (also called pollen vectors): organisms that carry or move the pollen grains from the
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Hung, Keng-Lou James; Kingston, Jennifer M.; Albrecht, Matthias; Holway, David A.; Kohn, Joshua R. (2018-01-10).
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Whitehead DR (March 1969). "Wind Pollination in the Angiosperms: Evolutionary and Environmental Considerations".
2754:"Alternative pollinator taxa are equally efficient but not as effective as the honeybee in a mass flowering crop"
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of private pollination services is the decline of biodiversity through the deaths of commercial and wild bees.
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3033:"Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of pollination and mating in wind-pollinated plants"
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van Tussenbroek BI, Villamil N, Márquez-Guzmán J, Wong R, Monroy-Velázquez LV, Solis-Weiss V (September 2016).
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The graph shows the average dollar amount per colonies received by beekeepers depending on the pollinated crop.
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Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J (March 2014). "The sudden collapse of pollinator communities".
1701:
1676:
3539:
3308:
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means that greater concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet the area is
6459:
6046:
5561:
2533:"Arthropod fauna of mammal-pollinated Protea humiflora: ants as an attractant for insectivore pollinators?"
1582:
not only the crops, but also other plants around the area that they are set loose to pollinate, increasing
945:
214:
is dependent on fertilisation: the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as
6541:
6295:
1600:
846:, where pollen is transferred from anther (male part) to the stigma (female part) of the same flower; or
232:
782:
6275:
2573:
Goldingay RL, Carthew SM, Whelan RJ (May 1991). "The Importance of Non-Flying Mammals in Pollination".
5046:"USDA ERS - Driven by Almonds, Pollination Services Now Exceed Honey as a Source of Beekeeper Revenue"
4732:"USDA ERS - Driven by Almonds, Pollination Services Now Exceed Honey as a Source of Beekeeper Revenue"
2616:
Olesen JM, Valido A (April 2003). "Lizards as pollinators and seed dispersers: an island phenomenon".
150:". This process would result in the production of a seed, made of both nutritious tissues and embryo.
6425:
5286:
5203:
3293:"The cleistogamous breeding system: a review of its frequency, evolution, and ecology in angiosperms"
1616:
203:
2255:
Chittka L, Thomson JD, Waser NM (1999). "Flower constancy, insect psychology, and plant evolution".
1238:, beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops.
873:
produces cleistogamous flowers below ground, and mixed cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers above.
6617:
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6408:
5458:
4215:
3121:
1611:
1426:
1318:
813:
119:
travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the
5115:
Crepet WL, Friis EM, Nixon KC (1991). "Fossil evidence for the evolution of biotic pollination ".
3438:
2299:
1811:
Denisow, B. and Weryszko-Chmielewska, E. (2015) "Pollen grains as airborne allergenic particles".
3292:
3004:
Culley TM, Weller SG, Sakai AK (2002-08-01). "The evolution of wind pollination in angiosperms".
2056:
953:) and can pollinate and fertilize themselves. Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to
3779:
Cox-Foster DL, Conlan S, Holmes EC, Palacios G, Evans JD, Moran NA, et al. (October 2007).
6393:
6317:
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4755:
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1517:
Besides the imbalance of the ecosystem caused by the decline in pollinators, it may jeopardise
1337:
1262:
1216:
1176:
987:, because a commercial crop must be cross-pollinated. Many commercial fruit tree varieties are
870:
472:
to increase effectiveness, attach pollen to specific body parts (as happens in many orchid and
6122:
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1838:
1648:
found that once the costs for maintaining bees specifically for almond pollination, including
6612:
6558:
4391:
3413:
3265:
2935:
2201:
Goulson D, Ollerton J, Sluman C (1997). "Foraging strategies in the small skipper butterfly,
1575:
1410:
1381:
1312:
744:
47:
4001:
Roubik DW (June 2001). "Ups and Downs in Pollinator Populations: When is there a Decline?".
3622:
An Assessment of Non-Apis Bees as Fruit and Vegetable Crop Pollinators in Southwest Virginia
6607:
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6177:
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5804:
5363:
5279:
5257:
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2806:
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2407:
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2132:
1962:
1706:
1192:
1038:
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770:
720:
628:
619:
339:
251:
Decolorized aniline blue fluorescence image showing growing pollen tubes in a tomato pistil
147:
5780:
668:
Abiotic pollination uses nonliving methods such as wind and water to move pollen from one
8:
6450:
5995:
4988:"Does pathogen spillover from commercially reared bumble bees threaten wild pollinators?"
1671:
1530:
1443:
1062:
738:
5003:
4915:
4793:
4610:
4554:
4499:
4440:
4311:
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3943:"Pollination and seed dispersal are the most threatened processes of plant regeneration"
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2810:
2769:
2702:
2629:
2586:
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1966:
1552:
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improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed.
6388:
6253:
6031:
5723:
5509:
5405:
5235:
5174:
5022:
4987:
4935:
4895:
Henry M, Béguin M, Requier F, Rollin O, Odoux JF, Aupinel P, et al. (April 2012).
4823:
4708:
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4275:
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4131:
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3032:
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2916:
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Lavaut E, Guillemin ML, Colin S, Faure A, Coudret J, Destombe C, Valero M (July 2022).
2827:
2794:
2729:
2686:
2598:
2513:
2342:
2280:
2222:
2156:
2105:
1996:
1978:
1881:
1733:
Animal Behavior Desk Reference. A Dictionary of Animal Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution
1666:
1422:
1349:
690:
124:
4650:
4518:
4483:
3017:
2637:
2492:
Wiens D, Rourke JP, Casper BB, Rickart EA, LaPine TR, Peterson CJ, Channing A (1983).
2469:
2442:
161:
of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilisation are found in gymnosperms:
6546:
5395:
5390:
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5141:
5092:
5027:
4962:
4927:
4853:
4815:
4713:
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4136:
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3519:
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2734:
2716:
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2423:
2350:
2148:
2097:
2036:
1909:
1844:
1792:
1624:
1494:
1373:
1345:
1257:, and many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other
1220:
1188:
613:
158:
4939:
4368:
3822:
3765:
3316:
2669:
2652:
2284:
2109:
1982:
179:
have sperm that are unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.
6332:
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6233:
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6026:
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5792:
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5555:
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4126:
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3800:
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3092:
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3013:
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2822:
2814:
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2724:
2706:
2664:
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2590:
2505:
2464:
2454:
2415:
2334:
2272:
2214:
2183:
2160:
2140:
2089:
2028:
1970:
1885:
1873:
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1200:
966:
954:
825:
750:
572:
479:
469:
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286:
135:
81:
77:
6127:
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285:, and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very reduced
6586:
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6430:
6259:
6209:
6197:
6159:
6095:
5922:
5890:
5851:
5824:
5653:
5648:
5539:
5475:
5356:
5157:
5012:
4449:
4425:"Contribution of pollinator-mediated crops to nutrients in the human food supply"
3888:
3386:
2878:"Pollinators of the sea: A discovery of animal-mediated fertilization in seaweed"
2493:
2459:
1436:
1397:
1389:
1369:
1081:
684:
644:
617:, which pollinates various species, but in particular is the major pollinator of
526:
354:
100:
65:
5069:
Degrandi-Hoffman G, Graham H, Ahumada F, Smart M, Ziolkowski N (December 2019).
