Creation and evolution in public education in the United States

389:'s law prohibiting the teaching of evolution was in violation of the First Amendment. The Supreme Court held that the Establishment Clause prohibits the state from advancing any religion, and determined that the Arkansas law which allowed the teaching of creation while disallowing the teaching of evolution advanced a religion, and was therefore in violation of the Establishment Clause. This holding reflected a broader understanding of the Establishment Clause: instead of just prohibiting laws that established a state religion, the clause was interpreted to prohibit laws that furthered any particular religion over others. Opponents, pointing to the previous decision, argued that this amounted to 769:

ACLU of Georgia, said, "The progress of church-state cases has been that the Supreme Court sets a line, then government entities do what they can to skirt that line. ... Here the Supreme Court has said you can't teach creationism in the public schools. You can't have an equal-time provision for evolution and creationism. These disclaimers are a new effort to skirt the line." Jefferey Selman, who brought the lawsuit, claims, "It singles out evolution from all the scientific theories out there. Why single out evolution? It has to be coming from a religious basis, and that violates the separation of church and state." The

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discussed," and directed that professionals supporting curriculum development and implementation are to be required "to investigate and develop processes that encompass a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning" of the theory of evolution, "along with all other topics that raise differences of thought and opinion." During the week before the meeting, one of the intelligent design proponents claimed that "Students are being excluded from scientific debate. It's time to bring this debate into the classroom," and presented

819:. On August 9, 2005, the Board drafted new "science standards that require critical analysis of evolution – including scientific evidence refuting the theory," which opponents analyzed as effectively stating that intelligent design should be taught. The new standards also provide a definition of science that does not preclude supernatural explanations, and were approved by a 6–4 vote on November 8, 2005—incidentally the day of the Dover Area School Board election which failed to re-elect incumbent creationists (see 964:, TEA officials wrote "Ms. Comer's e-mail implies endorsement of the speaker and implies that TEA endorses the speaker's position on a subject on which the agency must remain neutral." In response over 100 biology professors from Texas universities signed a letter to the state education commissioner denouncing the requirement to be neutral on the subject of intelligent design. The 2017 science curriculum eliminated language that openly questioned evolution, but still leaves room for teaching creationism. 718:(ACSI) against the University of California claiming religious discrimination over the rejection of five courses as college preparatory instruction. On August 8, 2008, Judge Otero entered summary judgment against plaintiff ACSI, upholding the University of California's standards. The university found the books "didn't encourage critical thinking skills and failed to cover 'major topics, themes and components' of U.S. history" and were thus ill-suited to prepare students for college. 4013: 3989: 1074: 4001: 582:. Intelligent design asserts that there is evidence that life was created by an "intelligent designer" (mainly that the physical properties of living organisms are so complex that they must have been "designed"). Proponents claim that intelligent design takes "all available facts" into account rather than just those available through naturalism. Opponents assert that intelligent design is a 463:

teaching a variety of scientific theories about the origins of humankind to schoolchildren might be validly done with the clear secular intent of enhancing the effectiveness of science instruction. But because the primary purpose of the Creationism Act is to endorse a particular religious doctrine, the Act furthers religion in violation of the Establishment Clause. —

623:"AiG is not a lobby group, and we oppose legislation for compulsion of creation teaching. ...why would we want an atheist forced to teach creation and give a distorted view? But we would like legal protection for teachers who present scientific arguments against the sacred cow of evolution such as staged pictures of peppered moths and forged embryo diagrams." 301:, the Tennessee Supreme Court reversed, by a vote of 3-1, the conviction of John T. Scopes on a technicality, ruling that the judge, rather than the jury, had imposed the $ 100 fine, which violated Tennessee law. However, the court upheld, by a vote of 4-0, the constitutionality of the Butler Act itself. On February 10, 1928, the 1049:'s theory of evolution, but also "the scientific evidence against it." Approximately seven in ten (69%) sided with this view. In contrast, one in five (21%) chose the other option given, that biology teachers should teach only Darwin's theory of evolution and the scientific evidence that supports it. One in ten was not sure. 1175:

tests to the facts of this case makes it abundantly clear that the Board's ID Policy violates the Establishment Clause. In making this determination, we have addressed the seminal question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its