4846:"'Like sending bees to war': the deadly truth behind your almond milk obsession"
4387:"Pollinators and Global Food Security: the Need for Holistic Global Stewardship"
2032:
6480:
6445:
6398:
6380:
6344:
6100:
5927:
5905:
5871:
5846:
5829:
5819:
5814:
5696:
5514:
5499:
5453:
5448:
4955:"Life in San Joaquin valley, the place with the worst air pollution in America"
4488:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4224:
3910:"ISCA Technologies: A Leader of Innovative Pest Management Tools and Solutions"
3544:
1771:
1459:
1431:
1403:
1348:
poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. The other trend is the
1246:
943:, the plants that serve as the pollen source for other plants. Some plants are
728:
are slightly depressed into the water, allowing the male flowers to tumble in.
580:
112:
108:
85:
4405:
4386:
2795:"Experimental evidence of pollination in marine flowers by invertebrate fauna"
2555:
1635:
1556:
The graph shows the number of honeybee colonies in the U.S. from 1982 to 2015,
6601:
6516:
6264:
6182:
6154:
6117:
6085:
6021:
5990:
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5841:
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1476:
1026:
756:
69:
43:
4923:
4508:
4351:
4334:
4014:
3865:
3840:
3805:
3780:
3749:
3582:
Pollinator biodiversity and economic value of pollination services in Uganda
2904:
2711:
1305:
with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or
38:
6511:
6501:
6403:
6112:
5621:
5588:
5335:
5128:
5096:
5031:
4931:
4819:
4717:
4691:
4676:"The worldwide importance of honey bees as pollinators in natural habitats"
4636:
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4284:
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4084:
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uses both rain and butterflies, depending on its environmental conditions.
706:
and stigma positions that promote effective pollen dispersal and transfer.
536:
530:
522:
510:
377:
247:
238:
187:
4897:"A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey bees"
4423:
Eilers EJ, Kremen C, Smith Greenleaf S, Garber AK, Klein AM (2011-06-22).
3913:
2276:
2144:
2101:
305:
Pollination may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic pollination relies on living
171:
have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas
6327:
6307:
6243:
6105:
5885:
5856:
5755:
5750:
5598:
5438:
5433:
5418:
5330:
5087:
5070:
3548:
3152:
3048:
2792:
1929:
1746:
1629:
1579:
1571:
1472:
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1330:
1291:
1180:
1126:
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502:
436:
393:
381:
376:, often occurs on plants that have developed colored petals and a strong
369:
326:
278:
256:
216:
207:
104:
96:
5178:
4810:
4801:
4562:
3781:"A metagenomic survey of microbes in honey bee colony collapse disorder"
3136:"Rain pollination provides reproductive assurance in a deceptive orchid"
2818:
1824:
1118:
6356:
6349:
6339:
6322:
6005:
6000:
5936:
5728:
5575:
5534:
5428:
5318:
5313:
4651:"FAO - News Article: Pollinators vital to our food supply under threat"
4627:
3940:
3889:"EFSA Press Release: EFSA identifies risks to bees from neonicotinoids"
3515:
3333:
Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination
3104:
2982:
2687:"Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination"
2602:
2517:
2346:
1974:
1691:
1645:
1451:
1277:
1254:
1058:
1054:
1050:
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389:
348:
322:
306:
266:
199:
191:
176:
154:
128:
92:
4618:
4122:
4066:
4023:
3966:
2242:
Cognitive Ecology of Pollination: Animal Behavior and Floral Evolution
1049:
suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between
30:
6464:
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6090:
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5876:
5787:
5711:
5631:
5583:
5524:
5504:
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1587:
1502:
1467:
1447:
1353:
1302:
1273:
1212:
1196:
1000:
974:
600:
596:
525:
or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds.
518:
474:
424:
416:
408:
270:
221:
132:
5231:
4540:
3941:
Neuschulz EL, Mueller T, Schleuning M, Böhning-Gaese K (July 2016).
3507:
2974:
2594:
2509:
2338:
2057:"First ever record of insect pollination from 100 million years ago"
6506:
6496:
6440:
6435:
6202:
6075:
6051:
5968:
5638:
5423:
5325:
5208:
Pollination: The Enduring Relationship Between Plant and Pollinator
4043:"Defaunation leads to microevolutionary changes in a tropical palm"
3134:
Fan XL, Barrett SC, Lin H, Chen LL, Zhou X, Gao JY (October 2012).
1877:
1455:
1385:
1357:
1242:
1235:
1104:
is selected for, thus, continually driving each other's evolution.
1034:
995:
988:
834:
787:
639:
490:
401:
139:
5256:
5068:
1310:
native bee pollinator species as shown with the native sweat bees
676:. Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollination.
5691:
5686:
5603:
5593:
4422:
3727:
1287:
1266:
1258:
1227:
1184:
1169:
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1018:
991:
970:
795:
506:
483:
397:
282:
274:
195:
172:
3598:"Farming for native bees. World Wide Web electronic publication"
6144:
6036:
5956:
5910:
5900:
5861:
5799:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5379:
4041:
Carvalho CS, Galetti M, Colevatti RG, Jordano P (August 2016).
4040:
3641:"The economic value of ecological services provided by insects"
2373:"Reproductive Biology and Controlled Pollination of Eucalyptus"
1595:
1547:
1365:
1329:
reports that native insect pollination saves the United States
1306:
1298:
1280:
1145:
973:, or between different breeding lines or populations. see also
792:
703:
673:
669:
588:
547:
444:
385:
380:
to attract insects such as bees, wasps, and occasionally ants (
373:
363:
358:
310:
198:. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and
183:
167:
143:
120:
116:
61:
57:
5271:
3778:
3184:
2751:
2683:
1735:(Third ed.). Boca Raton, FL.: CRC Press LCC. p. 794.
1290:
and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to
607:
are active pollinators, and so is at least one species of the
6368:
6302:
6224:
6192:
6149:
6041:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5961:
5946:
5915:
5836:
5494:
5485:
4596:
1294:
1250:
1231:
1224:
1208:
1204:
1157:
1153:
980:
725:
656:
261:
211:
162:
4482:
Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM (August 2003).
4481:
4248:
4192:
3703:
Communications, Todd Datz Harvard Chan School (2022-12-14).
3434:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–67.
2852:"Like Bees of the Seas, These Crustaceans Pollinate Seaweed"
2325:
Dressler RL (March 1968). "Pollination by Euglossine Bees".
1404:
Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities
1075:
provide a good example of the mutualism that exists between
638:) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of
634:
Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small
6219:
6214:
5866:
5706:
5681:
5676:
5660:
5519:
3239:
Understanding flowers and flowering: an integrated approach
2440:
1773:
An introduction to the structure and reproduction of plants
1377:
1269:
1187:. The largest managed pollination event in the world is in
1161:
1141:
1022:
494:
73:
4779:
4673:
4484:"The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks"
2494:"Nonflying Mammal Pollination of Southern African Proteas"
2239:
2023:
Abrol DP (2012). "Non Bee Pollinators-Plant Interaction".
6139:
5701:
5348:
5154:
4249:
Fairbrother A, Purdy J, Anderson T, Fell R (April 2014).
3705:"New study shows impact pollinators have on human health"
3658:
10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2
2875:
2297:
1594:. The impact of pollination varies by crop. For example,
1152:
The most essential staple food crops on the planet, like
1072:
498:
448:
440:
400:). The existence of insect pollination dates back to the
182:
The study of pollination spans many disciplines, such as
5251:
Pollination syndromes images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
5240:
4894:
2491:
1241:
In America, bees are brought to commercial plantings of
4680:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3602:
Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education (SARE)
3589:
3309:
10.1663/0006-8101(2007)73[1:TCBSAR]2.0.CO;2
1566:
crop yields, earning additional revenue from providing
1512:
454:
Many flowers attract pollinators by odor. For example,
265:(male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are
4876:
3399:
3124:
I kommission hos E. Munksgaard. Retrieved 26 May 2018.