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Defense attorney E. Linwood Gunn IV said, "The only thing the school board did is acknowledge there is a potential conflict and there is a potential infringement on people's beliefs if you present it in a dogmatic way. We're going to do it in a respectful way." Gerald R. Weber, legal director of the

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The Establishment Clause forbids the enactment of any law 'respecting an establishment of religion.' The Court has applied a three-pronged test to determine whether legislation comports with the Establishment Clause. First, the legislature must have adopted the law with a secular purpose. Second, the

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signed the repeal into law and it took effect the same day. On February 12, 1970, the Mississippi House of Representatives voted to repeal the anti-human evolution law by a vote of 85-30. On February 16, 1970, the Mississippi Senate passed the repeal by a vote of 30-10. On February 20, 1970, Governor

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religion. Consequently, the Court held that the ban on the teaching of evolution did not violate the Establishment Clause, because it did not establish one religion as the "State religion." As a result of the holding, the teaching of evolution remained illegal in Tennessee, and continued campaigning

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If a teacher in a public school uses religion and teaches religious beliefs or espouses theories clearly based on religious underpinnings, the principles of the separation of church and state are violated as clearly as if a statute ordered the teacher to teach religious theories such as the statutes

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We are not able to see how the prohibition of teaching the theory that man has descended from a lower order of animals gives preference to any religious establishment or mode of worship. So far as we know there is no religious establishment or organized body that has its creed or confession of faith

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On February 13, 2007, the Board approved a new curriculum which removed any reference to intelligent design as part of science. In the words of Bill Wagnon, the board chairman, "Today the Kansas Board of Education returned its curriculum standards to mainstream science." The new curriculum, as well

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texts contain a sticker stating "evolution is a theory, not a fact." Their decision was a result of compromise negotiated with a group of parents, represented by the ACLU, that were opposed to the sticker. The parents agreed, as their part of the compromise, to withdraw their legal actions against

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On January 13, 2005, a federal judge in Atlanta ruled that the stickers should be removed as they violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The Board subsequently decided to appeal the decision. In comments on December 15, 2005, in advance of releasing its decision, the appeal court

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holding explicitly allowed for a variety of what they consider "scientific theories" of origins for the secular purpose of improving scientific education. Others have argued that intelligent design should not be allowed to use this "loophole." On November 8, 2005, the members of the Board in Dover

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In 2004, the Dover Area School Board voted that a statement must be read to students of 9th grade biology mentioning intelligent design. This resulted in a firestorm of criticism from scientists and science teachers and caused a group of parents to begin legal proceedings (sometimes referred to as

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In January 2013, it was approved the Arizona's Senate Bill 1213 which enabled teachers of public state schools to discuss "the scientific strengths and scientific weaknesses" of the "teaching of some scientific subjects, including biological evolution, the chemical origins of life, global warming,

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signed the law into effect immediately. The penalty for violating the law was a fine of $ 500. Nobody was ever arrested under the law and it remained unenforced for its remaining duration. In 1947, the Texas State Board of Education reversed its policy of discouraging or minimizing the teaching of

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Teachers have also been polled. In 2019, following up on a 2007 survey, teachers reported increasing numbers of hours spent teaching evolution, and more teachers were likely to emphasize broad scientific consensus on evolution and not give credence to creationism. The results also suggested that

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creationism survey found that 40% of adults in the United States inclined to the belief that "God created humans in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years" when asked for their beliefs regarding the origin and development of human beings. 22% believed that "human beings have

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standards to remove any mention of "biological macroevolution, the age of the Earth, or the origin and early development of the universe," so that evolutionary theory no longer appeared in statewide standardized tests and "it was left to the 305 local school districts in Kansas whether or not to

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It is my contention that evolutionism is a religious worldview that is not supported by science, Scripture, popular opinion, or common sense. The exclusive teaching of this dangerous, mind-altering philosophy in tax-supported schools, parks, museums, etc., is also a clear violation of the First

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adopted a policy that mandated that textbooks used in public schools should not teach or mention the theory of human evolution, but the enforcement of this policy was not entirely uniform. Some textbooks used in Texas schools still included references to human evolution, though these were often

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Just as it is permissible to discuss the crucial role of religion in medieval European history, creationism may be discussed in a civics, current affairs, philosophy, or comparative religions class where the intent is to factually educate students about the diverse range of human political and

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The National Science Teachers Association is opposed to teaching creationism as a science, as is the Association for Science Teacher Education, the National Association of Biology Teachers, the American Anthropological Association, the American Geosciences Institute, the Geological Society of

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that its decision forbidding the posting of the Ten Commandments did not mean that no use could ever be made of the Ten Commandments, or that the Ten Commandments played an exclusively religious role in the history of Western Civilization. 449 U.S., at 42, 101 S.Ct., at 194. In a similar way,

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There continue to be numerous efforts to introduce creationism in U.S. classrooms. One strategy is to declare that evolution is a religion, and therefore it should not be taught in the classroom either, or that if evolution is a religion, then surely creationism as well can be taught in the

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decided on May 23, 2007, to approve science textbooks for middle and high schools which do not include the idea of intelligent design. However, during the board meeting a statement was made that their aim was self-directed learning which "occurs only when alternative views are explored and

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when they set their policy on teaching intelligent design, and stated that "In making this determination, we have addressed the seminal question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious,

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signed the repeal into law and it took effect on the same day. On January 24, 1969, the House of Representatives voted to repeal the anti-human evolution law by a vote of 65-25. On January 30, 1969, the Arkansas Senate passed the repeal by a vote of 22-11. On February 3, 1969, Governor

1097:...the First Amendment does not permit the state to require that teaching and learning must be tailored to the principles or prohibitions of any religious sect or dogma...the state has no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from views distasteful to them. 1751:

Ravitch, Diane. *The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How Testing and Choice Are Undermining Education*. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 978-0465038557. This book provides a detailed examination of educational policy changes, including those related to evolution

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primary who made opposition to the anti-evolution standards their focus were voted in on August 1, 2000, so on February 14, 2001, the Board voted 7–3 to reinstate the teaching of biological evolution and the origin of the earth into the state's science education standards.

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saw it as a risk to education, quoting "We need to keep kids' curiosity about science alive and not limit their ability to understand the world around them by exposing them to misinformation." The passing of the law was praised by proponents of intelligent design.

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In July 2011, the Texas State Board of Education (SBOE), which oversees the Texas Education Agency, did not approve anti-evolution instructional materials submitted by International Databases, LLC, while continuing to approve materials from mainstream publishers.

447:" which were not provided to those who taught evolution; and ruled that the law was intended to advance a particular religion because several state senators that had supported the bill stated that their support for the bill stemmed from their religious beliefs. 826:

In Kansas' state Republican primary elections on August 1, 2006, moderate Republicans took control away from the anti-evolution conservatives, leading to an expectation that science standards which effectively embraced intelligent design and cast doubt on

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On April 10, 2012, a bill (HB 368/SB 893) passed in protecting "teachers who explore the 'scientific strengths and scientific weaknesses' of evolution and climate change." Science education advocates said the law could make it easier for creationism and

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said it adopted the sticker "to foster critical thinking among students, to allow academic freedom consistent with legal requirements, to promote tolerance and acceptance of diversity of opinion, and to ensure a posture of neutrality toward religion."

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adopted new science standards in a 4–3 vote. The new science curriculum standards explicitly require the teaching of the "scientific theory of evolution," whereas the previous standards only referenced evolution using the words "change over time."

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In March 2021, the Arkansas House passed House Bill 1701 by a vote of 72–21, which would have allowed public schools to teach intelligent design. The next month, however, the Arkansas Senate Education Committee rejected it by a vote of 3–3.