2572:
1442:
Factors that contribute to pollinator decline include
969:
is effective pollination between flowers of different
655:
reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping
571:) are adapted to pollination by rodents (particularly
5190:. Hisar: Rajendra Scientific Publishers. p. 210.
3496:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
3359:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
2963:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
2327:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
2200:
1908:(6th ed.). Pearson Education. pp. 600–612.
1599:
all bee colonies in the US are moved to California's
1033:
show evidence for biotic pollination as early as the
842:
colonize new locations. Self-pollination may include
4985:
3216:. Boca Raton, Fla.: Lewis Publishers. p. 166.
2441:Rodríguez-Gironés MA, Santamaría L (October 2004).
2254:
2173:
1997:"Types of Pollination, Pollinators and Terminology"
1486:
281:, a generative cell that will produce two sperm by
4251:"Risks of neonicotinoid insecticides to honeybees"
2933:
2378:. School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania.
493:, pollination is performed by vertebrates such as
5188:Pollination Biology: Basic and Applied Principles
5135:
4107:"The risk of insecticides to pollinating insects"
3902:
3549:"FAOstats Food Supply - Crops Primary Equivalent"
3133:
3003:
2298:Sühs RB, Somavilla A, Köhler A, Putzke J (2009).
2122:
1276:are increasingly raised and used extensively for
1148:structure appears rough and globular to the left.
6599:
5114:
3493:
3444:
2300:"Pollen vector wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) of
1843:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 210–216.
1769:
1199:are trucked to the almond orchards each spring.
5117:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences
3030:
2691:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2650:
2530:
2397:
2244:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 297–317.
1191:orchards, where nearly half (about one million
927:An estimated 48.7% of plant species are either
34:Diagram illustrating the process of pollination
5210:. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–224.
4592:
4590:
4588:
3702:
3290:
2745:
2677:
2079:
5364:
5287:
4297:
3211:
2366:
2364:
1903:
6470:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
3673:"US Forest Department: Pollinator Factsheet"
3638:
3350:
3329:
3284:
2615:
2553:
1863:
1548:Economics of commercial honeybee pollination
1524:
1380:, and public concern about bees. Widespread
1261:of bees are also raised as pollinators. The
468:Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to
4585:
4384:
4335:"Ecology. The global plight of pollinators"
3561:FAO 2015. FAO Statistical Pocketbook 2015,
3535:
3533:
3432:Evolution of Plant-Pollinator Relationships
3083:Cox PA (1988). "Hydrophilous Pollination".
2653:"Pollination and seed dispersal by lizards"
939:Pollination also requires consideration of
202:was first addressed in the 18th century by
5371:
5357:
5294:
5280:
4884:. United States Department of Agriculture.
4879:"Colony Collapse Disorder Progress Report"
4332:
3426:
3230:
2361:
1899:
1897:
1895:
289:, that is contained within the resistant.
5086:
5021:
5011:
4986:Otterstatter MC, Thomson JD (July 2008).
4809:
4707:
4626:
4517:
4507:
4458:
4448:
4404:
4350:
4274:
4214:
4130:
4074:
4022:
3974:
3864:
3804:
3656:
3470:
3447:"Bees diversified in the age of eudicots"
3260:
3258:
3161:
3151:
3116:
3114:
3056:
2960:
2826:
2777:
2728:
2710:
2668:
2468:
2458:
2370:
2049:
2027:. Vol. Chapter 9. pp. 265–310.
1989:
1475:have negative effects, as in the case of
1327:American Institute of Biological Sciences
227:
6414:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
4843:
4104:
3530:
3414:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175539
3356:
3241:. Oxford University Press. p. 127.
3085:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2324:
2018:
2016:
1952:
1840:Molecular Embryology of Flowering Plants
1836:
1789:Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology
1634:
1551:
1416:
1336:Pollination of food crops has become an
1125:
1122:What crops are dependent on pollinators?
1117:
800:
781:
683:
603:, but especially several species of the
535:
332:
321:
246:
231:
37:
29:
4952:
4111:Communicative & Integrative Biology
3618:
3578:
3267:New Living Science: Biology for Class 9
3127:
2934:Faegri K, Van der Pijl L (2013-10-22).
2498:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
1892:
1866:International Journal of Plant Sciences
1830:
1786:
1730:
14:
6600:
5202:
5136:Dafni A, Kevan PG, Husband BC (2005).
4255:Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
4000:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3835:
3579:Munyuli, Theodore B. M. (2010-09-28).
3445:Cardinal S, Danforth BN (March 2013).
3323:
3255:
3236:
3111:
3078:
3076:
2531:Fleming PA, Nicolson SW (March 2003).
1857:
1114:List of crop plants pollinated by bees
663:
206:. It is important in horticulture and
123:. After entering an ovule through the
27:Biological process occurring in plants
5352:
5275:
5185:
4839:
4837:
4418:
4416:
4380:
4378:
4244:
4242:
4188:
4186:
4100:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4036:
4034:
3996:
3994:
3595:
2609:
2022:
2013:
1356:misuse and overuse, new diseases and
1272:in western United States and Canada.
1183:situations, such as commercial fruit
317:
4877:CCD Steering Committee (June 2010).
3665:
3031:Friedman J, Barrett SC (June 2009).
2849:
1513:Food security and pollinator decline
763:
3927:
3214:Wetland plants: biology and ecology
3097:10.1146/annurev.es.19.110188.001401
3082:
3073:
2657:Revista Chilena de Historia Natural
2644:
2443:"Why are so many bird flowers red?"
1780:
1619:as the location of country's worst
1421:Loss of pollinators, also known as
862:flowers never open, in contrast to
820:Pollination can be accomplished by
698:Some 98% of abiotic pollination is
24:
5196:
4834:
4413:
4385:Sluijs JP, Vaage NS (2016-06-01).
4375:
4326:
4291:
4239:
4183:
4091:
4031:
3991:
3639:Losey JE, Vaughan M (April 2006).
3585:(PhD thesis). Makerere University.
1340:, due to two trends. The trend to
1207:crop requires about 30,000 hives;
623:on various Mediterranean islands.
431:) have been observed to engage in
127:, one male nucleus fuses with the
25:
6629:
6419:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
5225:
4195:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3541:Food and Agriculture Organization
3006:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2937:Principles of Pollination Ecology
2618:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2556:"Who is pollinating Pr humiflora"
1770:Fritsch FE, Salisbury EJ (1920).
1350:decline of pollinator populations
1107:
138:, while the other fuses with the
6582:
6581:
4320:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01151.x
3451:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3430:(2012). "3". In Patiny S (ed.).
3199:10.1111/j.1442-1984.2011.00330.x
2779:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01700.x
2562:from the original on 2013-02-19.
2308:Brazilian Journal of Biosciences
1487:Examples of affected pollinators
1100:and again longer spur length in
911:
894:
879:
629:Pollinator § Other invertebrates
627:This section is an excerpt from
5301:
5062:
5038:
4979:
4946:
4888:
4870:
4773:
4748:
4724:
4667:
4643:
4534:
4475:
4174:
4164:
4147:
3881:
3841:"The road to pollinator health"
3829:
3772:
3721:
3696:
3632:
3572:
3555:
3487:
3393:
3291:Culley TM, Klooster MR (2007).
3270:. Ratna Sagar. pp. 56–61.
3205:
3178:
3024:
2997:
2954:
2927:
2869:
2843:
2786:
2670:10.4067/S0716-078X2004000300015
2566:
2547:
2524:
2485:
2434:
2391:
2382:
2318:
2291:
2248:
2233:
2194:
2167:
2116:
2073:
1955:Plant Systematics and Evolution
1946:
1662:Canadian Pollination Initiative
1507:human impact on the environment
1265:is an important pollinator for
1092:, a bee that collects oil from
832:Cross-pollination, also called
103:, it germinates and develops a
5075:Journal of Economic Entomology
4105:Connolly CN (September 2013).
3912:. Iscatech.com. Archived from
3547:, Statistics Division (2017).
3212:Cronk JK, Fennessy MS (2001).
1922:
1904:Campbell NA, Reece JB (2002).
1805:
1763:
1739:
1724:
1006:
811:transporting pollen grains of
13:
1:
5138:Practical Pollination Biology
3330:Baskin CC, Baskin JM (2001).
3018:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02540-5
2638:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00004-1
2420:10.1080/0028825x.2009.9672712
2400:New Zealand Journal of Botany
1717:
1702:Plant reproductive morphology
1677:Pollinator-mediated selection
451:, and many species of wasps.
329:typically feed on red flowers
46:with pollen collected from a
6460:History of plant systematics
6047:Thorns, spines, and prickles
5013:10.1371/journal.pone.0002771
4450:10.1371/journal.pone.0021363
4333:Tylianakis JM (March 2013).
3891:. Efsa.europa.eu. 2013-01-16
2460:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020350
1609:US Department of Agriculture
1592:US Department of Agriculture
1219:and to migrate. Just as the
1136:bee gathers pollen from the
1017:The first fossil record for
808:Mischocyttarus rotundicollis
777:
220:. There are also studies in
7:
3402:Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst
2033:10.1007/978-94-007-1942-2_9
1655:
709:
407:Insect pollinators such as
84:offspring in nature and in
68:of a plant, later enabling
10:
6634:
6276:Alternation of generations
5378:
5246:Pollination in Hydroponics
4300:African Journal of Ecology
4225:10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.007
2758:Journal of Applied Ecology
2651:Godínez-Álvarez H (2004).
1528:
1111:
1010:
731:
694:) spreading pollen by wind
679:
626:
392:), moths and butterflies (
346:
300:
237:Pollen grains observed in
95:, after the pollen grain (
6577:
6525:
6489:
6426:Cultivated plant taxonomy
6389:Biological classification
6379:
6252:
6168:
6064:
6014:
5739:
5669:
5612:
5574:
5548:
5484:
5404:
5386:
5309:
5241:The Pollination Home page
4844:McGivney A (2020-01-08).
4756:"Pollinator Biodiversity"
4406:10.1007/s41055-016-0003-z
3336:. Elsevier. p. 215.
1697:Hermann Müller (botanist)
1617:World Health Organization
1525:Plant–pollinator networks
1364:, decline of beekeeping,
1025:-like plants in the late
1003:) every six trees or so.
204:Christian Konrad Sprengel
6286:Evolutionary development
5232:Resources on Pollinators
5107:
4953:Carroll R (2016-05-13).
2940:. Elsevier. p. 34.
2554:Fleming T, Nicholson S.
2371:Potts B, Gore P (1995).
2302:Schinus terebinthifolius
1791:. Jones & Bartlett.
1612:Colony Collapse Disorder
1427:colony collapse disorder
1368:development, removal of
1084:. In addition, cases of
814:Schinus terebinthifolius
5937:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
5264:Encyclopædia Britannica
4924:10.1126/science.1215039
4509:10.1073/pnas.1633576100
4352:10.1126/science.1235464
4015:10.5751/ES-00255-050102
3866:10.1126/science.1244271
3806:10.1126/science.1146498
3750:10.1126/science.1127863
2905:10.1126/science.abo6661
2850:Roth A (28 July 2022).
2712:10.1073/pnas.1517092112
1322:in southwest Virginia.
901:The lower two of these
648:was discovered to help
6552:by author abbreviation
6476:Plant taxonomy systems
6394:Botanical nomenclature
5267:(11th ed.). 1911.
5129:10.1098/rstb.1991.0067
4692:10.1098/rspb.2017.2140
3463:10.1098/rspb.2012.2686
2304:Raddi (Anacardiaceae)"
2219:10.1006/anbe.1996.0390
2188:10.1093/beheco/8.3.239
2094:10.1006/anbe.1996.0467
1682:Fruit tree pollination
1640:
1568:privatized pollination
1557:
1263:alfalfa leafcutter bee
1177:Pollination management
1149:
1123:
817:
798:
714:Pollination by water,
695:
542:
344:
330:
252:
244:
228:Process of pollination
72:and the production of
50:
35:
6559:Botanical expeditions
3608:on 30 September 2015.
3187:Plant Species Biology
2799:Nature Communications
2685:H. (5 January 2016).
2277:10.1007/s001140050636
2145:10.1007/s004420050691
1638:
1555:
1417:Environmental impacts
1411:Riverside, California
1129:
1121:
804:
785:
745:Narthecium ossifragum
687:
539:
443:, but also including
336:
325:
250:
235:
107:which grows down the
48:night-blooming cereus
41:
33:
6291:Evolutionary history
6281:Double fertilization
6133:Cellular respiration
5140:. Enviroquest, Ltd.
4003:Conservation Ecology
3297:The Botanical Review
2205:: when to switch?".
1707:Pollen DNA barcoding
1572:positive externality
1021:pollination is from
1013:Pollination syndrome
771:Oeceoclades maculata
721:Vallisneria spiralis
620:Euphorbia dendroides
340:Melissodes desponsus
148:double fertilisation
111:until it reaches an
99:) has landed on the
5510:Non-vascular plants
5258:"Pollination"
5004:2008PLoSO...3.2771O
4916:2012Sci...336..348H
4802:10.1038/nature15374
4794:2015Natur.526..574I
4611:2014EcolL..17..350L
4563:10.1038/nature07950
4555:2009Natur.458.1018B
4500:2003PNAS..100.9383B
4441:2011PLoSO...621363E
4312:2010AfJEc..48..304H
4207:2010TEcoE..25..345P
4059:2016NatSR...631957C
3959:2016NatSR...629839N
3857:2013Sci...341..695W
3797:2007Sci...318..283C
3742:2006Sci...313..351B
3619:Adamson NL (2011).
2897:2022Sci...377..528L
2819:10.1038/ncomms12980
2811:2016NatCo...712980V
2770:2009JApEc..46.1080R
2703:2016PNAS..113..146R
2630:2003TEcoE..18..177O
2587:1991Oikos..61...79G
2412:2009NZJB...47..355F
2269:1999NW.....86..361C
2257:Naturwissenschaften
2137:1998Oecol.117..543S
2025:Pollination Biology
1967:2000PSyEv.222..167A
1930:"About Pollinators"
1837:Raghavan V (1997).
1825:10.5586/aa.2015.045
1787:Mauseth JD (2008).
1747:"About Pollinators"
1731:Barrows EM (2011).
1672:Floral color change
1531:Pollination network
1444:habitat destruction
1338:environmental issue
960:In agriculture and
739:Ranunculus flammula
664:Abiotic pollination
343:) covered in pollen
146:. Hence the term: "
56:is the transfer of
6015:Surface structures
5810:Flower development
5236:National Academies
5206:(6 October 2020).