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signed the law, which took effect immediately. The penalty for violating this law was a fine of up to $ 500. Nobody was ever arrested under the law and it remained unenforced for its remaining duration. On January 15, 1927, in the case of

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holding. In December 2002, the Board adopted a proposal that required critical analysis of evolution, but did not specifically mention intelligent design. This decision was reversed in February 2006 following both the conclusion of the

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As of 2024, all fifty US states and the District of Columbia includes the teaching of evolution in their public school science standards, while none teach intelligent design and creationism is discussed in non-science classes, such as

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In 1967, the Tennessee public schools were threatened with another lawsuit over the Butler Act's constitutionality, and, fearing public reprisal, Tennessee's legislature repealed the Butler Act. In the following year, the

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On April 1, 1967, the Tennessee House of Representatives voted to repeal the Butler Act by a vote of 69-20. On May 17, 1967, the Tennessee Senate passed the repeal by a vote of 19-13. On May 18, 1967, Governor

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In 1947, the Texas State Board of Education adopted a new biology textbook that included the teaching of evolution, marking a significant shift from the earlier prohibition on teaching human evolution in the

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This textbook contains material on evolution. Evolution is a theory, not a fact, regarding the origin of living things. This material should be approached with an open mind, studied carefully, and critically

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accepted, and he started teaching his class human evolution, in defiance of the Tennessee law. On May 5, 1925, Scopes was arrested for violating the Butler Act. On July 10, 1925, the trial, known as the

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adopted a textbook sticker that was a disclaimer about evolution. It has since been revised and moderated. In September 2015, the Alabama State Board of Education unanimously approved that evolution and

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personally creationist teachers were less likely to be represented among public high school biology teachers. Part, but not all, of the explanation involves adoption in at least twenty states of the

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The Supreme Court has held unequivocally that while belief in a Divine Creator of the universe is a religious belief, the scientific theory that higher forms of life evolved from lower ones is not.

1110:...cannot properly describe the methodology used as scientific, if they start with a conclusion and refuse to change it regardless of the evidence developed during the course of the investigation. 666:

should be required material for the state educational curriculum, these changes to be implemented by 2016. At the same time, a referendum was set for potentially removing the textbook disclaimers.

443:" was not furthered by limiting the freedom of teachers to teach what they thought appropriate; ruled that the act was discriminatory because it provided certain resources and guarantees to " 426:

statute's principal or primary effect must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion. Third, the statute must not result in an excessive entanglement of government with religion.

2426: 574:(1991), which examined the evidence for evolution from a religious point of view and challenged the assumption that the only reasonable explanation for the origin of species must be a 2464: 532:

was hailed as a landmark decision, firmly establishing that creationism and intelligent design were religious teachings and not areas of legitimate scientific research. Because the

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case, creationists in Louisiana passed a law requiring that public schools should give "equal time" to "alternative theories" of origin. The Supreme Court ruled in 1987 in

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teach it." This decision was hailed by creationists, and sparked a statewide and nationwide controversy with scientists condemning the change. Challengers in the state's

2902: 524:, which went to trial on September 26, 2005, and was decided in U.S. District Court on December 20, 2005, in favor of the plaintiffs, who charged that a mandate that 218:

several states introduced legislation prohibiting the teaching of biological human evolution in public schools. Such legislation was voted on and defeated in 1922 in

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signed the Butler Act into law, and it took effect immediately on the same day. Violating the Butler Act was a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of $ 100 to $ 500.

1123:...Because the primary purpose of the Creationism Act is to advance a particular religious belief, the Act endorses religion in violation of the First Amendment. 432:, 403 U.S. 602, 612–613, 91 S.Ct. 2105, 2111, 29 L.Ed.2d 745 (1971). State action violates the Establishment Clause if it fails to satisfy any of these prongs. — 458:

We do not imply that a legislature could never require that scientific critiques of prevailing scientific theories be taught. Indeed, the Court acknowledged in

1133: 269:, began and on July 21, 1925, Scopes was found guilty by the jury and convicted by the judge. He was fined $ 100. The resulting trial was widely publicized by 4053: 4033: 1151: 3190: 3198: 479: 1628: 3398: 1003: 157: 273:

and others. Nobody else was ever arrested or convicted and the Butler Act remained unenforced for its remaining duration. On November 24, 1925, the

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commissioned by the Discovery Institute found that more than three to one of voters surveyed chose the option that biology teachers should teach

612:," which entails presenting to students evidence for and against evolution, and then encouraging students to evaluate that evidence themselves. 4048: 715: 2869: 2682: 3431: 2434: 835:

as a document outlining the differences with the previous curriculum, has been posted on the Kansas State Department of Education's website.

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While many proponents of intelligent design believe that it should be taught in schools, others believe that legislation is not appropriate.