5088:10.1093/jee/toz213
4686:(1870): 20172140.
4155:Revista Ingeniería
4047:Scientific Reports
3947:Scientific Reports
3457:(1755): 20122686.
3237:Glover BJ (2007).
3153:10.1093/aob/mcs165
3120:Hagerup, O. 1950.
3049:10.1093/aob/mcp035
2856:The New York Times
2537:African Entomology
2176:Behavioral Ecology
1975:10.1007/BF00984101
1667:Cheating (biology)
1641:
1558:
1423:pollinator decline
1221:combine harvesters
1150:
1124:
1094:Diascia capsularis
818:
799:
696:
691:Dactylis glomerata
577:Acomys subspinosus
543:
345:
331:
318:Biotic pollination
253:
245:
64:of a plant to the
51:
36:
6595:
6594:
6234:Herbaceous plants
6060:
6059:
5346:
5345:
5186:Sihag RC (1997).
5147:978-0-9680123-0-7
5123:(1267): 187–195.
4619:10.1111/ele.12236
4549:(7241): 1018–20.
4123:10.4161/cib.25074
4067:10.1038/srep31957
3967:10.1038/srep29839
3567:978-92-5-108802-9
3343:978-0-12-080263-0
3277:978-81-8332-565-3
3248:978-0-19-856596-3
3223:978-1-56670-372-7
3122:Rain-pollination.
2891:(6605): 528–530.
2203:Thymelicus flavus
2042:978-94-007-1941-5
1915:978-0-201-75054-6
1850:978-0-521-55246-2
1813:Acta Agrobotanica
1798:978-0-7637-5345-0
1283:and other crops.
1189:California almond
1069:and angiosperms.
1057:during the early
985:self-incompatible
933:self-incompatible
822:cross-pollination
764:Switching methods
614:Podarcis lilfordi
429:Thymelicus flavus
372:, pollination by
16:(Redirected from
6625:
6585:
6584:
6564:Individual trees
6239:Secondary growth
6210:Succulent plants
6198:Prostrate shrubs
6081:Apical dominance
6066:Plant physiology
6027:Epicuticular wax
5572:
5571:
5565:
5556:Plant morphology
5373:
5366:
5359:
5350:
5349:
5296:
5289:
5282:
5273:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5221:
5191:
5182:
5171:10.2307/25065852
5151:
5132:
5101:
5100:
5090:
5081:(6): 2524–2533.
5066:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5056:
5050:www.ers.usda.gov
5042:
5036:
5035:
5025:
5015:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4973:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4910:(6079): 348–50.
4901:
4892:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4874:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4864:
4841:
4832:
4831:
4813:
4777:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4767:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4742:
4736:www.ers.usda.gov
4728:
4722:
4721:
4711:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4647:
4641:
4640:
4630:
4594:
4583:
4582:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4521:
4511:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4462:
4452:
4420:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4382:
4373:
4372:
4354:
4345:(6127): 1532–3.
4330:
4324:
4323:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4278:
4267:10.1002/etc.2527
4246:
4237:
4236:
4218:
4190:
4181:
4178:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4134:
4102:
4089:
4088:
4078:
4038:
4029:
4028:
4026:
3998:
3989:
3988:
3978:
3938:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:
3906:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3868:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3808:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3685:on June 23, 2022
3684:
3678:. Archived from
3677:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3604:. Archived from
3596:Kuehn F (2015).
3593:
3587:
3586:
3576:
3570:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3537:
3528:
3527:
3502:(6): 1701–1707.
3491:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3424:
3418:
3417:
3397:
3391:
3390:
3371:10.1554/05-383.1
3354:
3348:
3347:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3262:
3253:
3252:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3155:
3140:Annals of Botany
3131:
3125:
3118:
3109:
3108:
3080:
3071:
3070:
3060:
3037:Annals of Botany
3028:
3022:
3021:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2882:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2830:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2764:(5): 1080–1087.
2749:
2743:
2742:
2732:
2714:
2681:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2472:
2462:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2395:
2389:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2368:
2359:
2358:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2213:(5): 1009–1016.
2207:Animal Behaviour
2198:
2192:
2191:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2082:Animal Behaviour
2077:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2020:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2007:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1961:(1–4): 167–185.
1950:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1901:
1890:
1889:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1834:
1828:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1728:
1687:Hand-pollination
1398:pollination bags
1362:clearcut logging
1316:in Delaware and
1090:Rediviva neliana
955:self-pollination
920:Geranium incanum
915:
903:Geranium incanum
898:
887:Geranium incanum
883:
826:self-pollination
751:Caltha palustris
573:Cape Spiny Mouse
557:P. amplexicaulis
553:Protea humiflora
501:, particularly,
480:buzz pollination
470:trap pollinators
461:Euglossa cordata
458:species such as
433:flower constancy
287:microgametophyte
78:self-pollination
21:
18:Cross pollinated
6633:
6632:
6628:
6627:
6626:
6624:
6623:
6622:
6618:Plant sexuality
6598:
6597:
6596:
6591:
6573:
6542:Botanical terms
6535:
6521:
6485:
6431:Citrus taxonomy
6409:Author citation
6375:
6269:
6248:
6170:
6164:
6160:Turgor pressure
6068:
6056:
6010:
5825:Floral symmetry
5743:
5735:
5665:
5654:Vascular bundle
5649:Vascular tissue
5608:
5568:
5559:
5558:
5544:
5515:Vascular plants
5480:
5476:Plant pathology
5400:
5382:
5377:
5347:
5342:
5305:
5300:
5255:
5228:
5218:
5204:Walker, Timothy
5199:
5197:Further reading
5194:
5148:
5110:
5105:
5104:
5067:
5063:
5054:
5052:
5044:
5043:
5039:
4984:
4980:
4971:
4969:
4951:
4947:
4899:
4893:
4889:
4881:
4875:
4871:
4862:
4860:
4842:
4835:
4788:(7574): 574–7.
4778:
4774:
4765:
4763:
4754:
4753:
4749:
4740:
4738:
4730:
4729:
4725:
4672:
4668:
4659:
4657:
4649:
4648:
4644:
4599:Ecology Letters
4595:
4586:
4539:
4535:
4480:
4476:
4421:
4414:
4383:
4376:
4331:
4327:
4296:
4292:
4247:
4240:
4191:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4169:
4165:
4152:
4148:
4103:
4092:
4039:
4032:
3999:
3992:
3939:
3928:
3919:
3917:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3894:
3892:
3887:
3886:
3882:
3839:(August 2013).
3834:
3830:
3791:(5848): 283–7.
3777:
3773:
3736:(5785): 351–4.
3726:
3722:
3713:
3711:
3709:Harvard Gazette
3701:
3697:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3666:
3637:
3633:
3628:(Ph.D. thesis).
3625:
3617:
3613:
3594:
3590:
3577:
3573:
3560:
3556:
3538:
3531:
3508:10.2307/2409348
3492:
3488:
3443:
3439:
3425:
3421:
3398:
3394:
3365:(5): 1098–103.
3355:
3351:
3344:
3328:
3324:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3264:
3263:
3256:
3249:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3210:
3206:
3183:
3179:
3132:
3128:
3119:
3112:
3081:
3074:
3029:
3025:
3002:
2998:
2975:10.2307/2406479
2959:
2955:
2948:
2932:
2928:
2880:
2874:
2870:
2860:
2858:
2848:
2844:
2791:
2787:
2750:
2746:
2682:
2678:
2649:
2645:
2614:
2610:
2595:10.2307/3545409
2571:
2567:
2552:
2548:
2529:
2525:
2510:10.2307/2399006
2490:
2486:
2439:
2435:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2375:
2369:
2362:
2339:10.2307/2406664
2323:
2319:
2296:
2292:
2253:
2249:
2238:
2234:
2199:
2195:
2172:
2168:
2121:
2117:
2078:
2074:
2065:
2063:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2021:
2014:
2005:
2003:
2001:CropsReview.Com
1995:
1994:
1990:
1951:
1947:
1938:
1936:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1902:
1893:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1835:
1831:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1785:
1781:
1768:
1764:
1755:
1753:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1658:
1550:
1533:
1527:
1515:
1489:
1419:
1406:
1382:aerial spraying
1116:
1110:
1015:
1009:
946:self-compatible
923:
916:
907:
899:
890:
884:
780:
766:
734:
712:
682:
666:
661:
660:
645:Idotea balthica
632:
581:elephant shrews
551:(in particular
527:Chiropterophily
351:
320:
303:
243:
242:of South Europe
241:
230:
142:to produce the
131:to produce the
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6631:
6621:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6593:
6592:
6590:
6589:
6578:
6575:
6574:
6572:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6555:
6554:
6544:
6538:
6536:
6534:
6533:
6532:Related topics
6530:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6493:
6491:
6487:
6486:
6484:
6483:
6481:Taxonomic rank
6478:
6473:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6456:
6455:
6454:
6453:
6448:
6443:
6433:
6423:
6422:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6399:Botanical name
6391:
6385:
6383:
6381:Plant taxonomy
6377:
6376:
6374:
6373:
6372:
6371:
6366:
6365:
6364:
6357:Megasporangium
6354:
6353:
6352:
6345:Microsporangia
6337:
6336:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6299:
6298:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6272:
6270:
6268:
6267:
6262:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6247:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6230:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6206:
6205:
6200:
6190:
6185:
6183:Cushion plants
6174:
6172:
6166:
6165:
6163:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6137:
6136:
6135:
6130:
6120:
6118:Plant hormones
6115:
6110:
6109:
6108:
6101:Photosynthesis
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6072:
6070:
6062:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6018:
6016:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5987:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5966:
5965:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5939:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5931:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5919:
5918:
5913:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5882:
5881:
5880:
5879:
5874:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5820:Floral formula
5817:
5815:Floral diagram
5812:
5807:
5797:
5796:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5778:
5768:
5758:
5753:
5747:
5745:
5744:(incl. Flower)
5737:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5732:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5720:
5719:
5714:
5704:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5673:
5671:
5667:
5666:
5664:
5663:
5658:
5657:
5656:
5646:
5644:Storage organs
5641:
5636:
5635:
5634:
5624:
5618:
5616:
5610:
5609:
5607:
5606:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5580:
5578:
5569:
5567:
5566:
5552:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5530:Spermatophytes
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5500:Archaeplastida
5497:
5491:
5489:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5454:Phytogeography
5451:
5449:Phytochemistry
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5410:
5408:
5406:Subdisciplines
5402:
5401:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5387:
5384:
5383:
5376:
5375:
5368:
5361:
5353:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5340:
5339:
5338:
5333:
5322:
5321:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5306:
5299:
5298:
5291:
5284:
5276:
5270:
5269:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5227:
5226:External links
5224:
5223:
5222:
5216:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5192:
5183:
5165:(3): 663–695.
5152:
5146:
5133:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5061:
5037:
4978:
4945:
4887:
4869:
4833:
4772:
4747:
4723:
4666:
4642:
4584:
4533:
4494:(16): 9383–7.
4474:
4412:
4374:
4325:
4306:(2): 304–312.
4290:
4238:
4216:10.1.1.693.292
4182:
4173:
4163:
4146:
4090:
4030:
3990:
3926:
3901:
3880:
3828:
3771:
3720:
3695:
3664:
3631:
3611:
3588:
3571:
3554:
3545:United Nations
3529:
3486:
3437:
3419:
3392:
3349:
3342:
3322:
3283:
3276:
3254:
3247:
3229:
3222:
3204:
3177:
3126:
3110:
3072:
3043:(9): 1515–27.
3023:
3012:(8): 361–369.
2996:
2953:
2946:
2926:
2868:
2842:
2785:
2744:
2697:(1): 146–151.
2676:
2663:(3): 569–577.
2643:
2608:
2565:
2546:
2523:
2484:
2433:
2406:(4): 355–365.
2390:
2381:
2360:
2333:(1): 202–210.
2317:
2290:
2263:(8): 361–377.
2247:
2232:
2193:
2182:(3): 239–249.
2166:
2131:(4): 543–550.
2115:
2072:
2048:
2041:
2012:
1988:
1945:
1934:Pollinator.org
1921:
1914:
1891:
1878:10.1086/314170
1872:(4): 631–640.
1856:
1849:
1829:
1804:
1797:
1779:
1762:
1751:Pollinator.org
1738:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1657:
1654:
1601:Central Valley
1586:for the local
1563:Apis mellifera
1549:
1546:
1526:
1523:
1514:
1511:
1495:Apis mellifera
1488:
1485:
1477:neonicotinoids
1460:climate change
1432:Seed dispersal
1418:
1415:
1405:
1402:
1319:L. leucozonium
1112:Main article:
1109:
1108:In agriculture
1106:
1041:of fossilized
1011:Main article:
1008:
1005:
925:
924:
917:
910:
908:
900:
893:
891:
885:
878:
875:
874:
851:
839:
791:bee straddles
779:
776:
765:
762:
733:
730:
711:
708:
681:
678:
665:
662:
633:
625:
561:P. subulifolia
396:), and flies (
347:Main article:
319:
316:
302:
299:
236:
229:
226:
86:plant breeding
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6630:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6603:
6588:
6580:
6579:
6576:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6553:
6550:
6549:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6539:
6537:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6524:
6518:
6517:Phytochemical
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6488:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6438:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6428:
6427:
6424:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6396:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6386:
6384:
6382:
6378:
6370:
6367:
6363:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6346:
6343:
6342:
6341:
6338:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6315:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6297:
6294:
6293:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6257:
6255:
6251:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6226:
6223:
6222:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6195:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6180:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6173:
6167:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6155:Transpiration
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6107:
6104:
6103:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6073:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6019:
6017:
6013:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5971:
5970:
5967:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5942:Inflorescence
5940:
5938:
5935:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5908:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5869:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5801:
5798:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5763:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5709:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5699:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5668:
5662:
5659:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5633:
5630:
5629:
5628:
5627:Ground tissue
5625:
5623:
5620:
5619:
5617:
5615:
5611:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5581:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5570:
5563:
5557:
5554:
5553:
5551:
5550:Plant anatomy
5547:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5483:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5471:Plant ecology
5469:
5467:
5466:Plant anatomy
5464:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5414:Archaeobotany
5412:
5411:
5409:
5407:
5403:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5385:
5381:
5374:
5369:
5367:
5362:
5360:
5355:
5354:
5351:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5328:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5311:
5308:
5304:
5297:
5292:
5290:
5285:
5283:
5278:
5277:
5274:
5266:
5265:
5259:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5233:
5230:
5229:
5219:
5217:9780691203751
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5200:
5189:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5159:
5153:
5149:
5143:
5139:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5113:
5112:
5098:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5065:
5051:
5047:
5041:
5033:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4949:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4898:
4891:
4880:
4873:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4840:
4838:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4776:
4762:. 5 July 2018
4761:
4757:
4751:
4737:
4733:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4670:
4656:
4652:
4646:
4638:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4593:
4591:
4589:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4537:
4529:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4435:(6): e21363.
4434:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4417:
4407:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4393:
4388:
4381:
4379:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4294:
4286:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4261:(4): 719–31.
4260:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4243:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4201:(6): 345–53.
4200:
4196:
4189:
4187:
4177:
4171:21:3267–3277.
4167:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4142:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4117:(5): e25074.
4116:
4112:
4108:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4086:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4037:
4035:
4025:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
3997:
3995:
3986:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3916:on 2014-04-10
3915:
3911:
3905:
3890:
3884:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3851:(6147): 695.
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3832:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3710:
3706:
3699:
3681:
3674:
3668:
3659:
3654:
3651:(4): 311–23.
3650:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3624:
3623:
3615:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3584:
3583:
3575:
3568:
3564:
3558:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3536:
3534:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3490:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3441:
3433:
3429:
3428:Armbruster WS
3423:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3396:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3353:
3345:
3339:
3335:
3334:
3326:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3279:
3273:
3269:
3268:
3261:
3259:
3250:
3244:
3240:
3233:
3225:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3077:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2949:
2947:9781483293035
2943:
2939:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2624:(4): 177–81.
2623:
2619:
2612:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2394:
2385:
2374:
2367:
2365:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2314:(2): 138–143.
2313:
2309:
2305:
2303:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2243:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2088:(3): 615–27.
2087:
2083:
2076:
2062:
2058:
2052:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2017:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1935:
1931:
1925:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1852:
1846:
1842:
1841:
1833:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1808:
1800:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1775:
1774:
1766:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1734:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1650:overwintering
1647:
1637:
1633:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1621:air pollution
1618:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1554:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1519:food security
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1484:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1414:
1412:
1401:
1399:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1314:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1147:
1144:. The female
1143:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1128:
1120:
1115:
1105:
1103:
1102:D. capsularis
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1077:hymenopterans
1074:
1070:
1068:
1067:hymenopterans
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1027:Carboniferous
1024:
1020:
1014:
1004:
1002:
997:
993:
990:
986:
982:
978:
976:
972:
968:
967:Hybridization
963:
958:
956:
952:
948:
947:
942:
937:
934:
930:
921:
914:
909:
904:
897:
892:
888:
882:
877:
876:
872:
867:
866:
861:
860:cleistogamous
857:
856:
852:
849:
845:
840:
837:
836:
831:
830:
829:
827:
823:
816:
815:
810:
809:
803:
797:
794:
790:
789:
784:
775:
773:
772:
761:
759:
758:
757:Acampe rigida
753:
752:
747:
746:
741:
740:
729:
727:
723:
722:
717:
707:
705:
701:
693:
692:
686:
677:
675:
671:
658:
654:
652:
647:
646:
641:
637:
630:
624:
622:
621:
616:
615:
610:
606:
602:
598:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
549:
538:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
511:spiderhunters
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
487:
485:
481:
477:
476:
471:
466:
463:
462:
457:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
437:hymenopterans
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
365:
360:
356:
353:About 80% of
350:
342:
341:
335:
328:
324:
315:
312:
308:
298:
294:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
258:
249:
240:
234:
225:
223:
219:
218:
213:
209:
205:
201:
200:pollen vector
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
169:
164:
160:
156:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
70:fertilisation
67:
63:
59:
55:
49:
45:
44:carpenter bee
40:
32:
19:
6613:Horticulture
6512:Horticulture
6502:Floriculture
6404:Correct name
6312:
6254:Reproduction
6244:Woody plants
6169:Plant growth
6128:Gas Exchange
6113:Phytomelanin
5991:Plant embryo
5741:Reproductive
5589:Phragmoplast
5336:Ornithophily
5302:
5262:
5207:
5187:
5162:
5156:
5137:
5120:
5116:
5078:
5074:
5064:
5053:. Retrieved
5049:
5040:
4998:(7): e2771.
4995:
4991:
4981:
4970:. Retrieved
4959:The Guardian
4958:
4948:
4907:
4903:
4890:
4872:
4861:. Retrieved
4850:The Guardian
4849:
4811:11299/184546
4785:
4781:
4775:
4764:. Retrieved
4759:
4750:
4739:. Retrieved
4735:
4726:
4683:
4679:
4669:
4658:. Retrieved
4654:
4645:
4605:(3): 350–9.
4602:
4598:
4546:
4542:
4536:
4491:
4487:
4477:
4432:
4428:
4399:(1): 75–91.
4396:
4390:
4342:
4338:
4328:
4303:
4299:
4293:
4258:
4254:
4198:
4194:
4176:
4166:
4158:
4154:
4149:
4114:
4110:
4050:
4046:
4006:
4002:
3953:(1): 29839.
3950:
3946:
3918:. Retrieved
3914:the original
3904:
3893:. Retrieved
3883:
3848:
3844:
3831:
3788:
3784:
3774:
3733:
3729:
3723:
3712:. Retrieved
3708:
3698:
3687:. Retrieved
3680:the original
3667:
3648:
3644:
3634:
3621:
3614:
3606:the original
3601:
3591:
3581:
3574:
3557:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3454:
3450:
3440:
3431:
3422:
3405:
3401:
3395:
3362:
3358:
3352:
3332:
3325:
3300:
3296:
3286:
3266:
3238:
3232:
3213:
3207:
3193:(1): 86–95.
3190:
3186:
3180:
3146:(5): 953–8.
3143:
3139:
3129:
3088:
3084:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3009:
3005:
2999:
2969:(1): 28–35.
2966:
2962:
2956:
2936:
2929:
2888:
2884:
2871:
2859:. Retrieved
2855:
2845:
2805:(1): 12980.
2802:
2798:
2788:
2761:
2757:
2747:
2694:
2690:
2679:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2581:(1): 79–87.
2578:
2574:
2568:
2549:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2501:
2497:
2487:
2453:(10): e350.
2450:
2447:PLOS Biology
2446:
2436:
2403:
2399:
2393:
2384:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2293:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2241:
2235:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2196:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2085:
2081:
2075:
2064:. Retrieved
2061:ScienceDaily
2060:
2051:
2024:
2004:. Retrieved
2000:
1991:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1937:. Retrieved
1933:
1924:
1905:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1839:
1832:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1788:
1782:
1772:
1765:
1754:. Retrieved
1750:
1741:
1732:
1726:
1712:Polli:Nation
1642:
1605:
1584:biodiversity
1562:
1559:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1516:
1501:
1493:
1490:
1481:
1473:insecticides
1441:
1420:
1407:
1395:
1335:
1331:agricultural
1324:
1317:
1311:
1292:agricultural
1285:
1255:strawberries
1240:
1195:) of the US
1175:
1151:
1131:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1071:
1016:
979:
962:horticulture
959:
951:self-fertile
950:
944:
938:
926:
919:
902:
886:
865:chasmogamous
863:
859:
853:
847:
843:
833:
821:
819:
812:
806:
786:
769:
767:
755:
749:
743:
737:
735:
719:
713:
697:
689:
667:
649:
643:
618:
612:
593:
585:Elephantulus
584:
576:
568:
565:P. decurrens
564:
560:
556:
552:
546:
544:
523:Ornithophily
503:hummingbirds
488:
473:
467:
459:
453:
428:
420:
412:
406:
368:
352:
338:
327:Hummingbirds
309:to move the
304:
295:
291:
254:
239:aeroplankton
215:
188:horticulture
181:
166:
152:
129:polar bodies
90:
53:
52:
6608:Pollination
6328:Pollen tube
6323:Pollinators
6313:Pollination
6308:Germination
6123:Respiration
6106:Chlorophyll
5952:Pedicellate
5886:Gametophyte
5805:Aestivation
5756:Antheridium
5751:Archegonium
5599:Plasmodesma
5576:Plant cells
5439:Paleobotany
5434:Ethnobotany
5419:Astrobotany
5331:Entomophily
5303:Pollination
4760:www.nsf.gov
4655:www.fao.org
4628:10261/91808
4392:Food Ethics
4161:(1), 11-20.
3091:: 261–279.
1630:externality
1503:Butterflies
1464:Defaunation
1437:angiosperms
1342:monoculture
1313:L. vierecki
1223:follow the
1217:contractors
1181:monoculture
1086:coevolution
1082:angiosperms
1055:angiosperms
1031:Gymnosperms
1007:Coevolution
996:genetically
941:pollenizers
871:ground bean
855:Cleistogamy
848:geitonogamy
688:Cat grass (
636:crustaceans
515:honeyeaters
425:butterflies
423:spp.), and
394:Lepidoptera
382:Hymenoptera
370:Entomophily
355:angiosperms
307:pollinators
279:pollen tube
269:and others
257:germination
217:anthecology
208:agriculture
177:gnetophytes
155:gymnosperms
105:pollen tube
97:gametophyte
93:angiosperms
54:Pollination
6602:Categories
6350:Microspore
6340:Sporangium
6318:Artificial
6006:Sporophyte
6001:Sporophyll
5996:Receptacle
5891:Gynandrium
5761:Androecium
5670:Vegetative
5540:Angiosperm
5535:Gymnosperm
5429:Dendrology
5319:Hydrophily
5314:Anemophily
5055:2020-03-12
4972:2020-03-12
4863:2020-03-11
4766:2020-03-19
4741:2020-03-11
4660:2020-03-19
4024:10535/3364
3920:2014-04-18
3895:2014-04-18
3714:2023-11-08
3689:2014-04-18
3645:BioScience
2543:(1): 9–14.
2066:2015-10-20
2006:2015-10-20
1939:2023-11-10
1776:. G. Bell.
1756:2023-11-03
1718:References
1692:Paul Knuth
1646:Entomology
1576:spillovers
1529:See also:
1468:frugivores
1452:parasitism
1425:(of which
1386:mosquitoes
1372:and other
1303:grasslands
1288:ecological
1278:greenhouse
1274:Bumblebees
1197:honey bees
1098:R. neliana
1059:Cretaceous
1039:morphology
716:hydrophily
700:anemophily
659:reproduce.
651:Gracilaria
609:Lacertidae
605:Gekkonidae
569:P. cordata
519:fruit bats
456:orchid bee
417:bumblebees
409:honey bees
390:Coleoptera
349:Pollinator
267:monoecious
210:, because
192:entomology
115:. Its two
6547:Botanists
6465:Herbarium
6362:Megaspore
6260:Evolution
6203:Subshrubs
6171:and habit
6096:Nutrition
6091:Cellulose
6086:Bulk flow
6069:Materials
6032:Epidermis
5896:Gynoecium
5877:Endosperm
5872:Dispersal
5788:Staminode
5724:Sessility
5712:Cataphyll
5632:Mesophyll
5584:Cell wall
5525:Lycophyte
5505:Bryophyte
5459:Geobotany
5444:Phycology
5234:from the
4967:0261-3077
4858:0261-3077
4700:0962-8452
4211:CiteSeerX
4053:: 31957.
3408:: 47–79.
2921:251159505
2861:21 August
2721:0027-8424
2428:0028-825X
2125:Oecologia
1588:ecosystem
1580:germinate
1448:pesticide
1390:West Nile
1360:of bees,
1358:parasites
1354:pesticide
1352:, due to
1243:cucumbers
1213:blueberry
1063:mutualism
1001:crabapple
975:Heterosis
929:dioecious
805:The wasp
778:Mechanism
601:Iguanidae
597:Varanidae
475:Asclepias
439:, mostly
271:dioecious
222:economics
133:endosperm
125:micropyle
6587:Category
6507:Forestry
6497:Agronomy
6490:Practice
6441:Cultivar
6436:Cultigen
6296:timeline
6188:Rosettes
6076:Aleurone
6052:Trichome
5969:Perianth
5781:Filament
5639:Meristem
5562:glossary
5424:Bryology
5326:Zoophily
5179:25065852
5097:31504631
5032:18648661
4992:PLOS ONE
4940:41186355
4932:22461498
4820:26466564
4718:29321298
4637:24386999
4571:19396144
4528:12881488
4469:21731717
4429:PLOS ONE
4369:10735480
4361:23449995
4285:24692231
4233:20188434
4141:24265849
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3837:Woteki C
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3815:17823314
3766:16273738
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2153:28307680
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1656:See also
1578:as bees
1456:diseases
1366:suburban
1301:or wild
1281:tomatoes
1236:Manitoba
1201:New York
1185:orchards
1166:soybeans
1065:between
1035:Triassic
1029:period.
906:stamens.
844:autogamy
835:allogamy
788:Diadasia
710:By water
653:gracilis
640:seagrass
541:figure).
507:sunbirds
491:zoophily
445:sawflies
402:dinosaur
212:fruiting
173:conifers
159:division
140:egg cell
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6265:Ecology
6022:Cuticle
5852:Capsule
5842:Anatomy
5793:Tapetum
5717:Petiole
5692:Rhizome
5687:Rhizoid
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5396:Outline
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3516:2409348
3472:3574388
3163:3448421
3105:2097155
3058:2701749
2983:2406479
2893:Bibcode
2885:Science
2828:5056424
2807:Bibcode
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1906:Biology
1886:2766822
1388:due to
1374:habitat
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1051:beetles
1043:beetles
1019:abiotic
989:grafted
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971:species
796:carpels
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680:By wind
484:anthers
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386:beetles
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364:insects
337:A bee (
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283:mitosis
275:meiosis
255:Pollen
196:ecology
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6569:Plants
6472:(IAPT)
6225:Lianas
6193:Shrubs
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726:sepals
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670:flower
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548:Protea
517:, and
421:Bombus
359:anther
311:pollen
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184:botany
168:Ginkgo
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144:embryo
121:carpel
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6178:Habit
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5974:Tepal
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5928:Style
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5906:Ovary
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5697:Shoot
5495:Algae
5486:Plant
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5158:Taxon
5108:Notes
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4575:S2CID
4365:S2CID
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3683:(PDF)
3676:(PDF)
3626:(PDF)
3512:JSTOR
3387:40964
3383:S2CID
3313:S2CID
3101:JSTOR
2979:JSTOR
2917:S2CID
2881:(PDF)
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5677:Bulb
5661:Wood
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5520:Fern
5212:ISBN
5142:ISBN
5093:PMID
5028:PMID
4963:ISSN
4928:PMID
4854:ISSN
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4714:PMID
4696:ISSN
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4567:PMID
4524:PMID
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4357:PMID
4281:PMID
4229:PMID
4137:PMID
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3871:PMID
3811:PMID
3754:PMID
3563:ISBN
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2037:ISBN
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1384:for
1325:The
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1270:seed
1168:and
1162:rice
1142:rose
1073:Bees
1053:and
1045:and
1023:fern
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5167:doi
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5008:doi
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4908:336
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4704:PMC
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