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was forced to resign over an e-mail she had sent announcing a talk given by an anti-intelligent design author. In a memo obtained under the

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that the Louisiana statute, which required creation to be taught alongside evolution every time evolution was taught, was unconstitutional.

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one. This book, and his subsequent efforts to encourage and coordinate creationists with more scientific credentials, was the start of the

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panel appeared critical of the lower court ruling and a judge indicated that he did not understand the difference between evolution and

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were voted out and replaced by evolutionary theory supporters. This had no bearing on the case. On December 20, 2005, federal judge

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In 2004, the Board elections gave religious conservatives a majority and, influenced by the Discovery Institute, they arranged the

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Many proponents of the intelligent design movement support requiring that it be taught in the public schools. For example, the

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Despite proponents' urging that intelligent design be included in the school system's science curriculum, the school board of

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is an inherently religious belief, it did not hold that every mention of creationism in a public school is unconstitutional:

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The ruling was one in a series of developments addressing issues related to the American creationist movement and the

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became widely accepted. While there was some immediate backlash, organized opposition did not get underway until the

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of biological evolution in the 1860s after being first introduced in 1859, and developments in other fields such as

3345: 2687: 851: 808: 658: 533: 242:, which prohibited the teaching of human evolution in public schools, with a vote of 71-5. On March 16, 1925, the 4058: 4043: 2631:"Selman v. Cobb County School District: Decision of the Court Striking Down the Cobb County Evolution Disclaimer" 1022:

29% believe public schools should teach evolution in science class but can discuss creationism there as a belief;

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The Court held that the law was not adopted with a secular purpose, because its purported purpose of "protecting

153: 2747: 2718: 3258:"Why It's Unconstitutional to Teach 'Intelligent Design' in the Public Schools, as an Alternative to Evolution" 2928: 1799: 1774: 1493: 1385: 1357: 1332: 274: 257: 2261: 2780: 1641: 940: 863: 341: 305:

passed a law banning the teaching of human evolution in public schools with a vote of 75-18. The Court held:

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America, the American Geophysical Union, and numerous other professional teaching and scientific societies.

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to adopt intelligent design as part of its standard biology curriculum, in line with the guidelines of the

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brought a surge of opposition to the idea of biological human evolution, and following the campaigning of

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developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, but God had no part in this process".

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agreeing with the university's position that various religious books on U.S. history and science, from

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The Supreme Court of the United States has made several rulings regarding evolution in public education

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On December 19, 2006, the Board abandoned all of its legal activities and will no longer mandate that

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17% believe public schools should teach evolution in science class and religious theories elsewhere;

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by most people, but human evolution, but not animal evolution, was considered by a number of early

3566:"A state-by-state comparison of middle school science standards on evolution in the United States" 1891:

Moore, Randy (2001). "The Lingering Impact of the Scopes Trial on High School Biology Textbooks".

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Moore, Randy (2001). "The Lingering Impact of the Scopes Trial on High School Biology Textbooks".

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Moore, Randy (2001). "The Lingering Impact of the Scopes Trial on High School Biology Textbooks".

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Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion

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Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion

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Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion

953: 325: 215: 84:, while disallowing the teaching of evolution, advanced a religion, and therefore violated the 24: 3774: 3457: 3925: 2074: 1945: 1402: 1281: 1191: 936: 868:

On June 12, 2008, a bill (SB561) named the "Louisiana Academic Freedom Act" passed into law.

609: 247: 93: 64: 4038: 2991: 1115: 1089: 740: 714:, should not be used for college-preparatory classes. The case was filed in spring 2006 by 504: 500: 495: 410: 381: 363: 344: 321: 260:(ACLU) offered to defend anyone who wanted to bring a test case against one of these laws. 141: 98: 85: 76: 3043: 2630: 2053: 1667: 482:. The scope of the ruling affected state schools and did not include independent schools, 396: 8: 2907: 1918: 1672: 1042: 598: 266: 192: 172: 2846: 1559: 1034:

13% believe public schools should teach both evolution and creationism in science class;

486:, Sunday schools and Christian schools, all of whom remained free to teach creationism. 171:

was taught in nearly all schools in the United States, often from the position that the

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chose not to appeal, the case never reached a circuit court or the U.S. Supreme Court.

525: 368: 286: 196: 176: 103: 3804: 3599:"Evolution and Creationism In Public Education: An In-depth Reading Of Public Opinion" 2586: 1629:"Understanding the Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals" 3959: 3951: 3941: 3902: 3864: 3818: 3784: 3267: 3202: 3136: 2723: 2317: 2309: 2195: 2109: 1795: 1770: 1489: 1455: 1432: 1424: 1414: 1381: 1353: 1328: 1293: 1078: 918: 905: 803: 428: 390: 180: 80:, another challenge to these laws, and the court ruled that allowing the teaching of 3191:"Ohio Education Board Reverses Course On Promoting 'Intelligent-Design' Creationism" 3097: 2776: 2616: 2329: 333:

succeeded in removing evolution from school textbooks throughout the United States.

92:. Creationists then starting lobbying to have laws passed that required teachers to 3809: 3779: 3577: 2612: 2517: 2484: 2299: 1285: 444: 440: 358: 243: 121: 71: 470: 3930: 3920: 3637:"Zogby America Likely Voters – 2/27/06 thru 3/2/06 MOE +/- 3.2 percentage points" 3253: 2141: 1624: 957: 854:

replaced the word "evolution" with "change over time" in state school standards.

570: 528:(ID) be taught was an unconstitutional establishment of religion. The opinion of 512: 340:

passed the same anti-human evolution law with a vote of 23-7. On March 16, 1928,

337: 293: 89: 3863:(2). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Society for Law & Public Policy, Inc.: 417–490. 2479: 749:(2006) sued to have the following sticker removed from public school textbooks: 285:

passed an anti-human evolution law with a vote of 78-16. On March 16, 1926, the

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began reading the scientific literature on evolution. This led him to author

483: 270: 129: 117: 3271: 2304: 2283: 3770: 3679: 3048: 2964: 2279: 2239: 48: 3836: 1006:, published a comparison of the nation's middle school science standards. 3901:(2). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law School Student Journals Office: 279–318. 2550: 2546: 1971: 1486:

When All the Gods Trembled: Darwinism, Scopes, and American Intellectuals

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When All the Gods Trembled: Darwinism, Scopes, and American Intellectuals

1073: 779: 707: 451: 250: 81: 40: 28: 2262:"Alabama Will Require Students to Learn About Evolution, Climate Change" 3632: 2480:"Evolution Wins as Creationists (Accidentally) Switch Sides in Florida" 2082: 842:, which teaches evolution as a fundamental principle of life sciences. 605: 591: 239: 137: 60: 4012: 2284:"Defending Science Education: Climate as a Second Front for Biologist" 3515:"Science textbook statement from School Board Chair Thomas J. Doland" 2933: 828: 711: 188: 52: 44: 2878:(Blog). Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. Archived from 1997:

Amendment. Students in tax-supported schools are being taught that

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precedent. Supporters of the school board's position noted that the

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4% believe public schools should teach both but are not sure how.

786: 231: 184: 3399:"Texas biology professors voice support for evolution education" 2804:"Evolution-creation debate grows louder with Kansas controversy" 2140:. National Association of Biology Teachers. 2011. Archived from 627: 246:

approved the Butler Act with a vote of 24-6. On March 21, 1925,

96:, but this was also struck down by the Supreme Court in 1987 in 4000: 3346:"Tennessee teacher law could boost creationism, climate denial" 2458:

Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns

2075:"Teaching Evolution; Supreme Court Considers Medical Marijuana" 703:

Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns

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Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Sterns

2178:"American Geological Institute Position on Teaching Evolution" 3684:"Evolution Education: What a Difference a Dozen Years Makes!" 371:

signed the repeal into law and it took effect that same day.

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has declined sufficiently from it's height in November 2004.

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minimized or presented in a way that downplayed the theory.

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lawsuit and repeated threats of lawsuit against the Board.

3098:"2007 K-12 Kansas State Science Standards and Assessments" 2652:"Cobb school board to allow biblical view on man's origin" 2124:"ASTE Position Statement on Teaching Biological Evolution" 289:

approved the law with a vote of 27-12. On March 18, 1926,

2232:"Information about the Alabama 'Evolution Warning Label'" 1853: