History of evolutionary thought

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that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in their host. At an even more fundamental level, Heng and Gorelick and Heng reviewed evidence that sex, rather than enhancing diversity, acts as a constraint on genetic diversity. They considered that sex acts as a coarse filter, weeding out major genetic changes, such as chromosomal rearrangements, but permitting minor variation, such as changes at the nucleotide or gene level (that are often neutral) to pass through the sexual sieve. The adaptive function of sex remains a major unresolved issue. The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by Birdsell and Wills. A principal alternative view to the Red Queen hypothesis is that sex arose, and is maintained, as a process for repairing DNA damage, and that genetic variation is produced as a byproduct.

1647:, writing about the history of natural selection in 1941, said that an excerpt from this work was the only relevant passage he had found from an Arabian scholar. He provided a quotation describing the struggle for existence, citing a Spanish translation of this work: "Every weak animal devours those weaker than itself. Strong animals cannot escape being devoured by other animals stronger than they. And in this respect, men do not differ from animals, some with respect to others, although they do not arrive at the same extremes. In short, God has disposed some human beings as a cause of life for others, and likewise, he has disposed the latter as a cause of the death of the former." Al-Jāḥiẓ also wrote descriptions of 3685:

decades of the 20th century some paleontologists raised questions about whether other factors, such as punctuated equilibrium and group selection operating on the level of entire species and even higher level phylogenic clades, needed to be considered to explain patterns in evolution revealed by statistical analysis of the fossil record. Some researchers in evolutionary developmental biology suggested that interactions between the environment and the developmental process might have been the source of some of the structural innovations seen in macroevolution, but other evo-devo researchers maintained that genetic mechanisms visible at the population level are fully sufficient to explain all macroevolution.

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transformed into the essence adjacent to them, either above or below them. This is the case with the simple material elements; it is the case with palms and vines, (which constitute) the last stage of plants, in their relation to snails and shellfish, (which constitute) the (lowest) stage of animals. It is also the case with monkeys, creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception, in their relation to man, the being who has the ability to think and to reflect. The preparedness (for transformation) that exists on either side, at each stage of the worlds, is meant when (we speak about) their connection.

998: 1049:'s past, and that the first land-dwelling ancestors of mankind must have been born in water, and only spent part of their life on land. He also argued that the first human of the form known today must have been the child of a different type of animal (probably a fish), because man needs prolonged nursing to live. In the late nineteenth century, Anaximander was hailed as the "first Darwinist", but this characterization is no longer commonly agreed. Anaximander's hypothesis could be considered "evolution" in a sense, although not a Darwinian one. 2940: 2611:. Despite this precaution, the issue featured prominently in the debate that followed the book's publication. For most of the first half of the 19th century, the scientific community believed that, although geology had shown that the Earth and life were very old, human beings had appeared suddenly just a few thousand years before the present. However, a series of archaeological discoveries in the 1840s and 1850s showed stone tools associated with the remains of extinct animals. By the early 1860s, as summarized in Charles Lyell's 1863 book 1835:, one of the leading naturalists of the time, suggested that what most people referred to as species were really just well-marked varieties, modified from an original form by environmental factors. For example, he believed that lions, tigers, leopards, and house cats might all have a common ancestor. He further speculated that the 200 or so species of mammals then known might have descended from as few as 38 original animal forms. Buffon's evolutionary ideas were limited; he believed each of the original forms had arisen through 1359:

husbandman, planted a paradise in Eden, towards the east, and placed in it a tree of life, visible and palpable, so that one tasting of the fruit by the bodily teeth obtained life? And again, that one was a partaker of good and evil by masticating what was taken from the tree? And if God is said to walk in the paradise in the evening, and Adam to hide himself under a tree, I do not suppose that anyone doubts that these things figuratively indicate certain mysteries, the history having taken place in appearance, and not literally.

3445: 2035: 2905:, he was a saltationist who hoped to demonstrate that a new species could be created in the lab by mutation alone. Instead, the work at his lab between 1910 and 1915 reconfirmed Mendelian genetics and provided solid experimental evidence linking it to chromosomal inheritance. His work also demonstrated that most mutations had relatively small effects, such as a change in eye color, and that rather than creating a new species in a single step, mutations served to increase variation within the existing population. 3627:, alterations in the relative rates of developmental processes over the course of evolution, to account for the generation of novel forms, and, with the evolutionary biologist Richard Lewontin, wrote an influential paper in 1979 suggesting that a change in one biological structure, or even a structural novelty, could arise incidentally as an accidental result of selection on another structure, rather than through direct selection for that particular adaptation. They called such incidental structural changes " 2568: 2123: 70: 2669:, which contained his views on human evolution. Darwin argued that the differences between the human mind and the minds of the higher animals were a matter of degree rather than of kind. For example, he viewed morality as a natural outgrowth of instincts that were beneficial to animals living in social groups. He argued that all the differences between humans and apes were explained by a combination of the selective pressures that came from our ancestors moving from the trees to the plains, and 3712:. Although epigenetics in multicellular organisms is generally thought to be involved in differentiation, with epigenetic patterns "reset" when organisms reproduce, there have been some observations of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. This shows that in some cases nongenetic changes to an organism can be inherited; such inheritance may help with adaptation to local conditions and affect evolution. Some have suggested that in certain cases a form of Lamarckian evolution may occur. 1076: 30: 1878: 1393:. After the foundations of the universe were laid, as the history records, man did not appear on the earth at once, but the creation of the brutes preceded him, and the plants preceded them. Thereby Scripture shows that the vital forces blended with the world of matter according to a gradation; first it infused itself into insensate nature; and in continuation of this advanced into the sentient world; and then ascended to intelligent and rational beings (emphasis added). 2919: 1566:

non-sense on these topics; and we should take all means to prevent such an embarrassing situation, in which people show up vast ignorance in a Christian and laugh it to scorn. The shame is not so much that an ignorant individual is derided, but that people outside the household of the faith think our sacred writers held such opinions, and, to the great loss of those for whose salvation we toil, the writers of our Scripture are criticized and rejected as unlearned men.

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who held that such natural processes showed that the universe could have developed without an underlying purpose. Aquinas rather held that: "Hence, it is clear that nature is nothing but a certain kind of art, i.e., the divine art, impressed upon things, by which these things are moved to a determinate end. It is as if the shipbuilder were able to give to timbers that by which they would move themselves to take the form of a ship."

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Plainly as the direct or instantaneous Creation of animals and plants appeared to be taught in Genesis, Augustine read this in the light of primary causation and the gradual development from the imperfect to the perfect of Aristotle. This most influential teacher thus handed down to his followers opinions which closely conform to the progressive views of those theologians of the present day who have accepted the Evolution theory.

15533: 612: 2617:, it had become widely accepted that humans had existed during a prehistoric period—which stretched many thousands of years before the start of written history. This view of human history was more compatible with an evolutionary origin for humanity than was the older view. On the other hand, at that time there was no fossil evidence to demonstrate human evolution. The only human fossils found before the discovery of 1727: 1429: 2412:, written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus. Malthus' idea of population growth leading to a struggle for survival combined with Darwin's knowledge on how breeders selected traits, led to the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin did not publish his ideas on evolution for 20 years. However, he did share them with certain other naturalists and friends, starting with 2020:

over immensely long periods of time. Although Lyell opposed evolutionary ideas (even questioning the consensus that the fossil record demonstrates a true progression), his concept that the Earth was shaped by forces working gradually over an extended period, and the immense age of the Earth assumed by his theories, would strongly influence future evolutionary thinkers such as Charles Darwin.

15489: 3347:. Hamilton, Williams and others suggested that this idea might explain the evolution of sexual reproduction: the increased genetic diversity caused by sexual reproduction would help maintain resistance against rapidly evolving parasites, thus making sexual reproduction common, despite the tremendous cost from the gene-centric point of view of a system where only half of an organism's 3557:. More recently, as knowledge of genomes has continued to expand, it has been suggested that lateral transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of all organisms. These high levels of horizontal gene transfer have led to suggestions that the family tree of today's organisms, the so-called "tree of life," is more similar to an interconnected web. 4590: 3076:. Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that, contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists, these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity, with marked differences between sub-populations. The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form. In Britain, 1591: 1212:, classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical but static "Ladder of Life" or "great chain of being," placing them according to their complexity of structure and function, with organisms that showed greater vitality and ability to move described as "higher organisms." Aristotle believed that features of living organisms showed clearly that they had what he called a 2416:, with whom he discussed his unpublished 1844 essay on natural selection. During this period he used the time he could spare from his other scientific work to slowly refine his ideas and, aware of the intense controversy around transmutation, amass evidence to support them. In September 1854 he began full-time work on writing his book on natural selection. 2081:

of an animal (or a plant) to change based on the use or disuse of those organs, just as exercise affects muscles. He argued that these changes would be inherited by the next generation and produce slow adaptation to the environment. It was this secondary mechanism of adaptation through the inheritance of acquired characteristics that would become known as

1797:. In the late 17th century, Ray had given the first formal definition of a biological species, which he described as being characterized by essential unchanging features, and stated the seed of one species could never give rise to another. The ideas of Ray and other 17th-century taxonomists were influenced by natural theology and the argument from design. 1851:, also wrote that living things might have first arisen through spontaneous generation, and that species were always changing through a constant process of experiment where new forms arose and survived or not based on trial and error; an idea that can be considered a partial anticipation of natural selection. Between 1767 and 1792, 2309:

writing that the paper "An Account of a White Female, part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro" was published in 1818, and "he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone."

1998:; however, like Cuvier, they attributed the progression to repeated catastrophic episodes of extinction followed by new episodes of creation. Unlike Cuvier, Buckland and some other advocates of natural theology among British geologists made efforts to explicitly link the last catastrophic episode proposed by Cuvier to the 1540:, on Genesis he says: "To suppose that God formed man from the dust with bodily hands is very childish. ... God neither formed man with bodily hands nor did he breathe upon him with throat and lips." Augustine suggests in other work his theory of the later development of insects out of carrion, and the adoption of the old 3422:, claimed that sociobiology greatly overstated the degree to which complex human behaviors could be determined by genetic factors. They also claimed that the theories of sociobiologists often reflected their own ideological biases. Despite these criticisms, work has continued in sociobiology and the related discipline of 2270:'s observation that "A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection" so that "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities." Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas of environmental change causing 2319:(1831) of "continual balancing of life to circumstance. ... progeny of the same parents, under great differences of circumstance, might, in several generations, even become distinct species, incapable of co-reproduction." Darwin implies that he discovered this work after the initial publication of the 2323:. In the brief historical sketch that Darwin included in the third edition he says "Unfortunately the view was given by Mr. Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject ... He clearly saw, however, the full force of the principle of natural selection." 3646:

accumulated rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s. It became clear that the diversity of animal morphology was not the result of different sets of proteins regulating the development of different animals, but from changes in the deployment of a small set of proteins common to all animals. These proteins

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was one of the omissions. It helped establish the legitimacy of evolutionary biology, a primarily historical science, in a scientific climate that favored experimental methods over historical ones. The synthesis also resulted in a considerable narrowing of the range of mainstream evolutionary thought

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by the clergy. By the early 1870s in English-speaking countries, thanks partly to these efforts, evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species. In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin's theory, Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for

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drove species to become more complex over time, advancing up a linear ladder of complexity that was related to the great chain of being. Lamarck recognized that species adapted to their environment. He explained this by saying that the same innate force driving increasing complexity caused the organs

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He saw that the autonomy of nature was a sign of God's goodness, and detected no conflict between a divinely created universe and the idea that the universe had developed over time through natural mechanisms. However, Aquinas disputed the views of those (like the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles)

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found that the prevalence, abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat. Furthermore, Parker, after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance, failed to find a single example consistent with the concept

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and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural

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believed that each species was fixed and unchangeable because it represented an idea in the mind of the creator. They believed that relationships between species could be discerned from developmental patterns in embryology, as well as in the fossil record, but that these relationships represented an

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On the day on which God created the heaven and the earth, He created also every plant of the field, not, indeed, actually, but 'before it sprung up in the earth,' that is, potentially... All things were not distinguished and adorned together, not from a want of power on God's part, as requiring time

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that placed humans in a separate order from any of the other mammals, which by the early 19th century had become the orthodox view. On the other hand, Thomas Henry Huxley sought to demonstrate a close anatomical relationship between humans and apes. In one famous incident, which became known as the

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championed this idea: Haeckel used evolution to challenge the established tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology, much as Huxley used it to challenge natural theology in Britain. Haeckel and other German scientists would take the lead in launching an ambitious programme to reconstruct

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made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species. Like Darwin, it was Wallace's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led

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caused him to doubt the fixity of species, and in 1837 Darwin started the first of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation. Darwin's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of divergence and branching, rather than the ladder-like progression envisioned by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

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The suggestion that new species may result from the selective action of external conditions upon the variations from their specific type which individuals present—and which we call "spontaneous," because we are ignorant of their causation—is as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as

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alternative to the catastrophic theory of geology. Lyell claimed that, rather than being the products of cataclysmic (and possibly supernatural) events, the geologic features of the Earth are better explained as the result of the same gradual geologic forces observable in the present day—but acting

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For ages a widely accepted doctrine had been that water, filth, and carrion had received power from the Creator to generate worms, insects, and a multitude of the smaller animals; and this doctrine had been especially welcomed by St. Augustine and many of the fathers, since it relieved the Almighty

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essays assuming that there had been evolution of humans, and recognising the principle of natural selection. Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were unaware of this work when they jointly published the theory in 1858, but Darwin later acknowledged that Wells had recognised the principle before them,

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of the Enlightenment and were attacked by more conservative thinkers. Cuvier attacked the ideas of Lamarck and Geoffroy, agreeing with Aristotle that species were immutable. Cuvier believed that the individual parts of an animal were too closely correlated with one another to allow for one part of

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and of life on Earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals, with current animals branching off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that

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From the early 1960s, molecular biology was increasingly seen as a threat to the traditional core of evolutionary biology. Established evolutionary biologists—particularly Ernst Mayr, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and George Gaylord Simpson, three of the architects of the modern synthesis—were extremely

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showed that the fossil record was consistent with the irregular non-directional pattern predicted by the developing evolutionary synthesis, and that the linear trends that earlier paleontologists had claimed supported orthogenesis and neo-Lamarckism did not hold up to closer examination. In 1950,

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and Alfred Russel Wallace, pointed out that no one had ever produced solid evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Despite these criticisms, neo-Lamarckism remained the most popular alternative to natural selection at the end of the 19th century, and would remain the position of

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If the orthodoxy of Augustine had remained the teaching of the Church, the final establishment of Evolution would have come far earlier than it did, certainly during the eighteenth instead of the nineteenth century, and the bitter controversy over this truth of Nature would never have arisen. ...

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analysis of variation within a population. The biometricians rejected Mendelian genetics on the basis that discrete units of heredity, such as genes, could not explain the continuous range of variation seen in real populations. Weldon's work with crabs and snails provided evidence that selection

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him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection. In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin's unpublished ideas, composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin, asking for his opinion. The result was the joint publication in July of

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One of the tenets of population genetics is that macroevolution (the evolution of phylogenic clades at the species level and above) was solely the result of the mechanisms of microevolution (changes in gene frequency within populations) operating over an extended period of time. During the last

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methods resulted in a large increase of sequenced genomes, allowing the testing and refining of evolutionary theories using this huge amount of genome data. Comparisons between these genomes provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of speciation and adaptation. These genomic analyses have

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Darwin's theory succeeded in profoundly altering scientific opinion regarding the development of life and in producing a small philosophical revolution. However, this theory could not explain several critical components of the evolutionary process. Specifically, Darwin was unable to explain the

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Usually, even a non-Christian knows something about the earth, the heavens, and the other elements of this world, about the motion and orbit of the stars ... Now, it is a disgraceful and dangerous thing for an infidel to hear a Christian, presumably giving the meaning of Holy Scripture, talking

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In all sacred books, we should consider the eternal truths that are taught, the facts that are narrated, the future events that are predicted, and the precepts or counsels that are given. In the case of a narrative of events, the question arises whether everything must be taken according to the

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says, "Through a combination of bold theorizing and comprehensive evaluation, Darwin came up with a concept of evolution that was unique for the time." Bowler goes on to say that simple priority alone is not enough to secure a place in the history of science; someone has to develop an idea and

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has found isolated passages written by Buffon suggesting he was almost ready to piece together a theory of natural selection, but states that such anticipations should not be taken out of the full context of the writings or of cultural values of the time which made Darwinian ideas of evolution

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in which he asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys," in a process by which "species become more numerous". In chapter 1 he writes: "This world with all the created things in it has a certain order and solid construction. It shows nexuses between causes and things caused,

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thought. However, some historians of science have questioned how much influence Plato's essentialism had on natural philosophy by stating that many philosophers after Plato believed that species might be capable of transformation and that the idea that biologic species were fixed and possessed

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were like disjointed parts of the ones we see today, some of which survived by joining in different combinations, and then intermixing during the development of the embryo, and where "everything turned out as it would have if it were on purpose, there the creatures survived, being accidentally

2660:. Another viewpoint was advocated by Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace. They agreed that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but questioned whether any purely materialistic mechanism could account for all the differences between humans and apes, especially some aspects of the human mind. 2483:

fundamentally transformed the discussion over biological origins. Darwin argued that his branching version of evolution explained a wealth of facts in biogeography, anatomy, embryology, and other fields of biology. He also provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could

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We explained there that the whole of existence in (all) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum. The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be

1270:, Taoism explicitly denies the fixity of biological species and Taoist philosophers speculated that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments. Taoism regards humans, nature and the heavens as existing in a state of "constant transformation" known as the 1358:

For who that has understanding will suppose that the first, and second, and third day, and the evening and the morning, existed without a sun, and moon, and stars? And that the first day was, as it were, also without a sky? And who is so foolish as to suppose that God, after the manner of a

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Saltationism was the idea that new species arise as a result of large mutations. It was seen as a much faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of a gradual process of small random variations being acted on by natural selection, and was popular with early geneticists such as

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In the late 19th century, the term neo-Lamarckism came to be associated with the position of naturalists who viewed the inheritance of acquired characteristics as the most important evolutionary mechanism. Advocates of this position included the British writer and Darwin critic

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governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely materialistic than the ideas of radicals like Grant, but its implication that humans were only the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. The high profile of the public debate over

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and others provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock, arguing that—at the molecular level at least—most genetic mutations are neither harmful nor helpful and that mutation and genetic drift (rather than natural selection) cause a large portion of genetic change:

2495:, Darwin's theory provided a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement, even if Huxley himself was not completely convinced that natural selection was the key evolutionary mechanism. Huxley would make advocacy of evolution a cornerstone of the program of the 2784:. They considered Lamarckism to be philosophically superior to Darwin's idea of selection acting on random variation. Cope looked for, and thought he found, patterns of linear progression in the fossil record. Inheritance of acquired characteristics was part of Haeckel's 3173:

called the "hardening of the synthesis"): by the 1950s, natural selection acting on genetic variation was virtually the only acceptable mechanism of evolutionary change (panselectionism), and macroevolution was simply considered the result of extensive microevolution.

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underlying pattern of divine thought, with progressive creation leading to increasing complexity and culminating in humanity. Owen developed the idea of "archetypes" in the Divine mind that would produce a sequence of species related by anatomical homologies, such as

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had descended from independent bacteria that came to live symbiotically within other cells. It had been suggested in the late 19th century when similarities between mitochondria and bacteria were noted, but largely dismissed until it was revived and championed by

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The Mendelian and biometrician models were eventually reconciled with the development of population genetics. A key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher. In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book

2115:, and investigated homology, even proposing that plants and animals had a common evolutionary starting point. As a young student, Charles Darwin joined Grant in investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. In 1826, an anonymous paper, probably written by 1470:

Later he differentiates between the days of the Genesis 1 creation narrative and 24 hour days that humans experience (arguing that "we know are different from the ordinary day of which we are familiar") before describing what could be called an early form of

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An admirable application of this well-ordered liberty appears in his thesis on the simultaneous creation of the universe, and the gradual development of the world under the action of the natural forces which were placed in it. ... Is Augustine, therefore, an

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the anatomy to change in isolation from the others, and argued that the fossil record showed patterns of catastrophic extinctions followed by repopulation, rather than gradual change over time. He also noted that drawings of animals and animal mummies from

1855:, included in his writings not only the concept that man had descended from primates, but also that, in response to the environment, creatures had found methods of transforming their characteristics over long time intervals. Charles Darwin's grandfather, 2219:

had been written at least in part as a response to the transmutational ideas of Erasmus Darwin. Geologists influenced by natural theology, such as Buckland and Sedgwick, made a regular practice of attacking the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck, Grant, and

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limbs. Owen led a public campaign that successfully marginalized Grant in the scientific community. Darwin would make good use of the homologies analyzed by Owen in his own theory, but the harsh treatment of Grant, and the controversy surrounding

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ground. He wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over the course of many generations, producing races and even new species, a description that anticipated in general terms the concept of natural selection.

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and came to believe that direct appeals to supernatural involvement were scientifically unproductive. By 1900, theistic evolution had largely disappeared from professional scientific discussions, although it retained a strong popular following.

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provides the best surviving explanation of the ideas of the Greek Epicurean philosophers. It describes the development of the cosmos, the Earth, living things, and human society through purely naturalistic mechanisms, without any reference to

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Orthogenesis was the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change, in a unilinear fashion, towards ever-greater perfection. It had a significant following in the 19th century, and its proponents included the Russian biologist

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The things had potentially created... forth in the course of time on different days according to their different kinds... the rest of the earth filled with its various kinds of creatures, produced their appropriate forms in due

2186:, which were thousands of years old, showed no signs of change when compared with modern animals. The strength of Cuvier's arguments and his scientific reputation helped keep transmutational ideas out of the mainstream for decades. 2896:

pressure from the environment could shift the range of variation in wild populations, but the Mendelians maintained that the variations measured by biometricians were too insignificant to account for the evolution of new species.

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introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory. Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the traditional branches of biology, but also in other academic disciplines (for example:

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in the fourth and fifth centuries. ... taught that Creation was potential. God imparted to matter its fundamental properties and laws. The objects and completed forms of the Universe developed gradually out of chaotic material.

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holds that the living and nonliving parts of Earth can be viewed as a complex interacting system with similarities to a single organism. The Gaia hypothesis has also been viewed by Lynn Margulis and others as an extension of

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Theistic evolution was the idea that God intervened in the process of evolution, to guide it in such a way that the living world could still be considered to be designed. The term was promoted by Charles Darwin's greatest

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and everything in it because, being good, and hence, "free from jealousy, He desired that all things should be as like Himself as they could be." The creator created all conceivable forms of life, since "without them the

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had been criticised in the 18th century for grouping humans and apes together as primates in his ground breaking classification system. Richard Owen vigorously defended the classification suggested by Georges Cuvier and

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figurative sense only, or whether it must be expounded and defended also as a faithful record of what happened. No Christian would dare say that the narrative must not be taken in a figurative sense. For St. Paul says:

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of the 8th to the 13th centuries, philosophers explored ideas about natural history. These ideas included transmutation from non-living to living: "from mineral to plant, from plant to animal, and from animal to man."

828:. Debate over Darwin's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution, but the specific mechanism he proposed, natural selection, was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in 2977:

in a population, resulting in evolution. In a series of papers beginning in 1924, another British geneticist, J. B. S. Haldane, applied statistical analysis to real-world examples of natural selection, such as the

5713:, he argues, "obliterates decades of labor by teachers, theologians, technicians, printers, editors, and other researchers, whose work has made evolutionary debates so significant during the past two centuries." 4720: 7750: 7552: 7061: 7000: 6786: 6260: 3707:

caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. By the first decade of the 21st century it was accepted that epigenetic mechanisms were a necessary part of the evolutionary origin of

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experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an

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such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world. But as the field of genetics continued to develop, those views became less tenable.

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skeptical of molecular approaches, especially their connection (or lack thereof) to natural selection. The molecular-clock hypothesis and the neutral theory were particularly controversial, spawning the

1847:(1778), containing well-developed theories about a completely materialistic origin for the Earth and his ideas questioning the fixity of species, were extremely influential. Another French philosopher, 1769:, produced theories that maintained that the universe, the Earth, and life, had developed mechanically, without divine guidance. In contrast, most contemporary theories of evolution, such of those of 2211: 2801:

and the American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn. Orthogenesis was popular among some paleontologists, who believed that the fossil record showed a gradual and constant unidirectional change.

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While most Christian theologians held that the natural world was part of an unchanging designed hierarchy, some theologians speculated that the world might have developed through natural processes.

2076:). Lamarck did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor but rather that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation. He also believed that an innate 1235:

wrote that Zeno was known to have held the view, central to Stoic physics, that nature is primarily "directed and concentrated...to secure for the world...the structure best fitted for survival."

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or evolution theory, showing that "certain very small animals may not have been created on the fifth and sixth days, but may have originated later from putrefying matter." Concerning Augustine's

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argued that what we call birth and death in animals are just the mingling and separations of elements which cause the countless "tribes of mortal things". Specifically, the first animals and

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is the ultimate author, but works through secondary causes; and finally argues that certain substances are endowed by God with the power of producing certain classes of plants and animals."

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the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, agreed with Aristotle and other earlier philosophers that nature showed clear evidence of being designed for a purpose; this view is known as

888:. During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields, resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology—the 8837:

Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol; Michod, Richard E. (2012). "DNA Repair as the Primary Adaptive Function of Sex in Bacteria and Eukaryotes". In Kimura, Sakura; Shimizu, Sora (eds.).

3099:

showing the influence of local environmental factors on the geographic distribution of sub-species and closely related species. Mayr followed up on Dobzhansky's work with the 1942 book

2973:, Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes, and that natural selection could change 3400:

in insects (the existence of sterile worker classes) and other examples of altruistic behavior could have evolved through kin selection. Other theories followed, some derived from

3318:. Models of the period seemed to show that group selection was severely limited in its strength; though newer models do admit the possibility of significant multi-level selection. 1322:. Cicero reports that the peripatetic and Stoic view of nature as an agency concerned most basically with producing life "best fitted for survival" was taken for granted among the 10954: 1519: 3164:

The modern synthesis provided a conceptual core—in particular, natural selection and Mendelian population genetics—that tied together many, but not all, biological disciplines:

2625:

that were too close, especially in the critical characteristic of cranial capacity, to modern humans for them to be convincing intermediates between humans and other primates.

7366:

Ochiai, K.; Yamanaka, T.; Kimura, K.; Sawada, O. (1959). "Inheritance of drug resistance (and its transfer) between Shigella strains and Between Shigella and E.coli strains".

3585:

in the 1960s and 1970s; Margulis was able to make use of new evidence that such organelles had their own DNA that was inherited independently from that in the cell's nucleus.

3517:

now allow the modification of entire genomes, advancing evolutionary studies to the level where future experiments may involve the creation of entirely synthetic organisms.

2477:

By the 1850s, whether or not species evolved was a subject of intense debate, with prominent scientists arguing both sides of the issue. The publication of Charles Darwin's

2254:

It is possible to look through the history of biology from the ancient Greeks onwards and discover anticipations of almost all of Charles Darwin's key ideas. As an example,

2719:, but the acceptance of natural selection as its driving mechanism was much less widespread. The four major alternatives to natural selection in the late 19th century were 14332: 8290:

Danchin, É; Charmantier, A; Champagne, FA; Mesoudi, A; Pujol, B; Blanchet, S (2011). "Beyond DNA: integrating inclusive inheritance into an extended theory of evolution".

1107:. This theory holds that each natural type of object in the observed world is an imperfect manifestation of the ideal, form or "species" which defines that type. In his 4709: 3538:. Now, evolutionary researchers are taking advantage of their improved understanding of microbial physiology and ecology, produced by the comparative ease of microbial 2491:

of the reality of evolution was the British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Huxley recognized that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and

2427:, already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist. By 1855, his biogeographical observations during his field work in 3084:, continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through 5803: 2788:

of evolution, which held that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history. Critics of neo-Lamarckism, such as the German biologist

5693:

in the rise of widespread evolutionary thinking has long been accepted by historians of science. However, some scholars have recently begun to challenge this idea.

3534:

was largely ignored by early evolutionary theory due to the paucity of morphological traits and the lack of a species concept in microbiology, particularly amongst

2555:, while relying in part on the inheritance of acquired characteristics, proved to be useful for statistical models of evolution that were developed by his cousin 12500: 3418:

which claimed evolutionary theory could help explain many aspects of animal, including human, behavior. Critics of sociobiology, including Stephen Jay Gould and

1721: 341: 3847:

in driving biochemical reactions in cells, as proposed by Christian de Duve and modelled mathematically by Richard Bagley and Walter Fontana. Their systems are

1665:

combinations of some parts of creation with others, and transformations of some existent things into others, in a pattern that is both remarkable and endless."

2547:

source of variation in traits within a species, and could not identify a mechanism that could pass traits faithfully from one generation to the next. Darwin's

796:(1859). Darwin's theory, originally called descent with modification is known contemporarily as Darwinism or Darwinian theory. Unlike Lamarck, Darwin proposed 10526:

Powell, Jeffrey R. (1994). "Molecular techniques in population genetics: A brief history". In Schierwater, B.; Streit, B.; Wagner, G. P.; DeSalle, R. (eds.).

8259: 8935:(2003). "The Evolutionary Origin and Maintenance of Sexual Recombination: A Review of Contemporary Models". In MacIntyre, Ross J.; Clegg, Michael T. (eds.). 3388:

has been a difficult problem for evolutionary theorists from the beginning. Significant progress was made in 1964 when Hamilton formulated the inequality in

1216:, that is to say that their form suited their function. He explicitly rejected the view of Empedocles that living creatures might have originated by chance. 3959: 3778:(1955), describes the gradual development of the universe from subatomic particles to human society, which he viewed as its final stage and goal, a form of 2107:

of certain anatomical structures would be widely influential and lead to intense debate with his colleague Georges Cuvier. Grant became an authority on the

4196: 2665: 2119:, praised Lamarck for explaining how higher animals had "evolved" from the simplest worms; this was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense. 3119:

that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations.

5197: 3648: 1923:

as distinct species, different from any living animal, and effectively ended a long-running debate over whether a species could become extinct. In 1788,

12989: 12846: 8003: 7967: 4396: 4373: 1435:, shown in this sixth-century AD Roman fresco, wrote that some creatures may have developed from the "decomposition" of previously existing organisms. 12814: 11438: 6336: 4822: 23: 8841:. DNA and RNA: Properties and Modifications, Functions and Interactions, Recombination and Applications; Cell Biology Research Progress. New York: 6405:

Hanley, Kathryn A.; Fisher, Robert N.; Case, Ted J. (June 1995). "Lower Mite Infestations in an Asexual Gecko Compared With Its Sexual Ancestors".

2344:

it was to biological specialists before 1858. But that suggestion is the central idea of the 'Origin of Species,' and contains the quintessence of

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5.23.45), and yet that there is a real history of interaction between creator and creation, not just the playing out of a foreordained necessity.

1962:

Knowledge of the fossil record continued to advance rapidly during the first few decades of the 19th century. By the 1840s, the outlines of the

14307: 4674: 2682: 656: 8876:

Bernstein, Harris; Hopf, Frederic A.; Michod, Richard E. (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex". In Scandalios, John G. (ed.).

3362:

The gene-centric view has also led to an increased interest in Charles Darwin's idea of sexual selection, and more recently in topics such as

3092:. Ford's work would contribute to a shift in emphasis during the course of the modern synthesis towards natural selection over genetic drift. 11159:

writings on evolution before Charles Darwin, collected by Friedman Lab, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University

8773:. Rare Masterpieces of Philosophy and Science. Translated by Richard J. Blackwell, Richard J. Spath, and W. Edmund Thirlkel. Introduction by 4858: 3809:. This modified hypothesis postulates that all living things have a regulatory effect on the Earth's environment that promotes life overall. 3623:

processes of development as factors directing the course of evolution. The evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould revived earlier ideas of

3480:

and Stephen Jay Gould proposed that there was a pattern of fossil species that remained largely unchanged for long periods (what they termed

12249: 3542:, to explore the taxonomy and evolution of these organisms. These studies are revealing unanticipated levels of diversity amongst microbes. 14183: 11549: 11197: 4930: 4561: 2613: 1135:

unchangeable essential characteristics did not become important until the beginning of biological taxonomy in the 17th and 18th centuries.

264: 18:

This article is about the history of evolutionary thought in biology. For the history of evolutionary thought in the social sciences, see

14357: 14352: 14322: 14312: 14302: 2157: 2131: 6145:

Dietrich, Michael R. (Spring 1998). "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology".

1554:), White wrote that Augustine "develops at length the view that in the creation of living beings there was something like a growth—that 14362: 14347: 14342: 14327: 7321: 3655:, paleontology and comparative developmental biology, and spawned the new discipline of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo). 575: 5192: 4498: 1490:

to blend the idea of divine creation with subsequent development. This idea "that forms of life had been transformed 'slowly over time

15560: 15281: 13690: 11468: 11210: 7170:

Gevers, Dirk; Cohan, Frederick M.; Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; et al. (September 2005). "Opinion: Re-evaluating prokaryotic species".

2969: 7215:

Coenye, Tom; Gevers, Dirk; Van de Peer, Yves; Vandamme, Peter; Swings, Jean (April 2005). "Towards a prokaryotic genomic taxonomy".

3726:

The idea of an extended evolutionary synthesis extends the 20th-century modern synthesis to include concepts and mechanisms such as

15555: 14718: 13978: 13580: 12753: 12208: 10746:

Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

8660: 3895: 3731: 383: 4483: 14947: 4332: 3721: 3664: 2408: 2051: 1495: 845: 11559: 3599:

In the 1980s and 1990s, the tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis came under increasing scrutiny. There was a renewal of

1832: 1351: 89: 14395: 9938: 8122: 8096: 3996: 3489:

produced fundamental changes in the understanding of evolutionary history, such as the proposal of the three-domain system by

2522:

from its small five-toed ancestors. However, acceptance of evolution among scientists in non-English speaking nations such as

15118: 14572: 14337: 14261: 13550: 13470: 13445: 13324: 13204: 12807: 12516: 12276: 11011: 10882: 10828: 10753: 10718: 10676: 10583: 10543: 10500: 10361: 10326: 10289: 10249: 10214: 10172: 10133: 10089: 10050: 10005: 9979: 9911: 9833: 9790: 9718: 9679: 9644: 9603: 9564: 9523: 9482: 9436: 9387: 9118: 9074: 9035: 8992: 8948: 8897: 8850: 8811: 7916:

Cañestro, Cristian; Yokoi, Hayato; Postlethwait, John H. (December 2007). "Evolutionary developmental biology and genomics".

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selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.

2865:, who were focused on discrete variations and the laws of inheritance. They were led by William Bateson (who coined the word 2453: 2152: 1585: 940: 693: 570: 5583: 5540: 5525: 5510: 3493:. Advances in computational hardware and software allow the testing and extrapolation of increasingly advanced evolutionary 13670: 12878: 11873: 9242: 9217: 9184: 9176: 5553: 5408: 1658:'s thoughts, according to some commentators, anticipate the biological theory of evolution. In 1377, Ibn Khaldūn wrote the 1410:

Among the Christian Fathers the movement towards a partly naturalistic interpretation of the order of Creation was made by

1126:

will be incomplete, for it will not contain every kind of animal which it ought to contain, if it is to be perfect." This "

517: 3259:

over the relative importance of mutation, drift and selection, which continued into the 1980s without a clear resolution.

1990:

age of mammals. This progressive picture of the history of life was accepted even by conservative English geologists like

14940: 14655: 14271: 14256: 14206: 13450: 13375: 13302: 13278: 13226: 12599: 11519: 11130: 11119: 7810: 4422: 4243: 2763:. However, this idea gradually fell out of favor among scientists, as they became more and more committed to the idea of 2599:

Charles Darwin was aware of the severe reaction in some parts of the scientific community against the suggestion made in

3384:

W. D. Hamilton's work on kin selection contributed to the emergence of the discipline of sociobiology. The existence of

2603:

that humans had arisen from animals by a process of transmutation. Therefore, he almost completely ignored the topic of

1194:). Aristotle's works contain accurate observations, fitted into his own theories of the body's mechanisms. However, for 676:

change over time and the perceived understanding of how such processes work, has roots in antiquity—in the ideas of the

14690: 14110: 14062: 13695: 13081: 12834: 12261: 11921: 11370: 11345: 11151: 10702: 10316: 8508: 7709: 3594: 3072: 2559:

and the "biometric" school of evolutionary thought. However, this idea proved to be of little use to other biologists.

708:, the belief that every species has essential characteristics that are unalterable, a concept which had developed from 649: 378: 209: 9825: 9219:

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

9186:

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

9150:

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

8758: 1943:

by examining fossils in the layers while he worked on his geologic map of England. Independently, in 1811, Cuvier and

1142:, was a student of Plato and is also the earliest natural historian whose work has been preserved in any real detail. 15301: 15296: 15249: 14930: 14221: 13490: 11048: 10573: 6200: 6147: 6082: 4639: 4248: 3218:, brought biochemical phenomena into the realm of the synthetic theory of evolution. In the early 1960s, biochemists 3139: 2508:

evolution from paleontology. This included evidence that birds had evolved from reptiles, including the discovery of

2366: 2362: 12328: 8806:. Ancient Christian Writers. Vol. 41. Translated and annotated by John Hammond Taylor. New York: Newman Press. 6495:

Heng, Henry H.Q. (May 2007). "Elimination of altered karyotypes by sexual reproduction preserves species identity".

2100: 14176: 14123: 13730: 13515: 13307: 12800: 12333: 11931: 11190: 10535: 10279: 9244:

The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

8940: 8269: 5481:

The Art of Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals, in a Letter Addressed to the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, K.B.

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would influence the cosmological and evolutionary speculations of philosophers and scientists during and after the

1103:"the great antihero of evolutionism," because he promoted belief in essentialism, which is also referred to as the 111: 3742:—though several different such syntheses have been proposed, with no agreement on what exactly would be included. 1824:

of all future generations. The term gradually gained a more general meaning of growth or progressive development.

1401: 15311: 14519: 13725: 13705: 13418: 13163: 12871: 12866: 12578: 12568: 11767: 11317: 11227: 10575:

The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: An Abridgement by Colin A. Ronan of Joseph Needham's Original Text

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into the synthesis. The emerging cross-disciplinary consensus on the workings of evolution would be known as the

3004: 2358: 2224:. Although Charles Lyell opposed scriptural geology, he also believed in the immutability of species, and in his 2111:

and reproduction of marine invertebrates. He developed Lamarck's and Erasmus Darwin's ideas of transmutation and

936: 889: 368: 2591:

had a common ancestor, which challenged the theologically important idea that humans held a unique place in the

804:, meaning that two very different species could share a common ancestor. Darwin based his theory on the idea of 15481: 14648: 14557: 14463: 14251: 13983: 13943: 13898: 13605: 13428: 12998: 12935: 12706: 12573: 12353: 12097: 11895: 11799: 11688: 11292: 9154: 9100: 9027: 7452: 3285: 3256: 3183: 2673:. The debate over human origins, and over the degree of human uniqueness continued well into the 20th century. 2654:

lacked a structure present in human brains. Huxley summarized his argument in his highly influential 1863 book

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encouraged the use of the metaphor of the universe as a machine, a concept that would come to characterise the

590: 373: 11038: 6198:

Hagen, Joel B. (Autumn 1999). "Naturalists, Molecular Biologists, and the Challenges of Molecular Evolution".

1865:(1794–1796) which suggested that "all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament." In his poem 14055: 13740: 13720: 13657: 13108: 12977: 12918: 12771: 12358: 12102: 11841: 11322: 3501:. One of the results has been an exchange of ideas between theories of biological evolution and the field of 3054:, a postdoctoral worker in Thomas Hunt Morgan's lab, had been influenced by the work on genetic diversity by 2861:'s laws of inheritance in 1900 ignited a fierce debate between two camps of biologists. In one camp were the 1443:

followed Origen in arguing that Christians should read the Genesis creation story allegorically. In his book

642: 629: 12303: 10080:. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions and Discoveries through the Ages. Westport, CT; London: 3292:

arguments). Such explanations were largely replaced by a gene-centered view of evolution, epitomized by the

3111:

occurs when the geographical isolation of a sub-population is followed by the development of mechanisms for

2715:

The concept of evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles within a few years of the publication of

1354:

for the falling of human souls away from the glory of the divine, and not as a literal, historical account:

15171: 15164: 14529: 14491: 14246: 13903: 13675: 13495: 13118: 13086: 12994: 12711: 12213: 11307: 11287: 10710: 10164: 8612: 4380: 3852: 3199: 2126: 1852: 1527:

wrote about Augustine's attempts to preserve the ancient evolutionary approach to the creation as follows:

912: 560: 14231: 3247:

species also brought molecular data to bear on population genetics by providing estimates of the level of

2050:, and an adaptive force causing animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances (use and disuse, 1869:(1803), he described the rise of life from minute organisms living in mud to all of its modern diversity. 15537: 15023: 14998: 14983: 14628: 14524: 14481: 14169: 14149: 13715: 12950: 12781: 12375: 11486: 11183: 10161:

Didymus the Blind and His Circle in Late-antique Alexandria: Virtue and Narrative in Biblical Scholarship

10078:

Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

9944: 9066: 7172: 5610: 5558: 3727: 3248: 3124: 2884: 2642: 2399: 736: 616: 2879:, who were interested in the continuous variation of characteristics within populations. Their leaders, 15523: 14372: 13610: 13480: 13460: 13239: 12984: 12477: 11651: 11282: 10908: 10424: 10081: 9903: 9515: 9375: 9331: 9303: 8368:"Extended evolution: A Conceptual Framework for Integrating Regulatory Networks and Niche Construction" 8047: 4851:"A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science—Origins and Zoological Writings" 4657:

allows Augustine to affirm that, in one sense, creation is completed simultaneously, once and for all (

3765: 3116: 2647: 2440:. Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory, which he would publish in 1859 as 2279: 116: 34: 9421: 7607:

Poole, Anthony M.; Penny, David (January 2007). "Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes".

5092: 3635:

discussed the acquisition of new functions by novel structures arising in this fashion, calling them "

1060:

compounded in a suitable way." Other philosophers who became more influential at that time, including

15196: 15176: 15084: 15080: 15003: 14695: 14616: 14211: 14030: 14001: 13888: 13802: 13710: 13685: 13510: 13475: 13251: 12271: 12068: 11878: 11646: 11539: 8984: 7217: 6897: 4917: 4902: 4850: 3331: 3046: 3038: 2764: 1967: 1951:

succession of rock layers. These works helped establish the antiquity of the Earth. Cuvier advocated

1936: 1620: 977: 837: 482: 457: 437: 417: 94: 12400: 4686: 3549:

in 1959 of horizontal gene transfer. This transfer of genetic material between different species of

1310:. This view was in strong contrast with the views of Roman philosophers of the Stoic school such as 15201: 14841: 14826: 14815: 14792: 14428: 14216: 13923: 13807: 13680: 13500: 13433: 13295: 13268: 13123: 12898: 12861: 12694: 12558: 12530: 12505: 12462: 12365: 12298: 12173: 12046: 12014: 11987: 11977: 11242: 9752: 9636: 9367: 9148: 8619: 7701: 4338: 3901: 3709: 3526: 3506: 2773: 2686: 2656: 2579: 2479: 2387: 2029: 1581: 1130:"—the idea that all potential forms of life are essential to a perfect creation—greatly influenced 1027: 972: 841: 792: 772: 472: 467: 442: 397: 363: 357: 346: 12178: 9749:

The Evolution of Man: A Popular Exposition of the Principal Points of Human Ontogeny and Phylogeny

8480: 15439: 15186: 15181: 15154: 15089: 15043: 15038: 14973: 14866: 14567: 14471: 14453: 14286: 14281: 14087: 13928: 13794: 13620: 13600: 13590: 13405: 13385: 13256: 13244: 13234: 13091: 12823: 12699: 12629: 12538: 12266: 12148: 11916: 11512: 11360: 11297: 11237: 10787: 8842: 7918: 7125: 5202: 3890: 3818: 3600: 3484:), interspersed with relatively brief periods of rapid change during speciation. Improvements in 3423: 2979: 2901: 2843: 2500: 2289:

Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin's theory, and in the third edition of

1999: 1898: 1839:

and that each was shaped by "internal moulds" that limited the amount of change. Buffon's works,

1782: 1774: 1532:

of making, Adam of naming, and Noah of living in the ark with these innumerable despised species.

1366: 1024: 981: 956: 955:

versus natural selection as causes of evolution. In the late 20th-century, DNA sequencing led to

585: 492: 487: 432: 393: 194: 19: 9862:(September 23, 1876). "Evidences of Evolution—III: Prof. Huxley's Closing Lecture in New-York". 7995: 6996:"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya" 6332:"Gulliver's further travels: the necessity and difficulty of a hierarchical theory of selection" 6080:

Dietrich, Michael R. (Spring 1994). "The origins of the neutral theory of molecular evolution".

1947:

published an influential study of the geologic history of the region around Paris, based on the

15394: 15384: 14802: 14728: 14685: 14534: 14476: 14443: 14410: 14276: 14045: 14040: 14015: 13963: 13958: 13798: 13790: 13781: 13776: 13745: 13637: 13423: 13360: 13113: 13032: 12738: 12387: 12256: 12218: 12119: 12090: 12063: 12058: 11656: 11390: 11340: 11312: 11272: 10387: 8707:"Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution" 7818: 3473: 3340: 3129: 3112: 3085: 2696: 2519: 2383: 2068: 1836: 1758: 1501: 1397: 1143: 1127: 801: 497: 452: 274: 169: 12244: 11147: 1072:, believed that the types of all things, not only living things, were fixed by divine design. 15244: 15239: 15191: 15159: 15149: 15108: 14888: 14765: 14671: 14605: 14511: 14496: 14448: 14266: 14072: 14035: 13933: 13842: 13837: 13812: 13540: 13520: 13370: 13290: 13263: 13194: 12962: 12679: 12553: 12472: 12467: 12452: 12437: 12427: 12343: 12318: 12153: 12109: 12073: 12041: 11982: 11960: 11941: 11804: 11757: 11708: 11703: 11661: 11411: 10917: 10420:

The Origin and Evolution of Life: On the Theory of Action, Reaction and Interaction of Energy

10198: 9710: 8778: 8264: 7894: 6847:"A case for evolutionary genomics and the comprehensive examination of sequence biodiversity" 5479: 4597: 4113: 4095: 4068: 3875: 3774: 3643: 3554: 3439: 3367: 3288:

strongly critiqued explanations of adaptations worded in terms of "survival of the species" (

3203: 3165: 3104: 3051: 2862: 2785: 2573: 2462: 2420: 2301: 2283: 2278:

had called a war between competing plant species, competition well described by the botanist

2271: 2171: 2011: 1762: 1611:

Although Greek and Roman evolutionary ideas died out in Western Europe after the fall of the

1596: 1590: 1445: 1176: 997: 865: 787: 764: 732: 595: 477: 422: 388: 301: 46: 9020: 15224: 15219: 15094: 14978: 14883: 14856: 14738: 14582: 14577: 14501: 14390: 14380: 14025: 13832: 13817: 13785: 13772: 13633: 13545: 13413: 13380: 13355: 13209: 13173: 13067: 13037: 12856: 12653: 12548: 12482: 12283: 12198: 12114: 12026: 12009: 11936: 11926: 11636: 11544: 11528: 11443: 11416: 11355: 11302: 11109: 10950: 10038: 8720: 8569: 8379: 8110: 7827: 7759: 7659: 7561: 7455:(March 2000). "Horizontal gene transfer and the origin of species: lessons from bacteria". 7403: 7265: 7070: 7009: 6910: 6795: 6700: 6461: 6452: 6269: 5206: 3326: 3034: 2744: 2413: 1944: 1524: 1204: 1088: 896: 821: 724: 447: 219: 104: 61: 12288: 12158: 9556:

Dimensions of Darwinism: Themes and Counterthemes in Twentieth Century Evolutionary Theory

9471:

Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria

6865: 6846: 3880: 3509:, which attempts to mimic biological evolution for the purpose of developing new computer 2395: 1766: 8: 15286: 14968: 14861: 14836: 14821: 14750: 14587: 14552: 14544: 14433: 14423: 14092: 13857: 13642: 13560: 13101: 13045: 12972: 12716: 12674: 12624: 12543: 12391: 12383: 12313: 12293: 12239: 12083: 11836: 11779: 11641: 11624: 11602: 11448: 11385: 11277: 11262: 11105: 9859: 9474: 9297: 9110: 8711: 7645: 6538: 6407: 5614: 4715: 4427: 3836: 3832: 3545:

One important development in the study of microbial evolution came with the discovery in

3453: 3405: 3231: 3134: 3095:

The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr was influenced by the work of the German biologist

3081: 3018: 2961: 2781: 2584: 2466: 2332: 2092: 1963: 1228: 960: 920: 908: 885: 861: 537: 527: 462: 427: 311: 214: 139: 74: 11994: 10640: 10423:. Hale Lectures of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April, 1916. New York: 10418: 10391: 9863: 9774: 8724: 8573: 8383: 8114: 7831: 7763: 7663: 7565: 7407: 7269: 7074: 7013: 6799: 6704: 6465: 6273: 3997:"Evolution, Science, and Society: Evolutionary Biology and the National Research Agenda" 3210:—to protein sequences. Increasingly powerful techniques for analyzing proteins, such as 1198:, "Nothing is more remarkable than efforts to the relationships of living things as a 15434: 15389: 15276: 15099: 14920: 14755: 14745: 14562: 14418: 14400: 14385: 14192: 14050: 13893: 13883: 13852: 13647: 13595: 13505: 13455: 13314: 13273: 13189: 13096: 13076: 12930: 12908: 12903: 12689: 12641: 12634: 12231: 12143: 12004: 11965: 11789: 11733: 11723: 11683: 11597: 11592: 11587: 11505: 11458: 11406: 11267: 11252: 11232: 11206: 10926: 10870: 10858: 10613: 10528: 10454:

Palæontology, or a Systematic Summary of Extinct Animals and Their Geological Relations

10452: 10203: 9968: 9818: 9554: 8741: 8706: 8682: 8655: 8593: 8532: 8503: 8456: 8400: 8367: 8315: 8240: 8177: 8074: 7943: 7851: 7843: 7683: 7584: 7547: 7520: 7493: 7427: 7197: 7147: 7120: 7093: 7056: 6721: 6686: 6664: 6565: 6477: 6424: 6358: 6331: 6233: 6217: 6180: 6164: 6115: 6099: 5430: 4831: 4562:"How was the Genesis account of creation interpreted before Darwin? – Common-questions" 4034:"Evolution, Science and Society: Evolutionary Biology and the National Research Agenda" 4003: 3992: 3967: 3735: 3628: 3572:. The endosymbiotic theory holds that organelles within the cells of eukorytes such as 3393: 3305: 3215: 3059: 3030: 2982:, and showed that natural selection worked at an even faster rate than Fisher assumed. 2834: 2814: 2720: 2263: 2216: 2104: 1707:

in which to work, but that due order might be observed in the instituting of the world.

1700: 1696: 1628: 1616: 1486: 1472: 1440: 1432: 1415: 1323: 1319: 1311: 1244: 1166: 1109: 916: 697: 580: 512: 296: 224: 189: 9512:

Augustine in the Italian Renaissance: Art and Philosophy from Petrarch to Michelangelo

8889: 8732: 7470: 7343: 7316: 4280: 2518:. Another important line of evidence was the finding of fossils that helped trace the 907:, led to sophisticated mathematical and causal models of evolution. Palaeontology and 15493: 15266: 15123: 14913: 14878: 14772: 14711: 14612: 14317: 14143: 14136: 14130: 13913: 13908: 13822: 13624: 13365: 13332: 13199: 13060: 13008: 12967: 12945: 12913: 12777: 12731: 12457: 12405: 12183: 11999: 11900: 11863: 11858: 11814: 11809: 11762: 11728: 11247: 11138: 11044: 11025: 11017: 11007: 10978: 10968: 10960: 10938: 10930: 10896: 10888: 10878: 10862: 10850: 10842: 10834: 10824: 10799: 10791: 10767: 10759: 10749: 10732: 10724: 10714: 10690: 10682: 10672: 10650: 10627: 10619: 10597: 10589: 10579: 10557: 10549: 10539: 10514: 10506: 10496: 10470: 10462: 10436: 10428: 10405: 10397: 10375: 10367: 10357: 10340: 10332: 10322: 10303: 10295: 10285: 10263: 10255: 10245: 10228: 10220: 10210: 10186: 10178: 10168: 10147: 10139: 10129: 10119: 10103: 10095: 10085: 10064: 10056: 10046: 10032: 10019: 10011: 10001: 9975: 9925: 9917: 9907: 9873: 9847: 9839: 9829: 9804: 9796: 9786: 9764: 9756: 9732: 9724: 9714: 9693: 9685: 9675: 9658: 9650: 9640: 9630: 9617: 9609: 9599: 9578: 9570: 9560: 9537: 9529: 9519: 9496: 9488: 9478: 9450: 9442: 9432: 9417: 9401: 9393: 9383: 9345: 9337: 9315: 9307: 9284: 9276: 9248: 9223: 9198: 9190: 9166: 9158: 9132: 9124: 9114: 9088: 9080: 9070: 9049: 9041: 9031: 9006: 8998: 8988: 8978: 8962: 8954: 8944: 8932: 8919: 8911: 8903: 8893: 8864: 8856: 8846: 8825: 8817: 8807: 8790: 8782: 8687: 8642: 8585: 8537: 8448: 8440: 8405: 8307: 8232: 8227: 8208: 8169: 8126: 8066: 8061: 8042: 8012: 7976: 7935: 7898: 7787: 7782: 7745: 7675: 7650: 7626: 7589: 7525: 7492:

Kunin, Victor; Goldovsky, Leon; Darzentas, Nikos; Ouzounis, Christos A. (July 2005).

7474: 7457: 7419: 7348: 7293: 7288: 7253: 7234: 7189: 7152: 7098: 7037: 7032: 6995: 6965: 6960: 6941: 6922: 6914: 6870: 6823: 6818: 6781: 6726: 6691: 6656: 6651: 6632: 6557: 6552: 6533: 6514: 6432: 6363: 6327: 6297: 6292: 6255: 6225: 6172: 6107: 5434: 5413: 4820:

Zirkle, Conway (April 25, 1941). "Natural Selection before the 'Origin of Species'".

4796: 4635: 4456: 4342: 4286: 4285:. Translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye. The Internet Classics Archive. Book II. 4252: 4191: 4007: 3828: 3620: 3449: 3223: 3170: 3026: 3022: 2991: 2939: 2432: 2370: 2275: 2016: 1770: 948: 900: 805: 281: 159: 149: 144: 15364: 8597: 8460: 8244: 8078: 7962: 7947: 7855: 7687: 7431: 7201: 6481: 6237: 6184: 3553:

came to the attention of scientists because it played a major role in the spread of

1754: 1541: 15464: 15419: 15399: 14935: 14925: 14908: 14438: 13342: 13283: 13072: 13015: 12323: 11890: 11868: 11676: 11463: 10816: 10115: 9948: 9869: 8885: 8736: 8728: 8677: 8669: 8577: 8560: 8527: 8517: 8432: 8423:

Müller, Gerd B. (December 2007). "Evo–devo: extending the evolutionary synthesis".

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may play roles alongside natural selection in three areas of evolutionary biology:

3502: 3494: 3419: 3310: 2974: 2670: 1995: 1624: 1411: 1382: 1186: 924: 877: 809: 716: 316: 13214: 12168: 6119: 3472:

One of the most prominent debates arising during the 1970s was over the theory of

3308:. This viewpoint would be summarized and popularized in the influential 1976 book 15454: 15414: 15336: 15291: 15128: 15033: 15018: 14993: 14807: 14787: 14082: 13973: 13938: 13847: 13735: 13629: 13585: 13565: 13438: 13154: 13133: 12888: 12684: 12308: 12135: 12124: 12078: 12021: 11970: 11750: 11554: 11453: 11100: 10709:. Translated by Peter Heath. Introduction by Michael Vater. Charlottesville, VA: 10646: 10480: 9963: 9943:(Third revised ed.). Nanaimo, British Columbia: Liberal Studies Department, 9899: 9104: 8974: 8213: 7876: 7498: 7230: 6946: 5877:, p. 264, Fig. 128: "Stages in the Evolution of the Horn in the Titanothere" 5798: 5694: 4710:"The Vatican claims Darwin's theory of evolution is compatible with Christianity" 4629: 4510: 4417: 3824: 3791: 3700: 3608: 3498: 3444: 3363: 3322: 3315: 3301: 3289: 3227: 3193: 3096: 2986: 2810: 2789: 2704: 2604: 2535: 2504: 2327: 2312: 1817: 1347: 1315: 1290: 1104: 884:

during the 1910s to 1930s, and resulted in the founding of the new discipline of

744: 740: 701: 269: 259: 121: 11175: 9299:

The Temple of Nature; or The Origin of Society: A Poem, with Philosophical Notes

7879:(November 2002). "Gene co-option in physiological and morphological evolution". 5343:, p. 105, Fig. 6: "The Archetype of the Vertebrate Skeleton. (After Owen.)" 3343:

would have to constantly change to keep pace with the species with which it was

2567: 2293:

published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix,

2034: 1793:

Maupertuis' ideas were in opposition to the influence of early taxonomists like

1339:

In line with earlier Greek thought, the third-century Christian philosopher and

872:

plant variations rediscovered in 1900, was integrated with natural selection by

15505: 15374: 15234: 14873: 14782: 13575: 13555: 13465: 13158: 13050: 12925: 12524: 12396: 12338: 11698: 11693: 11631: 11609: 10779: 10458: 10125: 9550: 9413: 9379: 9363: 9327: 9266: 9144: 8881: 8766: 8673: 8555: 7806: 7543: 6842: 4413: 3797: 3679: 3675: 3632: 3616: 3568:

sees a form of horizontal gene transfer as a critical step in the evolution of

3477: 3297: 3067: 3063: 2888: 2740: 2724: 2556: 2465:'s diagram of the evolution of horse feet and teeth over time as reproduced in 2379: 2295:

An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species

2155:

anonymously published an extremely controversial but widely read book entitled

2116: 1904: 1856: 1813: 1692: 1546: 1340: 1267: 1220: 1195: 849: 797: 783: 720: 689: 677: 351: 254: 10997: 10393:

From the Greeks to Darwin: An Outline of the Development of the Evolution Idea

9851: 8335:"The Extended (Evolutionary) Synthesis Debate: Where Science Meets Philosophy" 7839: 6213: 6160: 3926:: Empedocles did not have any conception of evolution through geological time. 2829: 2246:, showed him the need to ensure that his own ideas were scientifically sound. 1276:, in contrast with the more static view of nature typical of Western thought. 69: 15549: 15424: 15359: 15331: 15259: 14988: 14903: 14077: 14020: 14010: 13570: 13390: 13350: 13346: 13337: 13180: 13149: 13138: 13128: 13055: 12957: 12851: 12726: 12604: 12563: 12409: 12163: 11831: 11826: 11115: 11003: 10972: 10922: 10518: 10379: 10107: 9989: 9940:. . . And Still We Evolve: A Handbook for the Early History of Modern Science 9929: 9744: 9736: 9697: 9595: 9349: 9288: 9170: 9136: 8868: 8774: 8444: 8372:

Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution

8092: 8038: 7772: 7312: 6888: 5814: 5404: 4346: 3885: 3840: 3806: 3652: 3604: 3582: 3573: 3561: 3514: 3389: 3336: 3293: 3219: 3158: 2928: 2876: 2858: 2806: 2777: 2736: 2637: 2539: 2527: 2515: 2510: 2428: 2305: 2255: 2229: 2206: 2202: 2122: 2006: 1991: 1952: 1848: 1828: 1644: 1370: 968: 952: 944: 881: 873: 709: 685: 502: 174: 38: 11162: 11029: 10900: 10846: 10771: 10694: 10561: 10474: 10344: 10267: 10190: 10151: 10068: 9877: 9808: 9662: 9621: 9541: 9500: 9405: 9227: 9092: 9053: 9010: 8966: 8915: 8351: 8334: 7671: 7574: 7278: 7083: 7022: 6918: 6808: 6712: 4460: 4290: 4256: 4011: 3520: 3045:

In the early 20th century, most field naturalists continued to believe that

2174:, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin's theory a decade later. 1146:

resulted from his research into natural history on and around the island of

1075: 1045:) proposed that the first animals lived in water, during a wet phase of the 15469: 15449: 15404: 15379: 15369: 15341: 15271: 15229: 15103: 15057: 15028: 15008: 13867: 13168: 13145: 12721: 12669: 12614: 12447: 12442: 12036: 11794: 11156: 10854: 10803: 10736: 10654: 10631: 10609: 10601: 10492: 10448: 10440: 10409: 10307: 10023: 9889: 9820:

Evolution: Genesis and Revelations: With Readings from Empedocles to Wilson

9768: 9582: 9319: 9252: 8829: 8691: 8589: 8541: 8452: 8409: 8311: 8236: 8173: 8130: 8070: 8016: 7980: 7939: 7902: 7791: 7679: 7630: 7593: 7529: 7478: 7423: 7385:

Ochman, Howard; Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; Groisman, Eduardo A. (May 18, 2000).

7352: 7238: 7193: 7156: 7102: 6991: 6987: 6969: 6926: 6874: 6730: 6682: 6660: 6561: 6518: 6436: 6349: 6282: 6229: 6176: 6111: 5426: 4409: 4002:(Executive summary). New Brunswick, NJ: Office of University Publications, 3802: 3779: 3760: 3739: 3624: 3531: 3409: 3379: 3235: 3207: 2880: 2732: 2728: 2708: 2394:

The biogeographical patterns Charles Darwin observed in places such as the

2233: 2162: 2112: 2043: 1979: 1948: 1924: 1881: 1730: 1612: 1391:

proceeded by a sort of graduated and ordered advance to the creation of man

1297: 1131: 1010: 853: 813: 748: 705: 681: 522: 507: 291: 286: 204: 12792: 10942: 10232: 9998:

The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts

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Whitman, William B.; Coleman, David C.; Wiebe, William J. (June 9, 1998).

7041: 6827: 6367: 6301: 2514:

in Europe, and a number of fossils of primitive birds with teeth found in

2499:

to reform and professionalise science by displacing natural theology with

2177:

Ideas about the transmutation of species were associated with the radical

2038:

Lamarck's two-factor theory involves a complexifying force driving animal

1877: 1318:

who had a strongly teleological view of the natural world that influenced

1266:

philosopher, expressed ideas on changing biological species. According to

29: 15459: 15444: 15429: 15409: 15326: 15254: 15071: 15061: 15048: 15013: 14963: 14893: 14846: 14733: 14723: 14006: 13918: 13862: 13700: 13485: 13184: 13003: 12748: 12619: 12348: 11883: 11713: 11619: 11577: 11423: 11070: 10993: 10569: 10396:. Columbia Biological Series (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan and Co. 10209:. William James Lectures, 1933. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 9885: 9592:

The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History

3769: 3756: 3694: 3612: 3577: 3401: 3397: 3344: 3234:

could be used to calculate the time since two species diverged. By 1969,

2852: 2818: 2622: 2194: 2178: 1812:; its first use in relation to development of species came in 1762, when 1786: 1655: 1307: 1248: 1213: 1156: 1031: 1023:, could descend from other types of animals, are known to go back to the 1002: 904: 712: 532: 249: 199: 14640: 12188: 8391: 7648:(April 9, 2004). "Ancient Invasions: From Endosymbionts to Organelles". 7185: 4634:. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 252. 2918: 2899:

When Thomas Hunt Morgan began experimenting with breeding the fruit fly

1494:" prompted Father Giuseppe Tanzella-Nitti, Professor of Theology at the 832:

that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s. Before that time most

15346: 15075: 15066: 15053: 14797: 14760: 13953: 13948: 13665: 13400: 12940: 12609: 12510: 12432: 12419: 12053: 11853: 11740: 11718: 11671: 11666: 11614: 11582: 11497: 11365: 11142: 10820: 10281:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

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Gould, Stephen Jay (1983). "The Hardening of the Modern Synthesis". In

8522: 7847: 7622: 7511: 6983: 6473: 6428: 6251: 6221: 6168: 6103: 6095: 3636: 3588: 3535: 3490: 3485: 3435: 3108: 3089: 3077: 2892: 2632:

centered on the similarities and differences between humans and modern

2552: 2548: 2238: 2189: 2082: 1928: 1821: 1660: 1648: 1100: 1052: 964: 825: 768: 752: 306: 229: 184: 164: 78: 15500: 10356:. New preface by Ernst Mayr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 10354:

The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology

10034:

Explorations in African Political Thought: Identity, Community, Ethics

5409:"Mind the gap: Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?" 4835: 2650:, Huxley showed that Owen was mistaken in claiming that the brains of 2099:. One of the French scientists who influenced Grant was the anatomist 1912: 1150:, and have survived in the form of four books, usually known by their 15113: 14706: 14161: 13615: 12743: 12594: 12203: 11821: 11569: 11433: 11380: 11375: 11350: 10813:

Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology

10615:

Form and Function: A Contribution to the History of Animal Morphology

10042: 8164: 8145: 8123:

10.1002/1097-010X(20001215)288:4<304::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-G

7609: 7415: 6782:"Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism" 4276: 3923: 3870: 3848: 3843:. However, Kauffman does not take into account the essential role of 3704: 3569: 3565: 3510: 3457: 3014: 2756: 2691: 2543:

the evolutionary history of life based on morphology and embryology.

2458: 2375: 2345: 2228:, he criticized Lamarck's theories of development. Idealists such as 2161:. This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the 2039: 1975: 1932: 1561:

Augustine implies that whatever science shows, the Bible must teach:

1284: 1224: 1083: 1065: 833: 790:

published a new evolutionary theory, explained in detail in Darwin's

776: 760: 728: 669: 565: 179: 99: 8581: 8436: 8303: 7931: 7494:"The net of life: Reconstructing the microbial phylogenetic network" 7138: 6892: 6510: 6450:

Parker, Matthew A. (September 1994). "Pathogens and sex in plants".

6420: 4595:

Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Works of St. Augustine of Hippo".

2085:

and would influence discussions of evolution into the 20th century.

1808:, meaning "to unroll like a scroll") was initially used to refer to 1575: 1498:

in Rome, to claim that Augustine had suggested a form of evolution.

1428: 15133: 14851: 14067: 13827: 13532: 12646: 11848: 11428: 11054: 10664: 10466: 10318:

Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist

9270: 8099:(December 2000). "Epigenetic mechanisms of character origination". 4566: 4448: 4337:. Digital Loeb Classical Library. Vol. LCL268. Cambridge, MA: 4238: 3550: 3539: 3465: 3385: 3009: 2867: 2841:, showing the sex-linked inheritance of the white-eyed mutation in 2798: 2760: 2748: 2628:

Therefore, the debate that immediately followed the publication of

2618: 2592: 2487:

One of the first and most important naturalists to be convinced by

2193:

Richard Owen's 1848 diagram shows his conceptual archetype for all

2077: 1987: 1983: 1920: 1908: 1861: 1794: 1686: 1636: 1605: 1123: 1114: 1069: 857: 555: 154: 11125: 11021: 10686: 10510: 10182: 10143: 10099: 9970:

The Origins of Order: Self-organization and Selection in Evolution

9728: 9689: 9654: 9533: 9084: 9045: 8860: 8289: 6942:"Hybrid speciation in plants: new insights from molecular studies" 4033: 3202:, and with it an understanding of the chemical nature of genes as 3021:

of the early 20th century to form the modern synthesis, including

2088:

A radical British school of comparative anatomy that included the

14831: 14486: 13968: 12031: 11745: 11040:

Rethinking evolution: the revolution that's hiding in plain sight

10000:(2nd ed.). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 4797:"Medieval and Renaissance Concepts of Evolution and Paleontology" 4682: 3603:

themes in evolutionary biology in the work of biologists such as

3461: 3354:

Contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis, Hanley

2651: 2531: 2140: 2108: 2089: 2055: 1940: 1916: 1093: 829: 817: 673: 10964: 10956:

A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom

10934: 10892: 10838: 10795: 10763: 10728: 10623: 10593: 10578:. Vol. 1. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 10553: 10432: 10401: 10371: 10336: 10299: 10259: 10244:. American Museum of Natural History Book. New York: New Press. 10224: 10060: 10015: 9921: 9843: 9800: 9760: 9613: 9574: 9492: 9446: 9397: 9341: 9311: 9280: 9194: 9162: 9128: 9002: 8958: 8907: 8821: 8786: 5146:: "...we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end." 2286:' phrase "struggle for existence" used of warring human tribes. 2103:, whose ideas on the unity of various animal body plans and the 1726: 1520:

A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom

15532: 14898: 11085: 9672:

Barth, Origen, and Universal Salvation: Restoring Particularity

8983:. Norton History of Science (1st American ed.). New York: 8043:"Macroevolution is more than repeated rounds of microevolution" 7491: 7214: 4628:

Fitzgerald, Allan; Cavadini, John C., eds. (1999). "Creation".

4328: 3844: 3348: 3177: 3144: 3055: 2824: 2735:. Alternatives supported by biologists at other times included 2523: 2496: 2438:

an extract from Darwin's 1844 essay along with Wallace's letter

2144: 2047: 1343: 1263: 1232: 1147: 1139: 1118: 1016: 756: 747:

began to focus on the variability of species; the emergence of

719:; and the development of the new anti-Aristotelian approach to 611: 9422:"Punctuated Equilibria: An Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism" 8980:

The Earth Encompassed: A History of the Environmental Sciences

7746:"The exaptive excellence of spandrels as a term and prototype" 7387:"Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation" 5613:, chpt. XIV: "On the Reception of the 'Origin of Species'" by 2985:

The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in

1466:, as a great mystery in reference to Christ and to the Church. 11952: 4918:

Chapter 6, Part 5: "The sciences (knowledge) of the prophets"

3546: 2621:

in the 1890s were either of anatomically modern humans or of

2183: 2059: 1971: 1734: 1151: 1138:

Aristotle, the most influential of the Greek philosophers in

1079: 1061: 1056: 1046: 1020: 10959:. Vol. 1. New York; London: D. Appleton & Company. 10815:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 1–65. 10530:

Molecular Ecology and Evolution: Approaches and Applications

10321:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 8613:"Gaia theory: intimations for global environmental politics" 6845:; Doggett, Norman A.; Cummings, Michael P. (December 2000). 3066:

developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of

3062:. He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of 14777: 10205:

The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea

9751:. Vol. 2. From the German of Ernst Haeckel. New York: 6840: 6534:"Sex reduces genetic variation: a multidisciplinary review" 3426:, including work on other aspects of the altruism problem. 2707:

horns over time, which Osborn claimed was an example of an

2205:, the philosophy of natural theology remained influential. 2136: 1738: 10642:

On the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton

8481:"Teilhard de Chardin: The Phenomenon of Man: a Compendium" 7365: 5709:, at least into the 1880s. Focusing so much on Darwin and 1400:

wrote in his work on the history of evolutionary thought,

7996:"The morphogenesis of evolutionary developmental biology" 7915: 7169: 3521:

Microbiology, horizontal gene transfer, and endosymbiosis

2633: 2588: 2331:

convince others of its importance to have a real impact.

1907:

published his findings on the differences between living

1555: 1272: 1113:

for example, Plato has a character tell a story that the

932: 928: 869: 10121:

Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory

9783:

The Emperor's Kilt: The Two Secret Histories of Scotland

8836: 7727: 7725: 6940:

Hegarty, Matthew J.; Hiscock, Simon J. (February 2005).

6606: 3412:

published the influential and highly controversial book

1460:

Now all these things that happened to them were symbolic

8268:. Cambridge, MA: Technology Review, Inc. Archived from 4073: 2583:(1863). Huxley applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using 2262:

When Darwin was developing his theory, he investigated

1722:

Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment

903:

in natural populations, combined with biogeography and

700:

in the late 17th century, two opposed ideas influenced

7960: 7384: 7057:"Genomes, phylogeny, and evolutionary systems biology" 5804:"What our most famous evolutionary cartoon gets wrong" 5144:"Profile: James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology" 4032:

Futuyma, Douglas J.; Meagher, Thomas R., eds. (2001).

3722:

Modern synthesis (20th century) § Later syntheses

3665:

Modern synthesis (20th century) § Later syntheses

15521: 8880:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. San Diego, CA: 7722: 3745: 3339:, to describe a scenario where a species involved in 2577:) was the frontispiece of Thomas Henry Huxley's book 2406:

and others. In 1838 he read the new sixth edition of

2249: 2095:

was closely in touch with Lamarck's French school of

836:

regarded other factors as responsible for evolution.

8207:

Rapp, Ryan A.; Wendell, Jonathan F. (October 2005).

4197:

Reports of the National Center for Science Education

3669: 3589:

From spandrels to evolutionary developmental biology

2676: 2666:

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

2447: 2143:(R), and birds (B) branching from a path leading to 1439:

In the fourth century AD, the bishop and theologian

959:

and the reorganization of the tree of life into the

10907: 10491:. Rough Guides Reference Guides. London; New York: 9559:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 9106:

The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution

8875: 8504:"The Omega Point and Beyond: The Singularity Event" 8473: 7548:"Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis" 7251: 6982: 6594: 4323: 4321: 4176:"Section Three: The Origins of Evolutionary Theory" 3651:." Such perspectives influenced the disciplines of 3642:Molecular data regarding the mechanisms underlying 3631:" after an architectural feature. Later, Gould and 3429: 2072:

of 1809, a theory of the transmutation of species (

1765:. Between 1650 and 1800, some naturalists, such as 11106:Darwin's precursors and influences by John Wilkins 10527: 10202: 10037:. New Political Science Reader Series. Preface by 9988: 9967: 9817: 9773:Volumes 1 and 2 of the book is available from the 9019: 8332: 8188: 8004:The International Journal of Developmental Biology 7968:The International Journal of Developmental Biology 7811:"Exaptation—a missing term in the science of form" 5802: 4708: 4627: 4139: 4124: 4079: 3715: 2980:evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths 11205: 7643: 7542: 7310: 6337:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 5980: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5972: 5959: 5957: 5955: 5953: 5951: 5938: 5936: 5923: 5921: 5908: 5906: 5904: 5902: 5889: 5887: 5885: 5883: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5559:The Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette 4823:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4455:. Martin, TN: University of Tennessee at Martin. 4150: 4148: 3699:Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in 3070:observed by field biologists, with his 1937 book 2015:, which, building on Hutton's ideas, advocated a 1970:named three major eras, based on the predominant 1931:geological processes operating continuously over 1576:Islamic philosophy and the struggle for existence 939:rose to prominence in the 1960s, followed by the 927:and immunological tests, and later incorporating 15547: 8359: 7450: 6893:"Orthologs, paralogs, and evolutionary genomics" 6404: 5288: 5286: 5225: 5223: 4675:"Vatican buries the hatchet with Charles Darwin" 4318: 4308: 4306: 1715: 1687:Thomas Aquinas on creation and natural processes 808:: it synthesized a broad range of evidence from 22:. For the history of religious discussions, see 10869: 10352:Mayr, Ernst; Provine, William B., eds. (1998). 8558:(December 18, 2003). "Gaia: the living Earth". 8333:Pigliucci, Massimo; Finkelman, Leonard (2014). 8194: 7961:Baguñà, Jaume; Garcia-Fernàndez, Jordi (2003). 7882:Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 6532:Gorelick, Root; Heng, Henry H.Q. (April 2011). 5721: 5719: 5023: 4801:University of California Museum of Paleontology 3866:Current research topics in evolutionary biology 3198:The middle decades of the 20th century saw the 1453:), he prefaces his account with the following: 967:. In addition, the newly recognized factors of 8365: 6939: 5969: 5948: 5933: 5918: 5899: 5880: 5839: 4776: 4145: 4031: 3107:in the formation of new species. This form of 2948:is the black-bodied form of the peppered moth. 2683:Alternatives to evolution by natural selection 1888:, showing the appearance of major animal types 14656: 14177: 12808: 11513: 11439:History of the creation-evolution controversy 11191: 11167: 10877:. London; New York: Oxford University Press. 10671:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 9412: 8930: 7115: 6767: 6687:"Five rules for the evolution of cooperation" 6582: 5283: 5220: 4859:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 4518: 4303: 4220: 4218: 4105: 4103: 2793:some naturalists well into the 20th century. 911:allowed more detailed reconstructions of the 650: 24:History of the creation–evolution controversy 11086:"The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online" 11074:. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company 10748:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 9362: 8366:Laubichler, Manfred D; Renn, Jürgen (2015). 8091: 6531: 5716: 5465: 5277: 5185: 3178:1940s–1960s: Molecular biology and evolution 2825:Mendelian genetics, biometrics, and mutation 2614:Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1462:. And he explains the statement in Genesis, 1414:in the fourth century, and was completed by 868:, a series of 19th-century experiments with 45:(1879) illustrates the 19th-century view of 12822: 10351: 9884: 9265: 9061:Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2005). 9060: 8206: 7874: 6032: 6020: 5996: 5833: 5791: 5699:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 5626: 5316: 5088: 4913: 4898: 4631:Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia 4554: 4004:Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey 3851:but not simply self-organizing as they are 2601:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 2526:, and the countries of southern Europe and 2493:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 2425:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 2158:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 2132:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 2023: 1892: 1635:In the medieval Islamic world, the scholar 1301: 1288: 14663: 14649: 14601: 14184: 14170: 12815: 12801: 11520: 11506: 11198: 11184: 10810: 9895:The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History 9177:The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online 9063:Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey 8326: 8283: 7606: 7322:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 6044: 5235: 4594: 4215: 4185: 4183: 4100: 3948:, p. 189, Plate XV: "Pedigree of Man" 3151:. It received its name from the 1942 book 2484:persist: his theory of natural selection. 1955:to explain the patterns of extinction and 657: 643: 15319: 15282:Relationship between religion and science 14670: 11469:Relationship between religion and science 10925:; translation by Bernard Wall. New York: 10701: 9780: 8801: 8740: 8681: 8531: 8521: 8399: 8350: 8226: 8163: 8060: 7804: 7781: 7771: 7744:Gould, Stephen Jay (September 30, 1997). 7583: 7573: 7519: 7342: 7287: 7277: 7146: 7092: 7082: 7031: 7021: 6959: 6864: 6817: 6807: 6720: 6650: 6551: 6357: 6291: 6281: 5077: 4994: 4931:"Creation, Evolution, and Thomas Aquinas" 4615: 4548: 4536: 4524: 4085: 3855:relying on a continuous input of energy. 3688: 3241:the neutral theory of molecular evolution 3230:(MCH): that sequence differences between 2970:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 2871:) and Hugo de Vries (who coined the word 13979:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 12754:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 11527: 10707:System of transcendental idealism (1800) 9962: 9936: 9468: 9099: 8661:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 8638: 8554: 8501: 7895:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.18.020402.140619 7731: 7304: 6144: 6079: 5477: 5403: 4882: 4880: 4171: 3896:Timeline of evolutionary history of life 3732:transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 3443: 3008: 2828: 2747:but non-evolutionary functionalism, and 2703:shows models depicting the evolution of 2690: 2566: 2562: 2457: 2374: 2188: 2121: 2033: 1876: 1777:, regarded evolution as a fundamentally 1725: 1589: 1427: 1074: 1005:argued that humans originated from fish. 996: 28: 10608: 10197: 9743: 9704: 8765: 8143: 7993: 6761: 5689:, pp. 515–518: "The centrality of 5551: 5340: 4958: 4928: 4903:Chapter 1: "Sixth Prefatory Discussion" 4848: 4446: 4189: 4180: 4109: 4060: 4058: 4038:California Journal of Science Education 3991: 3945: 2409:An Essay on the Principle of Population 2297:, which he expanded in later editions. 2066:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed, in his 2052:inheritance of acquired characteristics 1986:, the age of reptiles, and the current 1753:In the first half of the 17th century, 1681: 1334: 1329: 846:inheritance of acquired characteristics 15548: 14191: 11157:Charles Darwin and Early Evolutionists 10778: 10743: 10525: 10486: 10416: 10386: 10239: 10158: 10114: 9858: 9815: 9669: 9431:. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, Cooper. 9333:The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin 9326: 9295: 9272:Zoonomia; or, the Laws of Organic Life 9240: 9215: 9182: 9143: 9017: 8973: 8422: 8260:"A Comeback for Lamarckian Evolution?" 8257: 7637: 7546:; Bapteste, Eric (February 13, 2007). 7054: 6976: 6911:10.1146/annurev.genet.39.073003.114725 6887: 6755: 6743: 6645:(5): 1415–1418, discussion 1426–1436. 6633:"Cooperation within and among species" 6618: 6607:Bernstein, Bernstein & Michod 2012 6449: 6392: 6380: 6320: 6314: 6132: 5984: 5963: 5942: 5927: 5912: 5893: 5874: 5862: 5850: 5797: 5785: 5773: 5761: 5749: 5737: 5725: 5686: 5674: 5662: 5650: 5638: 5606: 5594: 5579: 5536: 5521: 5506: 5494: 5453: 5414:Notes and Records of the Royal Society 5399: 5397: 5388: 5376: 5364: 5352: 5328: 5304: 5292: 5265: 5253: 5229: 5179: 5167: 5155: 5139: 5127: 5118:, p. 5, Fig. 1: "Table of Strata" 5103: 5065: 5053: 5041: 5029: 5017: 5005: 4982: 4970: 4819: 4813: 4740: 4706: 4494: 4479: 4408: 4395:"Notes for a lecture delivered to the 4312: 4237:Boylan, Michael (September 26, 2005). 4236: 4224: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4091: 3985: 3206:and of their relationship—through the 2955: 2335:said in his essay on the reception of 1833:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 1346:argued that the creation story in the 14644: 14165: 13471:Psychological effects of Internet use 12796: 12517:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 11501: 11179: 11166: 11148:"The History of Evolutionary Thought" 10949: 10568: 10075: 10030: 9974:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9628: 9589: 9548: 9247:(6th ed.). London: John Murray. 9222:(4th ed.). London: John Murray. 9189:(3rd ed.). London: John Murray. 8478: 8144:Carroll, Sean B. (February 8, 2001). 8037: 7963:"Evo-Devo: the long and winding road" 7743: 6866:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026278 6779: 6681: 6630: 6326: 6197: 6068: 5241: 4886: 4877: 4790: 4788: 4764: 4752: 4601:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 4359: 4275: 4135: 4133: 4064: 3957: 3267: 3190:Neutral theory of molecular evolution 3103:, which emphasized the importance of 3101:Systematics and the Origin of Species 2891:, who had focused on measurement and 2530:was slower. An exception to this was 2503:and to end the domination of British 2454:Reactions to On the Origin of Species 1872: 1586:Science in the medieval Islamic world 1423: 941:neutral theory of molecular evolution 759:. In the early 19th century prior to 10811:Smocovitis, Vassiliki Betty (1996). 10663: 10638: 10447: 10314: 10274: 9785:. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing. 9632:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory 9509: 9336:. Vol. 1. London: John Murray. 8759:Bibliography of evolutionary biology 6780:Gould, Stephen Jay (July 19, 1994). 6494: 6250: 6056: 6008: 5115: 4794: 4672: 4426:(Fall 2013 ed.). Stanford, CA: 4154: 4055: 3812: 3497:and the development of the field of 3262: 2657:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature 2580:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature 2352: 1389:Scripture informs us that the Deity 13451:Digital media use and mental health 11131:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11120:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 10703:Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph 9898:. Bollingen Series. Translation by 9674:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8704: 8653: 7644:Dyall, Sabrina D.; Brown, Mark T.; 7119:; Sismour, A. Michael (July 2005). 5484:London: J. Harding. pp. 15–16. 5394: 4707:Irvine, Chris (February 11, 2009). 4673:Owen, Richard (February 11, 2009). 4453:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4423:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4244:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4160: 3047:alternative mechanisms of evolution 3039:non-Darwinian theories of evolution 2998: 1743:L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux 1377: 775:, the first fully formed theory of 755:further undermined static views of 13: 13082:Automatic and controlled processes 11922:Evolutionary developmental biology 11346:Central dogma of molecular biology 11152:University of California, Berkeley 11088:. National University of Singapore 10986: 9826:State University of New York Press 9635:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of 8643:Chapter 7: "Gaia Is a Tough Bitch" 8610: 8509:American Journal of Neuroradiology 8258:Singer, Emily (February 4, 2009). 7710:University of California, Berkeley 7254:"Prokaryotes: The unseen majority" 5552:Matthew, Patrick (April 7, 1860). 5133: 4785: 4488: 4402: 4371: 4353: 4327: 4230: 4190:Wilkins, John (July–August 2006). 4130: 3785: 3746:Unconventional evolutionary theory 3595:Evolutionary developmental biology 3351:is passed on during reproduction. 3073:Genetics and the Origin of Species 2780:, and the American paleontologist 2250:Anticipations of natural selection 2172:evolution as a progressive process 1884:'s 1861 geological timescale from 1484:Augustine deployed the concept of 1464:And they shall be two in one flesh 1219:Other Greek philosophers, such as 47:evolution as a progressive process 14: 15572: 15302:Sociology of scientific knowledge 15297:Sociology of scientific ignorance 15250:History and philosophy of science 14222:History and philosophy of science 13491:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 11126:"History of evolutionary thought" 11078: 11071:A first book in organic evolution 10999:Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea 10669:Genesis: The Evolution of Biology 9427:. In Schopf, Thomas J. M. (ed.). 9022:Evolution: The History of an Idea 8941:Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 8878:Molecular Genetics of Development 8771:Commentary on Aristotle's Physics 8502:Castillo, Mauricio (March 2012). 8209:"Epigenetics and plant evolution" 6631:Sachs, Joel L. (September 2006). 6595:Bernstein, Hopf & Michod 1987 6201:Journal of the History of Biology 6148:Journal of the History of Biology 6083:Journal of the History of Biology 4935:Revue des Questions Scientifiques 4249:University of Tennessee at Martin 4140:Kirk, Raven & Schofield (1983 4125:Kirk, Raven & Schofield (1983 4080:Kirk, Raven & Schofield (1983 3670:Macroevolution and microevolution 3243:. Studies of protein differences 3140:Variation and Evolution in Plants 2677:Alternatives to natural selection 2448:1859–1930s: Darwin and his legacy 2326:However, as historian of science 2317:On Naval Timber and Arboriculture 1966:were becoming clear, and in 1841 1496:Pontifical Santa Croce University 1451:On the Literal Meaning of Genesis 951:, and the relative importance of 838:Alternatives to natural selection 15561:History of science by discipline 15531: 15499: 15487: 14624: 14623: 14611: 14600: 14230: 14142: 14129: 14117: 14116: 13516:Mobile phones and driving safety 12776: 12767: 12766: 11482: 11481: 10417:Osborn, Henry Fairfield (1917). 10284:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. 8705:Fox, Ronald F. (December 1993). 8698: 8647: 8632: 8604: 8548: 8495: 8467: 8416: 8251: 8228:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01491.x 8200: 8137: 8085: 8062:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00045.x 8031: 7954: 7909: 7868: 7798: 7737: 7694: 7600: 7536: 7485: 7444: 7378: 7359: 7317:"Status of the Microbial Census" 7245: 7208: 7163: 7109: 7048: 6961:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01253.x 6933: 6881: 6834: 6773: 6749: 6737: 6675: 6652:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01152.x 6624: 6612: 6600: 6588: 6576: 6553:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01173.x 6525: 6488: 6443: 6398: 6386: 6374: 6308: 6244: 6191: 6138: 6126: 6073: 6062: 6050: 6038: 6026: 6014: 6002: 5990: 5868: 5856: 5827: 5779: 5767: 5755: 5743: 5705:had as much or more impact than 5697:, in his study of the impact of 4849:Egerton, Frank N. (April 2002). 4781:. Paulist Press. pp. 42–43. 4588: 4515:Macmillan and Co. (1905) p.69,71 3796:The Gaia hypothesis proposed by 3611:, which incorporated ideas from 3430:Evolutionary paths and processes 3280:Evolution of sexual reproduction 2938: 2927:is the white-bodied form of the 2917: 2151:In 1844, the Scottish publisher 2009:published his multi-volume work 696:. With the beginnings of modern 624: 623: 610: 68: 15556:History of evolutionary biology 13419:Computer-mediated communication 12579:Extended evolutionary synthesis 11768:Gene-centered view of evolution 11139:History of evolutionary thought 11116:History of evolutionary thought 10479:The book is available from the 10240:Mathez, Edmond A., ed. (2001). 9902:(2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: 8752: 8102:Journal of Experimental Zoology 6852:Molecular Biology and Evolution 6638:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5731: 5680: 5668: 5656: 5644: 5632: 5620: 5600: 5588: 5573: 5545: 5530: 5515: 5500: 5488: 5471: 5459: 5447: 5382: 5370: 5358: 5346: 5334: 5322: 5310: 5298: 5271: 5259: 5247: 5173: 5161: 5149: 5121: 5109: 5097: 5082: 5071: 5059: 5047: 5035: 5011: 4999: 4988: 4976: 4964: 4952: 4922: 4907: 4892: 4842: 4770: 4758: 4746: 4734: 4723:from the original on 2022-01-12 4700: 4666: 4621: 4609: 4582: 4542: 4530: 4503: 4473: 4440: 4365: 4269: 4192:"Species, Kinds, and Evolution" 3716:Extended evolutionary syntheses 3658: 3415:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis 3373: 3274:Gene-centered view of evolution 3154:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 3005:Modern synthesis (20th century) 2887:, followed in the tradition of 2571:This illustration (the root of 1959:revealed by the fossil record. 1827:Later in the 18th century, the 1279: 895:Following the establishment of 852:), an innate drive for change ( 617:Evolutionary biology portal 14691:Analytic–synthetic distinction 13696:Empathising–systemising theory 12999:female intrasexual competition 12936:Evolutionarily stable strategy 12707:Hologenome theory of evolution 12574:History of molecular evolution 11800:Evolutionarily stable strategy 11689:Last universal common ancestor 11371:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis 11101:The Alfred Russel Wallace Page 9781:Henderson, Jan-Andrew (2000). 9028:University of California Press 9026:(3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: 8804:The Literal Meaning of Genesis 7702:"Endosymbiosis: Lynn Margulis" 7335:10.1128/MMBR.68.4.686-691.2004 7055:Medina, Mónica (May 3, 2005). 4399:, Shanghai on January 8, 2008" 4118: 3951: 3939: 3916: 3853:thermodynamically open systems 3750: 3257:neutralist-selectionist debate 3184:History of molecular evolution 3033:) inheritance. This ended the 2946:Biston betularia f. carbonaria 2908: 2839:The Physical Basis of Heredity 2367:Publication of Darwin's theory 2363:Development of Darwin's theory 2101:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1939:began the process of ordering 1820:," in which females carried a 1570: 1099:Plato was called by biologist 937:gene-centred view of evolution 672:thought, the recognition that 576:Creation–evolution controversy 330:History of evolutionary theory 1: 14056:Standard social science model 13109:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis 12501:Renaissance and Enlightenment 9996:; Schofield, Malcolm (1983). 9775:Biodiversity Heritage Library 8890:10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7 8733:10.1016/S0006-3495(93)81321-3 7471:10.1016/S0966-842X(00)01703-0 5198:Darwin Correspondence Project 3933: 3649:developmental-genetic toolkit 2817:. It became the basis of the 2386:from his "B" notebook on the 2005:From 1830 to 1833, geologist 1716:Renaissance and Enlightenment 1623:(nor to the culturally Greek 1252: 1035: 844:" (c. 1880 to 1920) included 13904:Missing heritability problem 13496:Social aspects of television 13119:Evolution of nervous systems 13087:Computational theory of mind 12712:Missing heritability problem 12339:Gamete differentiation/sexes 10873:; Hoekstra, Rolf F. (2000). 10711:University Press of Virginia 10489:The Rough Guide to Evolution 10165:University of Illinois Press 10031:Kiros, Teodros, ed. (2001). 9945:Malaspina University College 9707:Anaximander: A Re-assessment 8654:Fox, Robin (December 2004). 8479:Abbatucci, Jacques Severin. 7258:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 7231:10.1016/j.femsre.2004.11.004 4929:Carroll, William E. (2000). 3143:, which helped to integrate 3037:and supplanted a variety of 2875:). Their opponents were the 2701:Origin and Evolution of Life 2359:Inception of Darwin's theory 1853:James Burnett, Lord Monboddo 1816:used it for his concept of " 1747:The Natural History of Birds 987: 913:evolutionary history of life 561:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 15024:Hypothetico-deductive model 14999:Deductive-nomological model 14984:Constructivist epistemology 14573:Neurology and neurosurgery 14150:Evolutionary biology portal 10977:The book is available from 10909:Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre 10457:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: 10159:Layton, Richard A. (2004). 9629:Gould, Stephen Jay (2002). 9590:Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). 9175:The book is available from 9067:University of Chicago Press 8195:Stearns & Hoekstra 2000 8048:Evolution & Development 7173:Nature Reviews Microbiology 5788:, pp. 121–123, 152–157 5701:, argues that in some ways 5554:"Nature's law of selection" 3958:Moran, Laurence A. (2006). 3858: 3823:The mathematical biologist 3728:multilevel selection theory 3125:Tempo and Mode in Evolution 3115:. Mayr also formulated the 2885:Walter Frank Raphael Weldon 2813:, and early in his career, 2643:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 2054:), creating a diversity of 1015:Proposals that one type of 984:) and on society at large. 919:in the 1950s, the field of 10: 15577: 14111:Evolutionary psychologists 13984:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 13899:Human–animal communication 13611:Ovulatory shift hypothesis 13461:Imprinted brain hypothesis 13429:Human–computer interaction 12344:Life cycles/nuclear phases 11896:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 11068:Shute, D. Kerfoot (1899). 11002:(1st ed.). New York: 10875:Evolution: An Introduction 10784:A Short History of Biology 10481:HathiTrust Digital Library 9904:Princeton University Press 9516:Cambridge University Press 9510:Gill, Meredith J. (2005). 9275:. London: Joseph Johnson. 8985:W. W. Norton & Company 8939:. Vol. 33. New York: 8756: 8674:10.1177/014107680409701201 7994:Gilbert, Scott F. (2003). 6256:"The objects of selection" 5478:Sebright, John S. (1809). 3816: 3789: 3772:theory, found in his book 3766:Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 3754: 3719: 3692: 3673: 3662: 3592: 3524: 3433: 3377: 3277: 3271: 3228:molecular clock hypothesis 3187: 3181: 3117:biological species concept 3013:Several major ideas about 3002: 2959: 2925:Biston betularia f. typica 2850: 2680: 2663:In 1871, Darwin published 2648:Great Hippocampus Question 2451: 2356: 2027: 1915:. His analysis identified 1896: 1733:compared the skeletons of 1719: 1672:also states in chapter 6: 1579: 1538:De Genesi contra Manichæos 1238: 1070:Stoic school of philosophy 1008: 899:, studies of mutation and 596:Nature-nurture controversy 17: 15478: 15310: 15212: 15142: 15085:Semantic view of theories 15004:Epistemological anarchism 14956: 14941:dependent and independent 14678: 14596: 14543: 14510: 14462: 14409: 14371: 14295: 14239: 14228: 14199: 14105: 14031:Environmental determinism 14002:Cultural selection theory 13994: 13889:Evolutionary epistemology 13876: 13803:evolutionary neuroscience 13765: 13758: 13656: 13531: 13476:Rank theory of depression 13399: 13323: 13225: 13031: 13024: 12978:Parent–offspring conflict 12887: 12830: 12762: 12662: 12587: 12491: 12418: 12374: 12229: 12133: 11950: 11909: 11842:Parent–offspring conflict 11778: 11647:Earliest known life forms 11568: 11535: 11477: 11399: 11331: 11218: 11173: 11168:Links to related articles 10744:Secord, James A. (2000). 10076:Krebs, Robert E. (2004). 9937:Johnston, Ian C. (1999). 9753:D. Appleton & Company 9018:Bowler, Peter J. (2003). 7840:10.1017/S0094837300004310 7218:FEMS Microbiology Reviews 6898:Annual Review of Genetics 6768:Eldredge & Gould 1972 6583:Birdsell & Wills 2003 5106:, Canto I (lines 295–302) 4512:From the Greeks to Darwin 3332:Through the Looking-Glass 3200:rise of molecular biology 2765:methodological naturalism 2423:, influenced by the book 1810:embryological development 1506:From the Greeks to Darwin 1403:From the Greeks to Darwin 992: 767:(1744–1829) proposed his 727:progressed, evolutionary 715:, and that fit well with 483:Evolutionary neuroscience 458:Evolutionary epistemology 438:Evolutionary anthropology 418:Applications of evolution 14827:Intertheoretic reduction 14816:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 14793:Functional contextualism 13924:Cultural group selection 13808:Biocultural anthropology 13501:Societal impacts of cars 13434:Media naturalness theory 13124:Fight-or-flight response 12695:Cultural group selection 12559:The eclipse of Darwinism 12531:On the Origin of Species 12506:Transmutation of species 10487:Pallen, Mark J. 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London: 8839:DNA Repair: New Research 8620:University of Washington 8474:Teilhard de Chardin 1959 7773:10.1073/pnas.94.20.10750 5466:Desmond & Moore 1991 5278:Desmond & Moore 1991 4509:Henry Fairfield Osborn, 4339:Harvard University Press 3909: 3902:The Voyage of the Beagle 3710:cellular differentiation 3527:Horizontal gene transfer 3507:evolutionary computation 3251:in natural populations. 2687:The eclipse of Darwinism 2630:On the Origin of Species 2609:On the Origin of Species 2587:to show that humans and 2480:On the Origin of Species 2442:On the Origin of Species 2388:transmutation of species 2337:On the Origin of Species 2291:On the Origin of Species 2170:, with its depiction of 2030:Transmutation of species 2024:Transmutation of species 1893:Paleontology and geology 1615:, they were not lost to 1582:Early Islamic philosophy 1177:De generatione animalium 973:horizontal gene transfer 943:, sparking debates over 842:the eclipse of Darwinism 793:On the Origin of Species 773:transmutation of species 694:medieval Islamic science 473:Evolutionary linguistics 468:Evolutionary game theory 443:Evolutionary computation 15312:Philosophers of science 15090:Scientific essentialism 15039:Model-dependent realism 14974:Constructive empiricism 14867:Evidence-based practice 14287:20th century in science 14282:19th century in science 14124:Evolutionary psychology 14088:Sociocultural evolution 13929:Dual inheritance theory 13386:Personality development 12847:Theoretical foundations 12824:Evolutionary psychology 12700:Dual inheritance theory 12539:History of paleontology 11037:Levinson, Gene (2020). 10981:. Retrieved 2014-11-11. 10921:]. Introduction by 10618:. London: John Murray. 10483:. Retrieved 2014-11-16. 10425:Charles Scribner's Sons 10388:Osborn, Henry Fairfield 9865:Prof. Huxley in America 9777:. Retrieved 2014-11-16. 9514:. Cambridge; New York: 9179:. Retrieved 2014-11-07. 8843:Nova Science Publishers 8425:Nature Reviews Genetics 8292:Nature Reviews Genetics 7919:Nature Reviews Genetics 7706:Understanding Evolution 7672:10.1126/science.1094884 7575:10.1073/pnas.0610699104 7279:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578 7126:Nature Reviews Genetics 7084:10.1073/pnas.0501984102 7023:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 6809:10.1073/pnas.91.15.6764 6713:10.1126/science.1133755 6214:10.1023/A:1004660202226 6161:10.1023/A:1004257523100 6033:Mayr & Provine 1998 6021:Mayr & Provine 1998 5999:, pp. 295–298, 416 5997:Mayr & Provine 1998 5834:Bowler & Morus 2005 5627:Bowler & Morus 2005 5317:Bowler & Morus 2005 5203:University of Cambridge 4447:Simpson, David (2006). 3891:Objections to evolution 3819:Structuralism (biology) 3424:evolutionary psychology 3341:evolutionary arms races 3212:protein electrophoresis 2902:Drosophila melanogaster 2844:Drosophila melanogaster 2776:, the German biologist 2471:Prof. Huxley in America 2282:. Darwin was struck by 2046:) creating a ladder of 2042:towards higher levels ( 1911:and those found in the 1899:History of paleontology 1783:Pierre Louis Maupertuis 1775:Johann Gottfried Herder 1367:On the First Principles 1192:On the Parts of Animals 1144:His writings on biology 1086:(right), a detail from 957:molecular phylogenetics 586:Objections to evolution 493:Evolutionary psychology 488:Evolutionary physiology 433:Evolutionary aesthetics 412:Fields and applications 394:History of paleontology 20:Sociocultural evolution 15395:Alfred North Whitehead 15385:Charles Sanders Peirce 14207:Theories and sociology 14046:Social constructionism 14041:Psychological nativism 14016:Biological determinism 13964:Recent human evolution 13959:Punctuated equilibrium 13782:Behavioral epigenetics 13777:evolutionary economics 13746:Variability hypothesis 13691:Emotional intelligence 13424:Engineering psychology 13114:Evolution of the brain 12388:Punctuated equilibrium 11709:Non-adaptive radiation 11657:Evolutionary arms race 11391:Spontaneous generation 11341:Germ theory of disease 11318:Zoology (through 1859) 10639:Owen, Richard (1848). 10459:Adam and Charles Black 9429:Models in Paleobiology 7458:Trends in Microbiology 7451:de la Cruz, Fernando; 7069:(Suppl 1): 6630–6635. 6350:10.1098/rstb.1998.0211 6283:10.1073/pnas.94.6.2091 5427:10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171 4341:. p. 179 (2.22). 3960:"Random Genetic Drift" 3689:Epigenetic inheritance 3474:punctuated equilibrium 3469: 3329:," which he took from 3130:George Gaylord Simpson 3113:reproductive isolation 3042: 2848: 2712: 2697:Henry Fairfield Osborn 2596: 2520:evolution of the horse 2474: 2391: 2382:'s first sketch of an 2350: 2198: 2148: 2069:Philosophie zoologique 2063: 1978:, dominated by marine 1889: 1837:spontaneous generation 1750: 1709: 1679: 1608: 1568: 1534: 1515: 1502:Henry Fairfield Osborn 1482: 1468: 1436: 1421: 1398:Henry Fairfield Osborn 1395: 1375: 1350:should be interpreted 1302: 1289: 1128:principle of plenitude 1096: 1032:Anaximander of Miletus 1006: 1003:Anaximander of Miletus 1001:The Greek philosopher 704:biological thinking: 518:Speciation experiments 498:Experimental evolution 453:Evolutionary economics 275:Recent human evolution 133:Processes and outcomes 50: 15494:Philosophy portal 15245:Hard and soft science 15240:Faith and rationality 15109:Scientific skepticism 14889:Scientific Revolution 14672:Philosophy of science 14267:Scientific Revolution 14073:Multilineal evolution 14036:Nature versus nurture 13995:Theoretical positions 13843:Functional psychology 13838:Evolutionary medicine 13813:Biological psychiatry 13521:Texting while driving 13511:Lead–crime hypothesis 13371:Cognitive development 13356:Caregiver deprivation 12867:Gene selection theory 12680:Evolutionary medicine 12554:Mendelian inheritance 12262:Biological complexity 12250:Programmed cell death 11942:Phenotypic plasticity 11662:Evolutionary pressure 11652:Evidence of evolution 11550:Timeline of evolution 11412:Philosophy of biology 10951:White, Andrew Dickson 10927:Harper & Brothers 10918:The Phenomenon of Man 10242:Earth: Inside and Out 8779:Yale University Press 8352:10.1093/biosci/biu062 7311:Schloss, Patrick D.; 6330:(February 28, 1998). 4961:, Book II, Lecture 14 4598:Catholic Encyclopedia 4397:Royal Asiatic Society 3876:Faith and rationality 3775:The Phenomenon of Man 3755:Further information: 3720:Further information: 3663:Further information: 3647:became known as the " 3619:, and emphasized the 3555:antibiotic resistance 3447: 3440:History of speciation 3368:intragenomic conflict 3188:Further information: 3166:developmental biology 3105:allopatric speciation 3086:genetic polymorphisms 3052:Theodosius Dobzhansky 3017:came together in the 3012: 2832: 2786:recapitulation theory 2694: 2574:The March of Progress 2570: 2563:Application to humans 2463:Othniel Charles Marsh 2461: 2421:Alfred Russel Wallace 2400:second voyage of HMS 2378: 2341: 2302:William Charles Wells 2284:Thomas Robert Malthus 2266:and was impressed by 2226:Principles of Geology 2192: 2125: 2037: 2012:Principles of Geology 1880: 1763:scientific revolution 1759:mechanical philosophy 1729: 1704: 1674: 1593: 1563: 1529: 1510: 1477: 1455: 1446:De Genesi ad litteram 1431: 1408: 1387: 1356: 1187:De partibus animalium 1182:Generation of Animals 1078: 1068:, and members of the 1000: 788:Alfred Russel Wallace 765:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 733:mechanical philosophy 710:medieval Aristotelian 478:Evolutionary medicine 423:Biosocial criminology 389:History of speciation 302:Evolutionary taxonomy 265:Timeline of evolution 32: 15538:Evolutionary biology 15220:Criticism of science 15095:Scientific formalism 14979:Constructive realism 14884:Scientific pluralism 14857:Problem of induction 14520:Agricultural science 14272:Age of Enlightenment 14026:Cultural determinism 13833:Evolutionary biology 13818:Cognitive psychology 13766:Academic disciplines 13414:Cognitive ergonomics 13381:Language acquisition 13361:Childhood attachment 13174:Wason selection task 13068:Behavioral modernity 12857:Cognitive revolution 12840:Evolutionary thought 12654:Teleology in biology 12549:Blending inheritance 11927:Genetic assimilation 11790:Artificial selection 11529:Evolutionary biology 11444:Human Genome Project 11356:Great chain of being 11323:Zoology (since 1859) 11258:Evolutionary thought 11228:Agricultural science 11110:Talk.Origins Archive 11043:. World Scientific. 10315:Mayr, Ernst (1988). 9860:Huxley, Thomas Henry 9709:. New York; London: 9670:Greggs, Tom (2009). 9475:Simon & Schuster 9374:. London; New York: 9111:Simon & Schuster 8937:Evolutionary Biology 8265:technologyreview.com 8041:(March–April 2000). 7805:Gould, Stephen Jay; 7646:Johnson, Patricia J. 6685:(December 8, 2006). 6453:Evolutionary Ecology 5801:(October 28, 2012). 5456:, pp. 19–21, 40 5093:Vol I, section XXXIX 4777:Augustine of Hippo. 4239:"Aristotle: Biology" 3562:endosymbiotic theory 3386:altruistic behaviors 3058:geneticists such as 3035:eclipse of Darwinism 2414:Joseph Dalton Hooker 2276:Augustin de Candolle 1945:Alexandre Brongniart 1845:Époques de la nature 1697:Augustine of Hippo's 1682:Christian philosophy 1643:in the 9th century. 1617:Islamic philosophers 1525:Andrew Dickson White 1344:Origen of Alexandria 1335:Origen of Alexandria 1330:Early Church Fathers 1089:The School of Athens 923:developed, based on 915:. After the rise of 897:evolutionary biology 856:), and sudden large 751:with the concept of 448:Evolutionary ecology 62:Evolutionary biology 49:leading towards man. 43:The Evolution of Man 15287:Rhetoric of science 15225:Descriptive science 14969:Confirmation holism 14862:Scientific evidence 14822:Inductive reasoning 14751:Demarcation problem 14558:Veterinary medicine 14252:Classical Antiquity 14093:Unilineal evolution 13858:Population genetics 13643:Sexy son hypothesis 13581:Hormonal motivation 13561:Concealed ovulation 13102:Dual process theory 12973:Parental investment 12717:Molecular evolution 12675:Ecological genetics 12544:Transitional fossil 12334:Sexual reproduction 12174:endomembrane system 12103:pollinator-mediated 12059:dolphins and whales 11837:Parental investment 11449:Humboldtian science 11386:Sequence hypothesis 11293:Molecular evolution 10913:Le phénomène humain 10871:Stearns, Stephen C. 9964:Kauffman, Stuart A. 9868:(Extra). New York: 9711:Bloomsbury Academic 8931:Birdsell, John A.; 8884:. pp. 323–70. 8725:1993BpJ....65.2698F 8712:Biophysical Journal 8574:2003Natur.426..769L 8392:10.1002/jez.b.22631 8384:2015JEZB..324..565L 8115:2000JEZ...288..304N 7832:1982Pbio....8....4G 7764:1997PNAS...9410750G 7758:(20): 10750–10755. 7664:2004Sci...304..253D 7566:2007PNAS..104.2043D 7408:2000Natur.405..299O 7270:1998PNAS...95.6578W 7186:10.1038/nrmicro1236 7121:"Synthetic biology" 7075:2005PNAS..102.6630M 7014:1990PNAS...87.4576W 6841:Pollock, David D.; 6800:1994PNAS...91.6764G 6705:2006Sci...314.1560N 6699:(5805): 1560–1563. 6466:1994EvEco...8..560P 6274:1997PNAS...94.2091M 5615:Thomas Henry Huxley 5193:"Darwin and design" 4743:, pp. 7, 69–70 4716:The Daily Telegraph 4570:. November 20, 2023 4428:Stanford University 4412:(August 10, 2013). 4374:"Daoism and Nature" 3993:Futuyma, Douglas J. 3966:. Toronto, Canada: 3837:molecular evolution 3833:population dynamics 3454:three-domain system 3406:reciprocal altruism 3396:, which showed how 3325:proposed the term " 3232:homologous proteins 3135:G. Ledyard Stebbins 3082:ecological genetics 3029:, and particulate ( 3019:population genetics 2962:Population genetics 2956:Population genetics 2857:The rediscovery of 2782:Edward Drinker Cope 2711:trend in evolution. 2585:comparative anatomy 2467:Thomas Henry Huxley 2333:Thomas Henry Huxley 2093:Robert Edmond Grant 1785:veered toward more 961:three-domain system 921:molecular evolution 909:comparative anatomy 886:population genetics 698:biological taxonomy 550:Social implications 538:Universal Darwinism 528:Island biogeography 463:Evolutionary ethics 428:Ecological genetics 374:Molecular evolution 312:Transitional fossil 140:Population genetics 56:Part of a series on 15506:Science portal 15435:Carl Gustav Hempel 15390:Wilhelm Windelband 15277:Questionable cause 15100:Scientific realism 14921:Underdetermination 14756:Empirical evidence 14746:Creative synthesis 14193:History of science 14051:Social determinism 13934:Fisher's principle 13894:Great ape language 13884:Cultural evolution 13853:Philosophy of mind 13686:Division of labour 13648:Westermarck effect 13596:Mating preferences 13506:Distracted driving 13240:Literary criticism 13097:Domain specificity 13077:modularity of mind 12690:Cultural evolution 11805:Fisher's principle 11734:Handicap principle 11724:Parallel evolution 11588:Adaptive radiation 11459:Natural philosophy 11407:History of science 11207:History of biology 10821:10.1007/bf01947504 10199:Lovejoy, Arthur O. 9418:Gould, Stephen Jay 8933:Wills, Christopher 8802:Augustine (1982). 8523:10.3174/ajnr.A2664 7807:Vrba, Elisabeth S. 7623:10.1002/bies.20516 7544:Doolittle, W. Ford 7512:10.1101/gr.3666505 6843:Eisen, Jonathan A. 6758:, pp. 359–361 6746:, pp. 270–278 6621:, pp. 358–359 6597:, pp. 323–370 6474:10.1007/BF01238258 6328:Gould, Stephen Jay 6254:(March 18, 1997). 6135:, pp. 131–156 6096:10.1007/BF01058626 6059:, pp. 152–156 6023:, pp. 338–341 5987:, pp. 221–243 5966:, pp. 325–339 5945:, pp. 153–174 5930:, pp. 256–273 5915:, pp. 196–253 5896:, pp. 105–129 5853:, pp. 207–216 5836:, pp. 154–155 5776:, pp. 177–223 5764:, pp. 190–191 5752:, pp. 109–110 5653:, pp. 173–176 5629:, pp. 129–149 5468:, pp. 247–248 5355:, pp. 103–104 5319:, pp. 142–143 5307:, pp. 134–138 5295:, pp. 120–129 5244:, pp. 119–121 5232:, pp. 129–134 5182:, pp. 115–116 4779:Genesi Ad Litteram 4655:rationes seminales 3968:University Toronto 3964:What is Evolution? 3736:niche construction 3564:for the origin of 3470: 3306:John Maynard Smith 3286:George C. Williams 3284:In the mid-1960s, 3268:Gene-centered view 3060:Sergei Chetverikov 3043: 2992:adaptive landscape 2849: 2835:Thomas Hunt Morgan 2815:Thomas Hunt Morgan 2721:theistic evolution 2713: 2597: 2475: 2392: 2315:wrote in his book 2274:, leading to what 2264:selective breeding 2217:watchmaker analogy 2199: 2149: 2064: 1964:geologic timescale 1890: 1873:Early 19th century 1841:Histoire naturelle 1781:process. In 1751, 1751: 1701:theistic evolution 1629:Islamic Golden Age 1609: 1487:rationes seminales 1473:theistic evolution 1441:Augustine of Hippo 1437: 1433:Augustine of Hippo 1424:Augustine of Hippo 1320:Christian theology 1312:Seneca the Younger 1210:Historia animalium 1172:History of Animals 1167:Historia animalium 1097: 1028:Greek philosophers 1007: 917:molecular genetics 866:Mendelian genetics 840:suggested during " 581:Theistic evolution 513:Selective breeding 225:Parallel evolution 190:Adaptive radiation 51: 15519: 15518: 15513: 15512: 15355: 15354: 15267:Normative science 15124:Uniformitarianism 14879:Scientific method 14773:Explanatory power 14638: 14637: 14530:Materials science 14492:Political science 14257:Medieval European 14159: 14158: 14137:Psychology portal 14101: 14100: 13944:Hologenome theory 13914:Unit of selection 13909:Primate cognition 13823:Cognitive science 13754: 13753: 13625:Sexual attraction 13601:Mating strategies 13366:Cinderella effect 13296:Moral foundations 13200:Visual perception 13092:Domain generality 13061:Facial expression 13009:Sexual dimorphism 12968:Natural selection 12914:Hamiltonian spite 12790: 12789: 12406:Uniformitarianism 12359:Sex-determination 11864:Sexual dimorphism 11859:Natural selection 11763:Unit of selection 11729:Signalling theory 11495: 11494: 11361:Hierarchy of life 11308:Plant systematics 11288:Molecular biology 11013:978-0-06-019906-7 10979:Project Gutenberg 10884:978-0-19-854968-0 10830:978-0-691-03343-3 10755:978-0-226-74410-0 10720:978-0-8139-0780-2 10678:978-0-19-515618-8 10585:978-0-521-29286-3 10545:978-3-7643-2942-6 10534:. Basel; Boston: 10502:978-1-85828-946-5 10363:978-0-674-27226-2 10328:978-0-674-89665-9 10291:978-0-674-36445-5 10251:978-1-56584-595-4 10216:978-0-674-36153-9 10174:978-0-252-02881-6 10135:978-0-679-64288-6 10116:Larson, Edward J. 10091:978-0-313-32433-8 10052:978-0-415-92766-6 10039:K. Anthony Appiah 10007:978-0-521-27455-5 9990:Kirk, Geoffrey S. 9981:978-0-19-507951-7 9913:978-0-691-09797-8 9835:978-0-87395-487-7 9792:978-1-84018-378-8 9720:978-1-4725-0892-8 9681:978-0-19-956048-6 9646:978-0-674-00613-3 9605:978-0-609-60142-6 9566:978-0-521-25408-3 9525:978-0-521-83214-4 9484:978-0-671-49555-8 9438:978-0-87735-325-6 9389:978-0-7181-3430-3 9120:978-0-684-80359-3 9076:978-0-226-06861-9 9037:978-0-520-23693-6 8994:978-0-393-32080-0 8950:978-0-306-47261-9 8899:978-0-12-017624-3 8852:978-1-62100-808-8 8813:978-0-8091-0326-3 8777:. New Haven, CT: 8568:(6968): 769–770. 8146:"The big picture" 8093:Newman, Stuart A. 8039:Erwin, Douglas H. 7658:(5668): 253–257. 7402:(6784): 299–304. 7368:Hihon Iji Shimpor 7315:(December 2004). 7264:(12): 6578–6583. 7117:Benner, Steven A. 7008:(12): 4576–4579. 6891:(December 2005). 6889:Koonin, Eugene V. 6859:(12): 1776–1788. 6794:(15): 6764–6771. 6770:, pp. 82–115 6585:, pp. 27–137 6344:(1366): 307–314. 6047:, pp. 97–188 5740:, pp. 139–40 5728:, pp. 79–111 5691:Origin of Species 5201:. Cambridge, UK: 3881:Galápagos Islands 3829:self-organization 3813:Self-organization 3513:. Discoveries in 3460:are colored red, 3450:phylogenetic tree 3263:Late 20th century 3224:Emile Zuckerkandl 3171:Stephen Jay Gould 3122:In the 1944 book 3080:, the pioneer of 3027:natural selection 3023:genetic variation 2433:Malay Archipelago 2396:Galápagos Islands 2384:evolutionary tree 2371:Natural selection 2353:Natural selection 2272:ecological shifts 2097:Transformationism 1957:faunal succession 1771:Gottfried Leibniz 1767:Benoît de Maillet 1092:(1509 – 1511) by 949:unit of selection 925:protein sequences 901:genetic diversity 806:natural selection 737:physical sciences 667: 666: 358:Origin of Species 160:Natural selection 15568: 15536: 15535: 15527: 15504: 15503: 15492: 15491: 15490: 15465:Bas van Fraassen 15420:Hans Reichenbach 15400:Bertrand Russell 15317: 15316: 15143:Philosophy of... 14926:Unity of science 14719:Commensurability 14665: 14658: 14651: 14642: 14641: 14631: 14627: 14626: 14619: 14615: 14604: 14603: 14525:Computer science 14373:Natural sciences 14338:Medieval Islamic 14234: 14186: 14179: 14172: 14163: 14162: 14146: 14133: 14120: 14119: 13763: 13762: 13759:Related subjects 13546:Adult attachment 13073:Cognitive module 13029: 13028: 13016:Social selection 12990:Costly signaling 12985:Sexual selection 12872:Modern synthesis 12817: 12810: 12803: 12794: 12793: 12780: 12770: 12769: 12569:Modern synthesis 12329:Multicellularity 12324:Mosaic evolution 12209:auditory ossicle 11891:Social selection 11874:Flowering plants 11869:Sexual selection 11522: 11515: 11508: 11499: 11498: 11485: 11484: 11464:Natural theology 11200: 11193: 11186: 11177: 11176: 11164: 11163: 11135: 11097: 11095: 11093: 11065: 11063: 11062: 11053:. 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Sunday Ideas. 5806: 5799:Tucker, Jennifer 5795: 5789: 5783: 5777: 5771: 5765: 5759: 5753: 5747: 5741: 5735: 5729: 5723: 5714: 5684: 5678: 5672: 5666: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5641:, pp. 55–71 5636: 5630: 5624: 5618: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5567: 5549: 5543: 5534: 5528: 5519: 5513: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5475: 5469: 5463: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5441: 5401: 5392: 5391:, pp. 42–46 5386: 5380: 5374: 5368: 5367:, pp. 37–38 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5338: 5332: 5326: 5320: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5290: 5281: 5275: 5269: 5268:, pp. 38–41 5263: 5257: 5256:, pp. 86–94 5251: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5205:. Archived from 5189: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5170:, pp. 29–38 5165: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089:Darwin 1794–1796 5086: 5080: 5075: 5069: 5068:, pp. 82–83 5063: 5057: 5056:, pp. 14–15 5051: 5045: 5044:, pp. 75–80 5039: 5033: 5027: 5021: 5020:, pp. 41–42 5015: 5009: 5008:, pp. 73–75 5003: 4997: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4974: 4973:, pp. 33–38 4968: 4962: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4947: 4946: 4926: 4920: 4914:Ibn Khaldūn 1967 4911: 4905: 4899:Ibn Khaldūn 1967 4896: 4890: 4884: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4855: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4807: 4792: 4783: 4782: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4731: 4729: 4728: 4712: 4704: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4694: 4685:. Archived from 4670: 4664: 4663: 4650: 4648: 4625: 4619: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4592: 4591: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4558: 4552: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4527:, pp. 89–90 4522: 4516: 4507: 4501: 4492: 4486: 4477: 4471: 4470: 4468: 4467: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4434: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4392: 4391: 4385: 4379:. Archived from 4378: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4334:De Natura Deorum 4325: 4316: 4315:, pp. 44–46 4310: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4263: 4234: 4228: 4227:, pp. 39–40 4222: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4209: 4187: 4178: 4169: 4158: 4152: 4143: 4137: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4107: 4098: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4071: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4049: 4029: 4027: 4026: 4020: 4014:. Archived from 4001: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3980: 3979: 3970:. Archived from 3955: 3949: 3943: 3927: 3920: 3768:'s metaphysical 3503:computer science 3420:Richard Lewontin 3311:The Selfish Gene 3204:sequences of DNA 3149:modern synthesis 2999:Modern synthesis 2975:gene frequencies 2942: 2921: 2695:This photo from 2671:sexual selection 2638:Carolus Linnaeus 2304:read before the 2215:with its famous 2212:Natural Theology 1996:William Buckland 1935:. In the 1790s, 1867:Temple of Nature 1843:(1749–1789) and 1804:(from the Latin 1625:Byzantine Empire 1597:Kitāb al-Hayawān 1594:A page from the 1493: 1412:Gregory of Nyssa 1383:Gregory of Nyssa 1378:Gregory of Nyssa 1373: 1305: 1294: 1261: 1257: 1254: 1245:Chinese thinkers 1044: 1040: 1037: 890:modern synthesis 878:J. B. S. Haldane 810:animal husbandry 800:and a branching 735:spread from the 717:natural theology 659: 652: 645: 632: 627: 626: 619: 615: 614: 591:Level of support 384:Current research 369:Modern synthesis 364:Before synthesis 317:Extinction event 75:Darwin's finches 72: 53: 52: 15576: 15575: 15571: 15570: 15569: 15567: 15566: 15565: 15546: 15545: 15542: 15530: 15522: 15520: 15515: 15514: 15509: 15498: 15488: 15486: 15474: 15455:Paul Feyerabend 15415:Michael Polanyi 15351: 15337:Galileo Galilei 15306: 15292:Science studies 15208: 15138: 15129:Verificationism 15034:Instrumentalism 15019:Foundationalism 14994:Conventionalism 14952: 14788:Feminist method 14674: 14669: 14639: 14634: 14622: 14610: 14592: 14539: 14506: 14464:Social sciences 14458: 14405: 14367: 14291: 14235: 14226: 14195: 14190: 14160: 14155: 14097: 14083:Neoevolutionism 13990: 13974:Species complex 13939:Group selection 13877:Research topics 13872: 13848:Neuropsychology 13750: 13736:Substance abuse 13658:Sex differences 13652: 13566:Coolidge effect 13527: 13439:Neuroergonomics 13404: 13395: 13319: 13221: 13155:Folk psychology 13036: 13020: 12890: 12883: 12826: 12821: 12791: 12786: 12758: 12685:Group selection 12658: 12583: 12487: 12414: 12376:Tempo and modes 12370: 12225: 12129: 11946: 11905: 11781: 11774: 11751:Species complex 11564: 11555:History of life 11531: 11526: 11496: 11491: 11473: 11454:Natural history 11395: 11333: 11327: 11283:Model organisms 11220: 11214: 11204: 11169: 11124: 11091: 11089: 11084: 11081: 11060: 11058: 11051: 11036: 11014: 10992: 10989: 10987:Further reading 10984: 10885: 10831: 10788:Clarendon Press 10780:Singer, Charles 10756: 10721: 10679: 10647:John Van Voorst 10586: 10570:Ronan, Colin A. 10546: 10503: 10364: 10329: 10292: 10252: 10217: 10175: 10136: 10092: 10082:Greenwood Press 10053: 10008: 9982: 9954: 9952: 9914: 9900:Franz Rosenthal 9836: 9793: 9721: 9682: 9647: 9606: 9567: 9551:Grene, Marjorie 9526: 9485: 9459: 9457: 9439: 9424: 9414:Eldredge, Niles 9390: 9364:Desmond, Adrian 9354: 9352: 9328:Darwin, Francis 9267:Darwin, Erasmus 9257: 9255: 9232: 9230: 9207: 9205: 9145:Darwin, Charles 9121: 9077: 9065:. Chicago, IL: 9038: 8995: 8951: 8900: 8853: 8814: 8767:Aquinas, Thomas 8761: 8755: 8750: 8703: 8699: 8656:"Symbiogenesis" 8652: 8648: 8637: 8633: 8624: 8622: 8618:. Seattle, WA: 8615: 8611:Litfin, Karen. 8609: 8605: 8582:10.1038/426769a 8556:Lovelock, James 8553: 8549: 8500: 8496: 8485: 8483: 8472: 8468: 8437:10.1038/nrg2219 8431:(12): 943–949. 8421: 8417: 8364: 8360: 8331: 8327: 8304:10.1038/nrg3028 8288: 8284: 8275: 8273: 8256: 8252: 8214:New Phytologist 8205: 8201: 8193: 8189: 8142: 8138: 8097:Müller, Gerd B. 8090: 8086: 8036: 8032: 8021: 8019: 7998: 7985: 7983: 7959: 7955: 7932:10.1038/nrg2226 7926:(12): 932–942. 7914: 7910: 7875:True, John R.; 7873: 7869: 7860: 7858: 7813: 7809:(Winter 1982). 7803: 7799: 7742: 7738: 7730: 7723: 7714: 7712: 7700: 7699: 7695: 7642: 7638: 7605: 7601: 7541: 7537: 7499:Genome Research 7490: 7486: 7449: 7445: 7436: 7434: 7389: 7383: 7379: 7370:(in Japanese). 7364: 7360: 7309: 7305: 7250: 7246: 7213: 7209: 7168: 7164: 7139:10.1038/nrg1637 7114: 7110: 7053: 7049: 6981: 6977: 6947:New Phytologist 6938: 6934: 6886: 6882: 6839: 6835: 6778: 6774: 6766: 6762: 6754: 6750: 6742: 6738: 6680: 6676: 6629: 6625: 6617: 6613: 6609:, pp. 1–49 6605: 6601: 6593: 6589: 6581: 6577: 6530: 6526: 6511:10.1139/g07-039 6493: 6489: 6448: 6444: 6421:10.2307/2410266 6403: 6399: 6391: 6387: 6379: 6375: 6325: 6321: 6313: 6309: 6249: 6245: 6196: 6192: 6143: 6139: 6131: 6127: 6078: 6074: 6067: 6063: 6055: 6051: 6045:Smocovitis 1996 6043: 6039: 6031: 6027: 6019: 6015: 6007: 6003: 5995: 5991: 5983: 5970: 5962: 5949: 5941: 5934: 5926: 5919: 5911: 5900: 5892: 5881: 5873: 5869: 5861: 5857: 5849: 5840: 5832: 5828: 5819: 5817: 5796: 5792: 5784: 5780: 5772: 5768: 5760: 5756: 5748: 5744: 5736: 5732: 5724: 5717: 5695:James A. Secord 5685: 5681: 5673: 5669: 5661: 5657: 5649: 5645: 5637: 5633: 5625: 5621: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5578: 5574: 5565: 5563: 5550: 5546: 5535: 5531: 5520: 5516: 5505: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5476: 5472: 5464: 5460: 5452: 5448: 5439: 5437: 5402: 5395: 5387: 5383: 5375: 5371: 5363: 5359: 5351: 5347: 5339: 5335: 5331:, pp. 5–24 5327: 5323: 5315: 5311: 5303: 5299: 5291: 5284: 5276: 5272: 5264: 5260: 5252: 5248: 5240: 5236: 5228: 5221: 5212: 5210: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5178: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5138: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5102: 5098: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5072: 5064: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5040: 5036: 5028: 5024: 5016: 5012: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4989: 4981: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4944: 4942: 4927: 4923: 4912: 4908: 4897: 4893: 4885: 4878: 4869: 4867: 4853: 4847: 4843: 4818: 4814: 4805: 4803: 4795:Waggoner, Ben. 4793: 4786: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4726: 4724: 4705: 4701: 4692: 4690: 4671: 4667: 4653:The concept of 4646: 4644: 4642: 4626: 4622: 4614: 4610: 4589: 4587: 4583: 4573: 4571: 4560: 4559: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4523: 4519: 4508: 4504: 4493: 4489: 4478: 4474: 4465: 4463: 4445: 4441: 4432: 4430: 4418:Zalta, Edward N 4407: 4403: 4389: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4372:Miller, James. 4370: 4366: 4358: 4354: 4326: 4319: 4311: 4304: 4295: 4293: 4274: 4270: 4261: 4259: 4235: 4231: 4223: 4216: 4207: 4205: 4188: 4181: 4170: 4161: 4153: 4146: 4138: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4108: 4101: 4090: 4086: 4078: 4074: 4063: 4056: 4047: 4045: 4024: 4022: 4018: 3999: 3990: 3986: 3977: 3975: 3956: 3952: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3930: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3861: 3849:self-catalyzing 3827:suggested that 3825:Stuart Kauffman 3821: 3815: 3794: 3792:Gaia hypothesis 3788: 3786:Gaia hypothesis 3763: 3753: 3748: 3724: 3718: 3701:gene expression 3697: 3691: 3682: 3674:Main articles: 3672: 3667: 3661: 3621:self-organizing 3609:Stuart Kauffman 3597: 3591: 3529: 3523: 3499:systems biology 3442: 3432: 3394:Hamilton's rule 3382: 3376: 3364:sexual conflict 3323:Leigh Van Valen 3316:Richard Dawkins 3302:George R. Price 3290:group selection 3282: 3276: 3270: 3265: 3196: 3194:Molecular clock 3186: 3180: 3097:Bernhard Rensch 3007: 3001: 2987:animal breeding 2964: 2958: 2953: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2949: 2943: 2934: 2933: 2932: 2922: 2911: 2855: 2827: 2819:mutation theory 2811:William Bateson 2790:August Weismann 2689: 2681:Main articles: 2679: 2605:human evolution 2565: 2536:August Weismann 2505:natural science 2456: 2450: 2419:Unlike Darwin, 2373: 2357:Main articles: 2355: 2328:Peter J. Bowler 2313:Patrick Matthew 2280:William Herbert 2252: 2153:Robert Chambers 2127:Robert Chambers 2032: 2026: 1901: 1895: 1875: 1741:(right) in his 1724: 1718: 1689: 1684: 1641:Book of Animals 1602:Book of Animals 1588: 1578: 1573: 1536:In Augustine's 1491: 1426: 1380: 1374: 1363: 1348:Book of Genesis 1337: 1332: 1316:Pliny the Elder 1303:De rerum natura 1291:De rerum natura 1282: 1259: 1255: 1241: 1221:Zeno of Citiumm 1208:, described in 1105:theory of Forms 1042: 1038: 1013: 995: 990: 741:natural history 663: 622: 609: 608: 601: 600: 551: 543: 542: 413: 405: 404: 403: 331: 323: 322: 321: 270:Human evolution 260:History of life 244: 243:Natural history 236: 235: 234: 134: 126: 81: 37:as depicted by 27: 12: 11: 5: 15574: 15564: 15563: 15558: 15541: 15540: 15517: 15516: 15511: 15510: 15508: 15496: 15484: 15479: 15476: 15475: 15473: 15472: 15467: 15462: 15457: 15452: 15447: 15442: 15440:W. V. O. Quine 15437: 15432: 15427: 15422: 15417: 15412: 15407: 15402: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15375:Rudolf Steiner 15372: 15367: 15365:Henri Poincaré 15362: 15356: 15353: 15352: 15350: 15349: 15344: 15339: 15334: 15329: 15323: 15321: 15314: 15308: 15307: 15305: 15304: 15299: 15294: 15289: 15284: 15279: 15274: 15269: 15264: 15263: 15262: 15252: 15247: 15242: 15237: 15235:Exact sciences 15232: 15227: 15222: 15216: 15214: 15213:Related topics 15210: 15209: 15207: 15206: 15205: 15204: 15199: 15194: 15189: 15184: 15179: 15172:Social science 15169: 15168: 15167: 15165:Space and time 15157: 15152: 15146: 15144: 15140: 15139: 15137: 15136: 15131: 15126: 15121: 15116: 15111: 15106: 15097: 15092: 15087: 15078: 15069: 15064: 15051: 15046: 15041: 15036: 15031: 15026: 15021: 15016: 15011: 15006: 15001: 14996: 14991: 14986: 14981: 14976: 14971: 14966: 14960: 14958: 14954: 14953: 14951: 14950: 14945: 14944: 14943: 14938: 14928: 14923: 14918: 14917: 14916: 14911: 14906: 14896: 14891: 14886: 14881: 14876: 14874:Scientific law 14871: 14870: 14869: 14859: 14854: 14849: 14844: 14839: 14834: 14829: 14824: 14819: 14812: 14811: 14810: 14805: 14795: 14790: 14785: 14783:Falsifiability 14780: 14775: 14770: 14769: 14768: 14758: 14753: 14748: 14743: 14742: 14741: 14731: 14726: 14721: 14716: 14715: 14714: 14712:Mill's Methods 14704: 14693: 14688: 14682: 14680: 14676: 14675: 14668: 14667: 14660: 14653: 14645: 14636: 14635: 14633: 14632: 14620: 14608: 14597: 14594: 14593: 14591: 14590: 14585: 14580: 14575: 14570: 14565: 14560: 14555: 14553:Human medicine 14549: 14547: 14541: 14540: 14538: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14516: 14514: 14508: 14507: 14505: 14504: 14499: 14494: 14489: 14484: 14479: 14474: 14468: 14466: 14460: 14459: 14457: 14456: 14451: 14446: 14441: 14436: 14431: 14426: 14421: 14415: 14413: 14407: 14406: 14404: 14403: 14398: 14393: 14388: 14383: 14377: 14375: 14369: 14368: 14366: 14365: 14360: 14355: 14350: 14345: 14340: 14335: 14330: 14325: 14320: 14315: 14310: 14305: 14299: 14297: 14293: 14292: 14290: 14289: 14284: 14279: 14274: 14269: 14264: 14259: 14254: 14249: 14243: 14241: 14237: 14236: 14229: 14227: 14225: 14224: 14219: 14214: 14212:Historiography 14209: 14203: 14201: 14197: 14196: 14189: 14188: 14181: 14174: 14166: 14157: 14156: 14154: 14153: 14140: 14127: 14114: 14106: 14103: 14102: 14099: 14098: 14096: 14095: 14090: 14085: 14080: 14075: 14070: 14065: 14060: 14059: 14058: 14053: 14048: 14043: 14038: 14033: 14028: 14023: 14018: 14004: 13998: 13996: 13992: 13991: 13989: 13988: 13987: 13986: 13981: 13976: 13971: 13966: 13961: 13956: 13951: 13946: 13941: 13936: 13931: 13926: 13921: 13911: 13906: 13901: 13896: 13891: 13886: 13880: 13878: 13874: 13873: 13871: 13870: 13865: 13860: 13855: 13850: 13845: 13840: 13835: 13830: 13825: 13820: 13815: 13810: 13805: 13788: 13779: 13769: 13767: 13760: 13756: 13755: 13752: 13751: 13749: 13748: 13743: 13738: 13733: 13728: 13723: 13718: 13713: 13708: 13703: 13698: 13693: 13688: 13683: 13678: 13673: 13668: 13662: 13660: 13654: 13653: 13651: 13650: 13645: 13640: 13627: 13618: 13613: 13608: 13603: 13598: 13593: 13588: 13583: 13578: 13573: 13568: 13563: 13558: 13553: 13548: 13543: 13537: 13535: 13529: 13528: 13526: 13525: 13524: 13523: 13518: 13513: 13508: 13498: 13493: 13488: 13483: 13478: 13473: 13468: 13466:Mind-blindness 13463: 13458: 13453: 13448: 13443: 13442: 13441: 13436: 13431: 13426: 13421: 13410: 13408: 13397: 13396: 13394: 13393: 13388: 13383: 13378: 13373: 13368: 13363: 13358: 13353: 13340: 13335: 13329: 13327: 13321: 13320: 13318: 13317: 13312: 13311: 13310: 13300: 13299: 13298: 13288: 13287: 13286: 13281: 13276: 13266: 13261: 13260: 13259: 13249: 13248: 13247: 13242: 13231: 13229: 13223: 13222: 13220: 13219: 13218: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13178: 13177: 13176: 13171: 13161: 13159:theory of mind 13152: 13143: 13142: 13141: 13136: 13131: 13121: 13116: 13111: 13106: 13105: 13104: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13070: 13065: 13064: 13063: 13058: 13053: 13042: 13040: 13026: 13022: 13021: 13019: 13018: 13013: 13012: 13011: 13006: 13001: 12992: 12982: 12981: 12980: 12970: 12965: 12960: 12955: 12954: 12953: 12943: 12938: 12933: 12928: 12926:Baldwin effect 12923: 12922: 12921: 12916: 12911: 12901: 12895: 12893: 12885: 12884: 12882: 12881: 12876: 12875: 12874: 12869: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12844: 12843: 12842: 12831: 12828: 12827: 12820: 12819: 12812: 12805: 12797: 12788: 12787: 12785: 12784: 12774: 12763: 12760: 12759: 12757: 12756: 12751: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12735: 12734: 12724: 12719: 12714: 12709: 12704: 12703: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12666: 12664: 12660: 12659: 12657: 12656: 12651: 12650: 12649: 12644: 12639: 12638: 12637: 12627: 12622: 12617: 12612: 12607: 12597: 12591: 12589: 12585: 12584: 12582: 12581: 12576: 12571: 12566: 12561: 12556: 12551: 12546: 12541: 12536: 12535: 12534: 12525:Charles Darwin 12522: 12521: 12520: 12508: 12503: 12497: 12495: 12489: 12488: 12486: 12485: 12480: 12475: 12470: 12465: 12463:Non-ecological 12460: 12455: 12450: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12430: 12424: 12422: 12416: 12415: 12413: 12412: 12403: 12394: 12380: 12378: 12372: 12371: 12369: 12368: 12363: 12362: 12361: 12356: 12351: 12346: 12341: 12331: 12326: 12321: 12316: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12291: 12286: 12281: 12280: 12279: 12269: 12264: 12259: 12254: 12253: 12252: 12247: 12236: 12234: 12227: 12226: 12224: 12223: 12222: 12221: 12216: 12214:nervous system 12211: 12206: 12201: 12193: 12192: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12156: 12151: 12146: 12140: 12138: 12131: 12130: 12128: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12107: 12106: 12105: 12095: 12094: 12093: 12088: 12087: 12086: 12081: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12056: 12051: 12050: 12049: 12044: 12034: 12024: 12019: 12018: 12017: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11991: 11990: 11980: 11975: 11974: 11973: 11963: 11957: 11955: 11948: 11947: 11945: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11913: 11911: 11907: 11906: 11904: 11903: 11898: 11893: 11888: 11887: 11886: 11881: 11876: 11866: 11861: 11856: 11851: 11846: 11845: 11844: 11839: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11818: 11817: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11792: 11786: 11784: 11776: 11775: 11773: 11772: 11771: 11770: 11760: 11755: 11754: 11753: 11748: 11738: 11737: 11736: 11726: 11721: 11716: 11714:Origin of life 11711: 11706: 11701: 11699:Microevolution 11696: 11694:Macroevolution 11691: 11686: 11681: 11680: 11679: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11654: 11649: 11644: 11639: 11634: 11632:Common descent 11629: 11628: 11627: 11617: 11612: 11610:Baldwin effect 11607: 11606: 11605: 11600: 11590: 11585: 11580: 11574: 11572: 11566: 11565: 11563: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11536: 11533: 11532: 11525: 11524: 11517: 11510: 11502: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11489: 11478: 11475: 11474: 11472: 11471: 11466: 11461: 11456: 11451: 11446: 11441: 11436: 11431: 11426: 11421: 11420: 11419: 11409: 11403: 11401: 11397: 11396: 11394: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11343: 11337: 11335: 11329: 11328: 11326: 11325: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11305: 11300: 11295: 11290: 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Part of the 11103: 11098: 11080: 11079:External links 11077: 11076: 11075: 11066: 11049: 11034: 11012: 10988: 10985: 10983: 10982: 10947: 10905: 10883: 10867: 10829: 10808: 10776: 10754: 10741: 10719: 10699: 10677: 10661: 10660: 10659: 10606: 10584: 10566: 10544: 10523: 10501: 10484: 10445: 10414: 10384: 10362: 10349: 10327: 10312: 10290: 10272: 10250: 10237: 10215: 10195: 10173: 10163:. Urbana, IL: 10156: 10134: 10126:Modern Library 10112: 10090: 10073: 10051: 10028: 10006: 9994:Raven, John E. 9986: 9980: 9960: 9934: 9912: 9882: 9856: 9834: 9824:. Albany, NY: 9813: 9791: 9778: 9745:Haeckel, Ernst 9741: 9719: 9702: 9680: 9667: 9645: 9626: 9604: 9587: 9565: 9546: 9524: 9507: 9506: 9505: 9483: 9437: 9410: 9388: 9380:Viking Penguin 9376:Michael Joseph 9360: 9330:, ed. (1887). 9324: 9304:Joseph Johnson 9293: 9263: 9238: 9213: 9180: 9141: 9119: 9101:Brockman, John 9097: 9075: 9058: 9036: 9015: 8993: 8971: 8949: 8928: 8898: 8882:Academic Press 8873: 8851: 8834: 8812: 8799: 8762: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8748: 8697: 8646: 8631: 8603: 8547: 8516:(3): 393–395. 8494: 8492: 8491: 8466: 8415: 8378:(7): 565–577. 8358: 8345:(6): 511–516. 8325: 8298:(7): 475–486. 8282: 8250: 8199: 8187: 8136: 8109:(4): 304–317. 8084: 8030: 8028: 8027: 7953: 7908: 7867: 7797: 7736: 7721: 7693: 7636: 7599: 7535: 7506:(7): 954–959. 7484: 7465:(3): 128–133. 7453:Davies, Julian 7443: 7377: 7358: 7329:(4): 686–691. 7313:Handelsman, Jo 7303: 7244: 7225:(2): 147–167. 7207: 7180:(9): 733–739. 7162: 7133:(7): 533–543. 7108: 7047: 6984:Woese, Carl R. 6975: 6954:(2): 411–423. 6932: 6880: 6833: 6772: 6760: 6748: 6736: 6674: 6623: 6611: 6599: 6587: 6575: 6524: 6505:(5): 517–524. 6487: 6460:(5): 560–584. 6442: 6415:(3): 418–426. 6397: 6385: 6373: 6319: 6307: 6243: 6208:(2): 321–341. 6190: 6137: 6125: 6072: 6061: 6049: 6037: 6025: 6013: 6001: 5989: 5968: 5947: 5932: 5917: 5898: 5879: 5867: 5855: 5838: 5826: 5813:. Boston, MA: 5790: 5778: 5766: 5754: 5742: 5730: 5715: 5679: 5667: 5655: 5643: 5631: 5619: 5599: 5587: 5572: 5544: 5529: 5514: 5499: 5487: 5470: 5458: 5446: 5421:(2): 177–205. 5405:van Wyhe, John 5393: 5381: 5369: 5357: 5345: 5333: 5321: 5309: 5297: 5282: 5270: 5258: 5246: 5234: 5219: 5184: 5172: 5160: 5148: 5132: 5120: 5108: 5096: 5081: 5078:Henderson 2000 5070: 5058: 5046: 5034: 5022: 5010: 4998: 4995:Schelling 1978 4987: 4975: 4963: 4951: 4921: 4906: 4891: 4876: 4841: 4812: 4784: 4769: 4757: 4745: 4733: 4699: 4665: 4640: 4620: 4616:Augustine 1982 4608: 4581: 4553: 4549:Augustine 1982 4541: 4537:Augustine 1982 4529: 4525:Augustine 1982 4517: 4502: 4487: 4472: 4439: 4401: 4364: 4352: 4317: 4302: 4268: 4247:. Martin, TN: 4229: 4214: 4179: 4159: 4144: 4129: 4117: 4099: 4084: 4072: 4054: 3995:, ed. (1999). 3984: 3950: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3928: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3905: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3817:Main article: 3814: 3811: 3798:James Lovelock 3790:Main article: 3787: 3784: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3717: 3714: 3693:Main article: 3690: 3687: 3680:Microevolution 3676:Macroevolution 3671: 3668: 3660: 3657: 3633:Elisabeth Vrba 3617:systems theory 3593:Main article: 3590: 3587: 3525:Main article: 3522: 3519: 3478:Niles Eldredge 3431: 3428: 3378:Main article: 3375: 3372: 3298:W. D. Hamilton 3272:Main article: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3249:heterozygosity 3246: 3182:Main article: 3179: 3176: 3088:such as human 3068:macroevolution 3064:microevolution 3003:Main article: 3000: 2997: 2960:Main article: 2957: 2954: 2944: 2937: 2936: 2935: 2923: 2916: 2915: 2914: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2907: 2889:Francis Galton 2851:Main article: 2826: 2823: 2821:of evolution. 2741:Georges Cuvier 2725:neo-Lamarckism 2678: 2675: 2564: 2561: 2557:Francis Galton 2449: 2446: 2380:Charles Darwin 2354: 2351: 2251: 2248: 2117:Robert Jameson 2028:Main article: 2025: 2022: 2017:uniformitarian 2000:biblical flood 1982:and fish, the 1905:Georges Cuvier 1894: 1891: 1874: 1871: 1857:Erasmus Darwin 1822:miniature form 1814:Charles Bonnet 1780: 1755:René Descartes 1720:Main article: 1717: 1714: 1699:early idea of 1693:Thomas Aquinas 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1552:On the Trinity 1425: 1422: 1379: 1376: 1361: 1352:as an allegory 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1281: 1278: 1268:Joseph Needham 1240: 1237: 1196:Charles Singer 994: 991: 989: 986: 850:neo-Lamarckism 798:common descent 784:Charles Darwin 721:modern science 692:as well as in 690:Church Fathers 678:ancient Greeks 665: 664: 662: 661: 654: 647: 639: 636: 635: 634: 633: 620: 603: 602: 599: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 571:Social effects 568: 563: 558: 552: 549: 548: 545: 544: 541: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 414: 411: 410: 407: 406: 402: 401: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 354: 349: 344: 339: 333: 332: 329: 328: 325: 324: 320: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 297:Classification 294: 289: 284: 279: 278: 277: 267: 262: 257: 255:Common descent 252: 250:Origin of life 246: 245: 242: 241: 238: 237: 233: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 136: 135: 132: 131: 128: 127: 125: 124: 119: 114: 108: 107: 102: 97: 92: 86: 83: 82: 73: 65: 64: 58: 57: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15573: 15562: 15559: 15557: 15554: 15553: 15551: 15544: 15539: 15534: 15529: 15528: 15525: 15507: 15502: 15497: 15495: 15485: 15483: 15480: 15477: 15471: 15468: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15448: 15446: 15443: 15441: 15438: 15436: 15433: 15431: 15428: 15426: 15425:Rudolf Carnap 15423: 15421: 15418: 15416: 15413: 15411: 15408: 15406: 15403: 15401: 15398: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15383: 15381: 15378: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15368: 15366: 15363: 15361: 15360:Auguste Comte 15358: 15357: 15348: 15345: 15343: 15340: 15338: 15335: 15333: 15332:Francis Bacon 15330: 15328: 15325: 15324: 15322: 15318: 15315: 15313: 15309: 15303: 15300: 15298: 15295: 15293: 15290: 15288: 15285: 15283: 15280: 15278: 15275: 15273: 15270: 15268: 15265: 15261: 15260:Pseudoscience 15258: 15257: 15256: 15253: 15251: 15248: 15246: 15243: 15241: 15238: 15236: 15233: 15231: 15228: 15226: 15223: 15221: 15218: 15217: 15215: 15211: 15203: 15200: 15198: 15195: 15193: 15190: 15188: 15185: 15183: 15180: 15178: 15175: 15174: 15173: 15170: 15166: 15163: 15162: 15161: 15158: 15156: 15153: 15151: 15148: 15147: 15145: 15141: 15135: 15132: 15130: 15127: 15125: 15122: 15120: 15119:Structuralism 15117: 15115: 15112: 15110: 15107: 15105: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15093: 15091: 15088: 15086: 15082: 15081:Received view 15079: 15077: 15073: 15070: 15068: 15065: 15063: 15059: 15055: 15052: 15050: 15047: 15045: 15042: 15040: 15037: 15035: 15032: 15030: 15027: 15025: 15022: 15020: 15017: 15015: 15012: 15010: 15007: 15005: 15002: 15000: 14997: 14995: 14992: 14990: 14989:Contextualism 14987: 14985: 14982: 14980: 14977: 14975: 14972: 14970: 14967: 14965: 14962: 14961: 14959: 14955: 14949: 14946: 14942: 14939: 14937: 14934: 14933: 14932: 14929: 14927: 14924: 14922: 14919: 14915: 14912: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14901: 14900: 14897: 14895: 14892: 14890: 14887: 14885: 14882: 14880: 14877: 14875: 14872: 14868: 14865: 14864: 14863: 14860: 14858: 14855: 14853: 14850: 14848: 14845: 14843: 14840: 14838: 14835: 14833: 14830: 14828: 14825: 14823: 14820: 14818: 14817: 14813: 14809: 14806: 14804: 14801: 14800: 14799: 14796: 14794: 14791: 14789: 14786: 14784: 14781: 14779: 14776: 14774: 14771: 14767: 14764: 14763: 14762: 14759: 14757: 14754: 14752: 14749: 14747: 14744: 14740: 14737: 14736: 14735: 14732: 14730: 14727: 14725: 14722: 14720: 14717: 14713: 14710: 14709: 14708: 14705: 14703: 14702: 14698: 14694: 14692: 14689: 14687: 14684: 14683: 14681: 14677: 14673: 14666: 14661: 14659: 14654: 14652: 14647: 14646: 14643: 14630: 14621: 14618: 14614: 14609: 14607: 14599: 14598: 14595: 14589: 14586: 14584: 14581: 14579: 14576: 14574: 14571: 14569: 14566: 14564: 14561: 14559: 14556: 14554: 14551: 14550: 14548: 14546: 14542: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14521: 14518: 14517: 14515: 14513: 14509: 14503: 14500: 14498: 14495: 14493: 14490: 14488: 14485: 14483: 14480: 14478: 14475: 14473: 14470: 14469: 14467: 14465: 14461: 14455: 14452: 14450: 14447: 14445: 14442: 14440: 14437: 14435: 14432: 14430: 14429:Combinatorics 14427: 14425: 14422: 14420: 14417: 14416: 14414: 14412: 14408: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14396:Earth science 14394: 14392: 14389: 14387: 14384: 14382: 14379: 14378: 14376: 14374: 14370: 14364: 14361: 14359: 14356: 14354: 14351: 14349: 14346: 14344: 14341: 14339: 14336: 14334: 14331: 14329: 14326: 14324: 14321: 14319: 14316: 14314: 14311: 14309: 14306: 14304: 14301: 14300: 14298: 14294: 14288: 14285: 14283: 14280: 14278: 14275: 14273: 14270: 14268: 14265: 14263: 14260: 14258: 14255: 14253: 14250: 14248: 14247:Ancient world 14245: 14244: 14242: 14238: 14233: 14223: 14220: 14218: 14217:Pseudoscience 14215: 14213: 14210: 14208: 14205: 14204: 14202: 14198: 14194: 14187: 14182: 14180: 14175: 14173: 14168: 14167: 14164: 14152: 14151: 14145: 14141: 14139: 14138: 14132: 14128: 14126: 14125: 14115: 14113: 14112: 14108: 14107: 14104: 14094: 14091: 14089: 14086: 14084: 14081: 14079: 14078:Neo-Darwinism 14076: 14074: 14071: 14069: 14066: 14064: 14063:Functionalism 14061: 14057: 14054: 14052: 14049: 14047: 14044: 14042: 14039: 14037: 14034: 14032: 14029: 14027: 14024: 14022: 14021:Connectionism 14019: 14017: 14014: 14013: 14012: 14011:indeterminism 14008: 14005: 14003: 14000: 13999: 13997: 13993: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13977: 13975: 13972: 13970: 13967: 13965: 13962: 13960: 13957: 13955: 13952: 13950: 13947: 13945: 13942: 13940: 13937: 13935: 13932: 13930: 13927: 13925: 13922: 13920: 13917: 13916: 13915: 13912: 13910: 13907: 13905: 13902: 13900: 13897: 13895: 13892: 13890: 13887: 13885: 13882: 13881: 13879: 13875: 13869: 13866: 13864: 13861: 13859: 13856: 13854: 13851: 13849: 13846: 13844: 13841: 13839: 13836: 13834: 13831: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13821: 13819: 13816: 13814: 13811: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13800: 13796: 13792: 13789: 13787: 13783: 13780: 13778: 13774: 13771: 13770: 13768: 13764: 13761: 13757: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13731:Schizophrenia 13729: 13727: 13724: 13722: 13719: 13717: 13716:Mental health 13714: 13712: 13709: 13707: 13704: 13702: 13699: 13697: 13694: 13692: 13689: 13687: 13684: 13682: 13679: 13677: 13674: 13672: 13669: 13667: 13664: 13663: 13661: 13659: 13655: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13639: 13635: 13631: 13628: 13626: 13622: 13619: 13617: 13614: 13612: 13609: 13607: 13604: 13602: 13599: 13597: 13594: 13592: 13591:Mate guarding 13589: 13587: 13584: 13582: 13579: 13577: 13574: 13572: 13569: 13567: 13564: 13562: 13559: 13557: 13554: 13552: 13551:Age disparity 13549: 13547: 13544: 13542: 13539: 13538: 13536: 13534: 13530: 13522: 13519: 13517: 13514: 13512: 13509: 13507: 13504: 13503: 13502: 13499: 13497: 13494: 13492: 13489: 13487: 13484: 13482: 13481:Schizophrenia 13479: 13477: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13452: 13449: 13447: 13444: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13432: 13430: 13427: 13425: 13422: 13420: 13417: 13416: 13415: 13412: 13411: 13409: 13407: 13406:Mental health 13402: 13401:Human factors 13398: 13392: 13391:Socialization 13389: 13387: 13384: 13382: 13379: 13377: 13374: 13372: 13369: 13367: 13364: 13362: 13359: 13357: 13354: 13352: 13351:paternal bond 13348: 13344: 13341: 13339: 13336: 13334: 13331: 13330: 13328: 13326: 13322: 13316: 13313: 13309: 13306: 13305: 13304: 13301: 13297: 13294: 13293: 13292: 13289: 13285: 13282: 13280: 13277: 13275: 13272: 13271: 13270: 13267: 13265: 13262: 13258: 13255: 13254: 13253: 13250: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13237: 13236: 13233: 13232: 13230: 13228: 13224: 13216: 13215:Naïve physics 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13203: 13202: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13182: 13181:Motor control 13179: 13175: 13172: 13170: 13167: 13166: 13165: 13162: 13160: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13147: 13144: 13140: 13139:Ophidiophobia 13137: 13135: 13132: 13130: 13129:Arachnophobia 13127: 13126: 13125: 13122: 13120: 13117: 13115: 13112: 13110: 13107: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13079: 13078: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13062: 13059: 13057: 13056:Display rules 13054: 13052: 13049: 13048: 13047: 13044: 13043: 13041: 13039: 13034: 13030: 13027: 13023: 13017: 13014: 13010: 13007: 13005: 13002: 13000: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12987: 12986: 12983: 12979: 12976: 12975: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12959: 12958:Kin selection 12956: 12952: 12949: 12948: 12947: 12944: 12942: 12939: 12937: 12934: 12932: 12929: 12927: 12924: 12920: 12917: 12915: 12912: 12910: 12907: 12906: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12896: 12894: 12892: 12886: 12880: 12877: 12873: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12852:Adaptationism 12850: 12849: 12848: 12845: 12841: 12838: 12837: 12836: 12833: 12832: 12829: 12825: 12818: 12813: 12811: 12806: 12804: 12799: 12798: 12795: 12783: 12779: 12775: 12773: 12765: 12764: 12761: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12733: 12730: 12729: 12728: 12727:Phylogenetics 12725: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12715: 12713: 12710: 12708: 12705: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12688: 12687: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12667: 12665: 12661: 12655: 12652: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12636: 12633: 12632: 12631: 12630:Structuralism 12628: 12626: 12623: 12621: 12618: 12616: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12605:Catastrophism 12603: 12602: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12593: 12592: 12590: 12586: 12580: 12577: 12575: 12572: 12570: 12567: 12565: 12564:Neo-Darwinism 12562: 12560: 12557: 12555: 12552: 12550: 12547: 12545: 12542: 12540: 12537: 12533: 12532: 12528: 12527: 12526: 12523: 12519: 12518: 12514: 12513: 12512: 12509: 12507: 12504: 12502: 12499: 12498: 12496: 12494: 12490: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12478:Reinforcement 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12431: 12429: 12426: 12425: 12423: 12421: 12417: 12411: 12410:Catastrophism 12407: 12404: 12402: 12401:Macromutation 12398: 12397:Micromutation 12395: 12393: 12389: 12385: 12382: 12381: 12379: 12377: 12373: 12367: 12364: 12360: 12357: 12355: 12352: 12350: 12347: 12345: 12342: 12340: 12337: 12336: 12335: 12332: 12330: 12327: 12325: 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12304:Immune system 12302: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12287: 12285: 12282: 12278: 12275: 12274: 12273: 12270: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12242: 12241: 12238: 12237: 12235: 12233: 12228: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12196: 12194: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12172: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12164:symbiogenesis 12162: 12161: 12160: 12157: 12155: 12152: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12142: 12141: 12139: 12137: 12132: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12111: 12108: 12104: 12101: 12100: 12099: 12096: 12092: 12089: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12076: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12039: 12038: 12035: 12033: 12030: 12029: 12028: 12025: 12023: 12020: 12016: 12013: 12012: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11989: 11986: 11985: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11976: 11972: 11969: 11968: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11958: 11956: 11954: 11949: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11914: 11912: 11908: 11902: 11899: 11897: 11894: 11892: 11889: 11885: 11882: 11880: 11877: 11875: 11872: 11871: 11870: 11867: 11865: 11862: 11860: 11857: 11855: 11852: 11850: 11847: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11834: 11833: 11832:Kin selection 11830: 11828: 11827:Genetic drift 11825: 11823: 11820: 11816: 11813: 11812: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11787: 11785: 11783: 11777: 11769: 11766: 11765: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11742: 11739: 11735: 11732: 11731: 11730: 11727: 11725: 11722: 11720: 11717: 11715: 11712: 11710: 11707: 11705: 11702: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11682: 11678: 11675: 11674: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11626: 11623: 11622: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11604: 11601: 11599: 11596: 11595: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11575: 11573: 11571: 11567: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11537: 11534: 11530: 11523: 11518: 11516: 11511: 11509: 11504: 11503: 11500: 11488: 11480: 11479: 11476: 11470: 11467: 11465: 11462: 11460: 11457: 11455: 11452: 11450: 11447: 11445: 11442: 11440: 11437: 11435: 11432: 11430: 11427: 11425: 11422: 11418: 11415: 11414: 11413: 11410: 11408: 11405: 11404: 11402: 11398: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11338: 11336: 11330: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11266: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11243:Biotechnology 11241: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11225: 11223: 11217: 11212: 11208: 11201: 11196: 11194: 11189: 11187: 11182: 11181: 11178: 11172: 11165: 11158: 11155: 11153: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11140: 11137: 11133: 11132: 11127: 11123: 11121: 11117: 11114: 11111: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11099: 11087: 11083: 11082: 11073: 11072: 11067: 11057:on 2022-05-21 11056: 11052: 11050:9781786347268 11046: 11042: 11041: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11015: 11009: 11005: 11004:HarperCollins 11001: 11000: 10995: 10991: 10990: 10980: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10957: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10923:Julian Huxley 10920: 10919: 10914: 10910: 10906: 10902: 10898: 10894: 10890: 10886: 10880: 10876: 10872: 10868: 10864: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10848: 10844: 10840: 10836: 10832: 10826: 10822: 10818: 10814: 10809: 10805: 10801: 10797: 10793: 10789: 10785: 10781: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10765: 10761: 10757: 10751: 10747: 10742: 10738: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10722: 10716: 10712: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10684: 10680: 10674: 10670: 10666: 10662: 10656: 10652: 10648: 10644: 10643: 10637: 10636: 10633: 10629: 10625: 10621: 10617: 10616: 10611: 10610:Russell, E.S. 10607: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10581: 10577: 10576: 10571: 10567: 10563: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10547: 10541: 10537: 10532: 10531: 10524: 10520: 10516: 10512: 10508: 10504: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10485: 10482: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10456: 10455: 10450: 10449:Owen, Richard 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10426: 10422: 10421: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10403: 10399: 10395: 10394: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10359: 10355: 10350: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10334: 10330: 10324: 10320: 10319: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10301: 10297: 10293: 10287: 10283: 10282: 10277: 10273: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10257: 10253: 10247: 10243: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10226: 10222: 10218: 10212: 10207: 10206: 10200: 10196: 10192: 10188: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10170: 10166: 10162: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10131: 10127: 10123: 10122: 10117: 10113: 10109: 10105: 10101: 10097: 10093: 10087: 10083: 10079: 10074: 10070: 10066: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10048: 10044: 10040: 10036: 10035: 10029: 10025: 10021: 10017: 10013: 10009: 10003: 9999: 9995: 9991: 9987: 9983: 9977: 9972: 9971: 9965: 9961: 9951:on 2016-04-16 9950: 9946: 9942: 9941: 9935: 9931: 9927: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9896: 9891: 9890:Dawood, N. J. 9887: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9867: 9866: 9861: 9857: 9853: 9849: 9845: 9841: 9837: 9831: 9827: 9822: 9821: 9814: 9810: 9806: 9802: 9798: 9794: 9788: 9784: 9779: 9776: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9738: 9734: 9730: 9726: 9722: 9716: 9712: 9708: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9687: 9683: 9677: 9673: 9668: 9664: 9660: 9656: 9652: 9648: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9633: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9615: 9611: 9607: 9601: 9597: 9596:Harmony Books 9593: 9588: 9584: 9580: 9576: 9572: 9568: 9562: 9558: 9557: 9552: 9547: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9527: 9521: 9517: 9513: 9508: 9502: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9467:Reprinted in 9466: 9465: 9456: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9434: 9430: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9385: 9381: 9377: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9351: 9347: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9334: 9329: 9325: 9321: 9317: 9313: 9309: 9305: 9301: 9300: 9294: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9273: 9269:(1794–1796). 9268: 9264: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9245: 9239: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9220: 9214: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9187: 9181: 9178: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9151: 9146: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9107: 9102: 9098: 9094: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9078: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9043: 9039: 9033: 9029: 9024: 9023: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9004: 9000: 8996: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8981: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8929: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8901: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8874: 8870: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8809: 8805: 8800: 8796: 8792: 8788: 8784: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8768: 8764: 8763: 8760: 8743: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8713: 8708: 8701: 8693: 8689: 8684: 8679: 8675: 8671: 8667: 8663: 8662: 8657: 8650: 8644: 8640: 8639:Brockman 1995 8635: 8621: 8614: 8607: 8599: 8595: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8562: 8557: 8551: 8543: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8510: 8505: 8498: 8482: 8477: 8476: 8475: 8470: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8419: 8411: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8362: 8353: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8329: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8286: 8272:on 2016-01-27 8271: 8267: 8266: 8261: 8254: 8246: 8242: 8238: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8215: 8210: 8203: 8197:, p. 285 8196: 8191: 8183: 8179: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8158:(6821): 669. 8157: 8153: 8152: 8147: 8140: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8112: 8108: 8104: 8103: 8098: 8094: 8088: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8049: 8044: 8040: 8034: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8006: 8005: 7997: 7992: 7991: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7969: 7964: 7957: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7925: 7921: 7920: 7912: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7888: 7884: 7883: 7878: 7871: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7820: 7812: 7808: 7801: 7793: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7752: 7747: 7740: 7733: 7732:Kauffman 1993 7728: 7726: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7697: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7652: 7647: 7640: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7611: 7603: 7595: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7555: 7554: 7549: 7545: 7539: 7531: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7500: 7495: 7488: 7480: 7476: 7472: 7468: 7464: 7460: 7459: 7454: 7447: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7396: 7388: 7381: 7373: 7369: 7362: 7354: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7314: 7307: 7299: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7248: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7219: 7211: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7166: 7158: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7127: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7104: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7051: 7043: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6988:Kandler, Otto 6985: 6979: 6971: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6948: 6943: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6899: 6894: 6890: 6884: 6876: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6853: 6848: 6844: 6837: 6829: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6788: 6783: 6776: 6769: 6764: 6757: 6752: 6745: 6740: 6732: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6693: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6627: 6620: 6615: 6608: 6603: 6596: 6591: 6584: 6579: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6499: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6454: 6446: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6409: 6401: 6395:, p. 358 6394: 6389: 6383:, p. 279 6382: 6377: 6369: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6338: 6333: 6329: 6323: 6317:, p. 361 6316: 6311: 6303: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6247: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6202: 6194: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6155:(1): 85–111. 6154: 6150: 6149: 6141: 6134: 6129: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6084: 6076: 6070: 6065: 6058: 6053: 6046: 6041: 6034: 6029: 6022: 6017: 6011:, p. 402 6010: 6005: 5998: 5993: 5986: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5973: 5965: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5944: 5939: 5937: 5929: 5924: 5922: 5914: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5903: 5895: 5890: 5888: 5886: 5884: 5876: 5871: 5864: 5859: 5852: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5835: 5830: 5816: 5815:John W. Henry 5812: 5811: 5805: 5800: 5794: 5787: 5782: 5775: 5770: 5763: 5758: 5751: 5746: 5739: 5734: 5727: 5722: 5720: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5676: 5671: 5664: 5659: 5652: 5647: 5640: 5635: 5628: 5623: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5603: 5597:, p. 158 5596: 5591: 5585: 5581: 5576: 5561: 5560: 5555: 5548: 5542: 5538: 5533: 5527: 5523: 5518: 5512: 5508: 5503: 5497:, p. 151 5496: 5491: 5483: 5482: 5474: 5467: 5462: 5455: 5450: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5398: 5390: 5385: 5379:, p. 138 5378: 5373: 5366: 5361: 5354: 5349: 5342: 5337: 5330: 5325: 5318: 5313: 5306: 5301: 5294: 5289: 5287: 5279: 5274: 5267: 5262: 5255: 5250: 5243: 5238: 5231: 5226: 5224: 5209:on 2014-10-21 5208: 5204: 5200: 5199: 5194: 5188: 5181: 5176: 5169: 5164: 5158:, p. 113 5157: 5152: 5145: 5141: 5136: 5129: 5124: 5117: 5112: 5105: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5085: 5079: 5074: 5067: 5062: 5055: 5050: 5043: 5038: 5031: 5026: 5019: 5014: 5007: 5002: 4996: 4991: 4984: 4979: 4972: 4967: 4960: 4955: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4925: 4919: 4915: 4910: 4904: 4900: 4895: 4888: 4883: 4881: 4865: 4861: 4860: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4830:(1): 71–123. 4829: 4825: 4824: 4816: 4802: 4798: 4791: 4789: 4780: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4754: 4749: 4742: 4737: 4722: 4718: 4717: 4711: 4703: 4689:on 2009-02-16 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4669: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4643: 4641:9780802838438 4637: 4633: 4632: 4624: 4618:, p. 159 4617: 4612: 4605: 4604:Evolutionist? 4600: 4599: 4585: 4569: 4568: 4563: 4557: 4551:, p. 148 4550: 4545: 4538: 4533: 4526: 4521: 4514: 4513: 4506: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4443: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4410:Sedley, David 4405: 4398: 4386:on 2008-12-16 4382: 4375: 4368: 4362:, p. 101 4361: 4356: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4324: 4322: 4314: 4309: 4307: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4272: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4240: 4233: 4226: 4221: 4219: 4203: 4199: 4198: 4193: 4186: 4184: 4177: 4173: 4172:Johnston 1999 4168: 4166: 4164: 4157:, p. 304 4156: 4151: 4149: 4141: 4136: 4134: 4126: 4121: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4104: 4097: 4093: 4088: 4081: 4076: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4059: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4021:on 2012-01-31 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3974:on 2006-10-19 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3954: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3925: 3919: 3915: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3886:Genetic drift 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3856: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3841:morphogenesis 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3820: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3803:endosymbiosis 3799: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3723: 3713: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3696: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3666: 3656: 3654: 3653:phylogenetics 3650: 3645: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3605:Brian Goodwin 3602: 3601:structuralist 3596: 3586: 3584: 3583:Lynn Margulis 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3543: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3518: 3516: 3515:biotechnology 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3427: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3390:kin selection 3387: 3381: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3357: 3352: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3337:Lewis Carroll 3334: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3296:arguments of 3295: 3294:kin selection 3291: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3260: 3258: 3252: 3250: 3244: 3242: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3226:proposed the 3225: 3221: 3220:Linus Pauling 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3191: 3185: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3159:Julian Huxley 3156: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3074: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3006: 2996: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2971: 2963: 2947: 2941: 2930: 2929:peppered moth 2926: 2920: 2906: 2904: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2877:biometricians 2874: 2870: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2859:Gregor Mendel 2854: 2846: 2845: 2840: 2837:'s 1919 book 2836: 2833:Diagram from 2831: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2807:Hugo de Vries 2802: 2800: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2778:Ernst Haeckel 2775: 2774:Samuel Butler 2769: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2737:structuralism 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2699:'s 1917 book 2698: 2693: 2688: 2684: 2674: 2672: 2668: 2667: 2661: 2659: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2576: 2575: 2569: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2544: 2541: 2540:Ernst Haeckel 2537: 2534:, where both 2533: 2529: 2528:Latin America 2525: 2521: 2517: 2516:North America 2513: 2512: 2511:Archaeopteryx 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2482: 2481: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2429:South America 2426: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2397: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2349: 2347: 2340: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2306:Royal Society 2303: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2268:John Sebright 2265: 2260: 2259:unthinkable. 2257: 2256:Loren Eiseley 2247: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2231: 2230:Louis Agassiz 2227: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2213: 2209:'s 1802 book 2208: 2207:William Paley 2204: 2203:Great Britain 2196: 2191: 2187: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2135:(1844) shows 2134: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2079: 2075: 2074:transformisme 2071: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2013: 2008: 2007:Charles Lyell 2003: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1992:Adam Sedgwick 1989: 1985: 1981: 1980:invertebrates 1977: 1974:of each: the 1973: 1969: 1968:John Phillips 1965: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1953:catastrophism 1950: 1949:stratigraphic 1946: 1942: 1938: 1937:William Smith 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1913:fossil record 1910: 1906: 1900: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:Denis Diderot 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1818:pre-formation 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1791: 1788: 1784: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1702: 1698: 1695:expounded on 1694: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1666: 1663: 1662: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1645:Conway Zirkle 1642: 1638: 1633: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598: 1592: 1587: 1583: 1567: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1548: 1543: 1539: 1533: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1521: 1514: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1497: 1489: 1488: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1447: 1442: 1434: 1430: 1420: 1417: 1413: 1407: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1386: 1384: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1341:Church Father 1327: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1300:involvement. 1299: 1293: 1292: 1286: 1277: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1260: 286 BC 1250: 1246: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1206: 1205:scala naturae 1201: 1200:scala naturae 1197: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1178: 1173: 1169: 1168: 1163: 1159: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1136: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1111: 1106: 1102: 1095: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1048: 1043: 546 BC 1033: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1012: 1004: 999: 985: 983: 979: 974: 970: 969:symbiogenesis 966: 962: 958: 954: 953:genetic drift 950: 946: 945:adaptationism 942: 938: 935:studies. The 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 893: 891: 887: 883: 882:Sewall Wright 879: 875: 874:Ronald Fisher 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 794: 789: 785: 780: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 749:palaeontology 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 725:Enlightenment 722: 718: 714: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 660: 655: 653: 648: 646: 641: 640: 638: 637: 631: 621: 618: 613: 607: 606: 605: 604: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 547: 546: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 503:Phylogenetics 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 415: 409: 408: 399: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 359: 355: 353: 350: 348: 347:Before Darwin 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 334: 327: 326: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 276: 273: 272: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 247: 240: 239: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 175:Genetic drift 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 137: 130: 129: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 109: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 87: 85: 84: 80: 76: 71: 67: 66: 63: 60: 59: 55: 54: 48: 44: 40: 39:Ernst Haeckel 36: 31: 25: 21: 16: 15543: 15470:Larry Laudan 15450:Imre Lakatos 15405:Otto Neurath 15380:Karl Pearson 15370:Pierre Duhem 15342:Isaac Newton 15272:Protoscience 15230:Epistemology 15104:Anti-realism 15102: / 15083: / 15074: / 15060: / 15058:Reductionism 15056: / 15029:Inductionism 15009:Evolutionism 14814: 14701:a posteriori 14700: 14696: 14568:Neuroscience 14472:Anthropology 14454:Trigonometry 14148: 14135: 14122: 14109: 13868:Sociobiology 13726:Neuroscience 13706:Intelligence 13252:Anthropology 13205:Color vision 13190:Multitasking 13169:Flynn effect 13164:Intelligence 13146:Folk biology 12889:Evolutionary 12839: 12739:Polymorphism 12722:Astrobiology 12670:Biogeography 12625:Saltationism 12615:Orthogenesis 12600:Alternatives 12529: 12515: 12492: 12448:Cospeciation 12443:Cladogenesis 12392:Saltationism 12349:Mating types 12272:Color vision 12257:Avian flight 12179:mitochondria 11917:Canalisation 11795:Biodiversity 11540:Introduction 11298:Paleontology 11257: 11238:Biochemistry 11129: 11090:. 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Retrieved 3972:the original 3963: 3953: 3946:Haeckel 1879 3941: 3918: 3900: 3822: 3807:exosymbiosis 3795: 3780:orthogenesis 3773: 3764: 3761:Orthogenesis 3740:evolvability 3725: 3703:or cellular 3698: 3683: 3659:21st century 3641: 3625:heterochrony 3598: 3578:chloroplasts 3574:mitochondria 3559: 3544: 3532:Microbiology 3530: 3481: 3471: 3452:showing the 3413: 3410:E. O. Wilson 3383: 3380:Sociobiology 3374:Sociobiology 3361: 3355: 3353: 3330: 3320: 3309: 3283: 3253: 3236:Motoo Kimura 3208:genetic code 3197: 3163: 3152: 3138: 3123: 3121: 3100: 3094: 3071: 3044: 2984: 2968: 2965: 2945: 2924: 2900: 2898: 2881:Karl Pearson 2872: 2866: 2856: 2842: 2838: 2803: 2795: 2770: 2753: 2745:teleological 2733:saltationism 2729:orthogenesis 2716: 2714: 2709:orthogenetic 2700: 2664: 2662: 2655: 2629: 2627: 2623:Neanderthals 2612: 2608: 2600: 2598: 2578: 2572: 2545: 2509: 2492: 2488: 2486: 2478: 2476: 2470: 2441: 2424: 2418: 2407: 2401: 2393: 2342: 2336: 2325: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2288: 2261: 2253: 2243: 2234:Richard Owen 2225: 2221: 2210: 2200: 2176: 2167: 2163:Solar System 2156: 2150: 2130: 2113:evolutionism 2096: 2087: 2073: 2067: 2065: 2044:orthogenesis 2010: 2004: 1961: 1925:James Hutton 1902: 1886:Palæontology 1885: 1882:Richard Owen 1866: 1860: 1859:, published 1844: 1840: 1831:philosopher 1826: 1805: 1801: 1799: 1792: 1752: 1746: 1742: 1731:Pierre Belon 1710: 1705: 1690: 1675: 1669: 1667: 1659: 1653: 1640: 1634: 1613:Roman Empire 1610: 1601: 1595: 1564: 1560: 1551: 1547:De Trinitate 1545: 1537: 1535: 1530: 1518: 1516: 1511: 1505: 1500: 1485: 1483: 1478: 1469: 1463: 1459: 1456: 1450: 1444: 1438: 1409: 1402: 1396: 1390: 1388: 1381: 1365: 1357: 1338: 1298:supernatural 1283: 1280:Roman Empire 1271: 1242: 1231:philosopher 1227:. The Roman 1218: 1209: 1203: 1199: 1191: 1185: 1181: 1175: 1171: 1165: 1161: 1155: 1137: 1117:created the 1108: 1098: 1087: 1051: 1025:pre-Socratic 1014: 1011:Essentialism 978:anthropology 894: 862:saltationism 854:orthogenesis 814:biogeography 802:tree of life 791: 781: 706:essentialism 670:Evolutionary 668: 523:Sociobiology 508:Paleontology 356: 336: 292:Biogeography 287:Biodiversity 205:Coextinction 195:Co-operation 170:Polymorphism 95:Introduction 42: 35:tree of life 15: 15460:Ian Hacking 15445:Thomas Kuhn 15430:Karl Popper 15410:C. D. Broad 15327:Roger Bacon 15255:Non-science 15197:Linguistics 15177:Archaeology 15072:Rationalism 15062:Determinism 15049:Physicalism 15014:Fallibilism 14964:Coherentism 14894:Testability 14847:Observation 14842:Objectivity 14803:alternative 14734:Correlation 14724:Consilience 14535:Engineering 14477:Archaeology 14444:Probability 14411:Mathematics 14277:Romanticism 14262:Renaissance 14007:Determinism 13919:Coevolution 13863:Primatology 13701:Gender role 13606:Orientation 13486:Screen time 13343:Affectional 13325:Development 13004:Mate choice 12931:By-products 12899:Adaptations 12862:Cognitivism 12749:Systematics 12620:Mutationism 12438:Catagenesis 12366:Snake venom 12299:Eusociality 12277:in primates 12267:Cooperation 12195:In animals 12015:butterflies 11988:Cephalopods 11978:Brachiopods 11910:Development 11884:Mate choice 11637:Convergence 11620:Coevolution 11578:Abiogenesis 11424:Ethnobotany 11313:RNA biology 11221:disciplines 10467:agr07001574 10276:Mayr, Ernst 9886:Ibn Khaldūn 9155:John Murray 8668:(12): 559. 7826:(1): 4–15. 6905:: 309–338. 6756:Bowler 2003 6744:Larson 2004 6619:Bowler 2003 6393:Bowler 2003 6381:Larson 2004 6315:Bowler 2003 6252:Mayr, Ernst 6133:Powell 1994 5985:Larson 2004 5964:Bowler 2003 5943:Larson 2004 5928:Bowler 2003 5913:Bowler 2003 5894:Larson 2004 5875:Osborn 1917 5863:Bowler 2003 5851:Bowler 2003 5786:Larson 2004 5774:Bowler 2003 5762:Bowler 2003 5750:Larson 2004 5738:Larson 2004 5726:Larson 2004 5687:Secord 2000 5675:Larson 2004 5663:Huxley 1876 5651:Bowler 2003 5639:Larson 2004 5609:, pp. 5607:Darwin 1887 5595:Bowler 2003 5580:Darwin 1861 5537:Darwin 1866 5522:Darwin 1861 5507:Darwin 1859 5495:Bowler 2003 5454:Bowler 2003 5389:Larson 2004 5377:Bowler 2003 5365:Larson 2004 5353:Bowler 2003 5329:Larson 2004 5305:Bowler 2003 5293:Bowler 2003 5266:Larson 2004 5254:Bowler 2003 5230:Bowler 2003 5180:Bowler 2003 5168:Larson 2004 5156:Bowler 2003 5140:Mathez 2001 5130:, p. 7 5128:Larson 2004 5104:Darwin 1803 5066:Bowler 2003 5054:Larson 2004 5042:Bowler 2003 5030:Pallen 2009 5018:Bowler 2003 5006:Bowler 2003 4983:Bowler 2003 4971:Bowler 2003 4741:Osborn 1905 4497:, pp. 4495:Greggs 2009 4482:, pp. 4480:Layton 2004 4449:"Lucretius" 4414:"Lucretius" 4313:Bowler 2000 4225:Singer 1931 4112:, pp. 4092:Harris 1981 3770:Omega Point 3757:Omega Point 3751:Omega Point 3695:Epigenetics 3644:development 3637:exaptations 3613:cybernetics 3536:prokaryotes 3464:green, and 3408:. In 1975, 3402:game theory 3398:eusociality 3345:co-evolving 3090:blood types 2909:1920s–1940s 2893:statistical 2853:Mutationism 2799:Leo S. Berg 2705:Titanothere 2398:during the 2390:(1837–1838) 2195:vertebrates 2179:materialism 1941:rock strata 1787:materialist 1737:(left) and 1656:Ibn Khaldūn 1649:food chains 1571:Middle Ages 1324:Hellenistic 1308:Renaissance 1249:Zhuang Zhou 1214:final cause 1162:On the Soul 1082:(left) and 905:systematics 745:Naturalists 713:metaphysics 533:Systematics 342:Renaissance 220:Convergence 210:Contingency 200:Coevolution 15550:Categories 15347:David Hume 15320:Precursors 15202:Psychology 15182:Economics‎ 15076:Empiricism 15067:Pragmatism 15054:Positivism 15044:Naturalism 14914:scientific 14798:Hypothesis 14761:Experiment 14512:Technology 14497:Psychology 14449:Statistics 14296:By culture 14200:Background 13954:Population 13949:Lamarckism 13795:behavioral 13773:Behavioral 13721:Narcissism 13666:Aggression 13456:Hypophobia 13446:Depression 13333:Attachment 13315:Universals 13279:Psychology 13257:Biological 13245:Musicology 13235:Aesthetics 13134:Basophobia 12941:Exaptation 12919:Reciprocal 12610:Lamarckism 12588:Philosophy 12511:David Hume 12473:Peripatric 12468:Parapatric 12453:Ecological 12433:Anagenesis 12428:Allopatric 12420:Speciation 12384:Gradualism 12309:Metabolism 12169:chromosome 12159:Eukaryotes 11937:Modularity 11854:Population 11780:Population 11741:Speciation 11719:Panspermia 11672:Extinction 11667:Exaptation 11642:Divergence 11615:Cladistics 11603:Reciprocal 11583:Adaptation 11366:Lamarckism 11273:Immunology 11143:PhilPapers 11061:2021-03-22 11022:2001024077 10786:. Oxford: 10687:2002152271 10645:. London: 10536:Birkhäuser 10511:2009288090 10183:2003007685 10144:2003064888 10100:2003060075 9955:2007-08-11 9852:1053000064 9729:2015031535 9690:2009926743 9655:2001043556 9534:2004055146 9460:2014-11-01 9355:2019-11-21 9302:. London: 9258:2014-11-07 9233:2014-11-07 9208:2014-11-07 9085:2004019553 9046:2002007569 8861:2011038504 8757:See also: 8625:2012-06-04 8486:2015-06-15 8339:BioScience 8276:2014-11-05 8022:2014-11-04 7986:2014-11-04 7861:2014-11-04 7715:2010-02-20 7437:2007-09-01 6069:Gould 1983 5820:2017-12-29 5582:, p. 5566:2007-11-01 5539:, p. 5524:, p. 5509:, p. 5440:2009-11-17 5242:Gould 2000 5213:2014-10-28 4945:2014-10-28 4887:Kiros 2001 4870:2014-10-28 4806:2010-03-11 4765:White 1922 4753:White 1922 4727:2014-10-26 4719:. London. 4693:2009-02-12 4681:. London: 4466:2014-10-26 4433:2014-10-26 4390:2014-10-26 4360:Ronan 1995 4296:2008-07-15 4262:2011-09-25 4208:2011-09-23 4204:(4): 36–45 4094:, p. 4067:, p. 4065:Krebs 2004 4048:2014-10-24 4044:(2): 19–32 4025:2014-10-24 3978:2015-09-27 3934:References 3570:eukaryotes 3566:organelles 3511:algorithms 3491:Carl Woese 3486:sequencing 3458:Eukaryotes 3436:Speciation 3434:See also: 3404:, such as 3278:See also: 3216:sequencing 3137:published 3109:speciation 3078:E. B. Ford 2863:Mendelians 2553:pangenesis 2549:hypothesis 2501:naturalism 2452:See also: 2239:vertebrate 2083:Lamarckism 2078:life force 2040:body plans 1927:described 1897:See also: 1670:Muqaddimah 1661:Muqaddimah 1639:wrote his 1627:). In the 1621:scientists 1580:See also: 1258: – c. 1256: 369 1101:Ernst Mayr 1053:Empedocles 1041: – c. 1039: 610 1009:See also: 982:psychology 965:Carl Woese 834:biologists 826:embryology 822:morphology 753:extinction 307:Cladistics 230:Extinction 215:Divergence 185:Speciation 165:Adaptation 79:John Gould 15187:Geography 15155:Chemistry 15114:Scientism 14909:ladenness 14729:Construct 14707:Causality 14606:Timelines 14583:Pathology 14578:Nutrition 14502:Sociology 14482:Economics 14391:Chemistry 14381:Astronomy 14318:Byzantine 14313:Brazilian 14308:Argentine 13799:cognitive 13791:Affective 13676:Cognition 13630:Sexuality 13616:Pair bond 13376:Education 13033:Cognition 12951:Inclusive 12891:processes 12879:Criticism 12744:Protocell 12595:Darwinism 12483:Sympatric 12232:processes 12120:Tetrapods 12069:Kangaroos 11995:Dinosaurs 11932:Inversion 11901:Variation 11822:Gene flow 11815:Inclusive 11625:Mutualism 11570:Evolution 11434:Dysgenics 11417:Teleology 11381:RNA world 11376:Protocell 11351:Darwinism 11332:Theories, 11303:Phycology 10973:780151083 10953:(1922) . 10911:(1959) . 10863:189833728 10665:Sapp, Jan 10572:(1995) . 10519:258100820 10390:(1905) . 10380:503188713 10108:474228676 10043:Routledge 9930:614847005 9737:932488714 9698:804502782 9350:834491713 9289:670735211 9171:741260650 9137:872061170 8977:(2000) . 8869:828424701 8445:1471-0056 7889:: 53–80. 7610:BioEssays 6539:Evolution 6408:Evolution 6057:Sapp 2003 6009:Mayr 1988 5562:: 312–313 5435:202574857 5116:Owen 1861 4659:Gn. litt. 4574:August 7, 4347:890330258 4277:Aristotle 4155:Mayr 1982 4127::291–292) 4082::140–142) 3924:phylogeny 3871:Darwinism 3705:phenotype 3629:spandrels 3505:known as 3392:known as 3327:Red Queen 3321:In 1973, 3031:Mendelian 3015:evolution 2759:advocate 2346:Darwinism 2300:In 1813, 2090:anatomist 1976:Paleozoic 1933:deep time 1921:mastodons 1909:elephants 1903:In 1796, 1802:evolution 1800:The word 1779:spiritual 1749:) (1555). 1542:emanation 1504:wrote in 1416:Augustine 1285:Lucretius 1225:teleology 1132:Christian 1084:Aristotle 1066:Aristotle 988:Antiquity 858:mutations 777:evolution 761:Darwinism 729:cosmology 723:: as the 566:Dysgenics 282:Phylogeny 180:Gene flow 150:Diversity 145:Variation 15482:Category 15134:Vitalism 14957:Theories 14931:Variable 14852:Paradigm 14739:function 14697:A priori 14686:Analysis 14679:Concepts 14629:Category 14588:Pharmacy 14545:Medicine 14434:Geometry 14424:Calculus 14343:Japanese 14068:Memetics 13828:Ethology 13786:genetics 13621:Physical 13586:Jealousy 13541:Activity 13347:maternal 13303:Religion 13291:Morality 13269:Language 13150:taxonomy 12963:Mismatch 12909:Cheating 12904:Altruism 12772:Category 12647:Vitalism 12642:Theistic 12635:Spandrel 12319:Morality 12314:Monogamy 12189:plastids 12154:Flagella 12110:Reptiles 12091:sea cows 12074:primates 11983:Molluscs 11961:Bacteria 11849:Mutation 11782:genetics 11758:Taxonomy 11704:Mismatch 11684:Homology 11598:Cheating 11593:Altruism 11487:Category 11429:Eugenics 11334:concepts 11278:Medicine 11263:Genetics 11211:timeline 11030:46359440 10996:(2001). 10965:09020218 10935:59005154 10901:44932786 10893:00267695 10855:11623198 10847:34411399 10839:96005605 10796:31014507 10782:(1931). 10772:43864195 10764:00009124 10729:78006638 10705:(1978). 10695:62869613 10667:(2003). 10624:17015690 10612:(1916). 10594:77082513 10562:30436574 10554:94018022 10475:13383944 10451:(1861). 10433:17025802 10402:04005633 10372:98157613 10345:17108004 10337:87031892 10300:81013204 10278:(1982). 10268:45386398 10260:00136454 10225:36014264 10201:(1936). 10191:52031419 10152:53483597 10118:(2004). 10069:43913197 10061:00032313 10016:82023505 9966:(1993). 9922:74186373 9888:(1967). 9878:21657981 9844:81002555 9809:45991266 9801:00456815 9761:15007537 9747:(1879). 9663:47869352 9622:41606297 9614:99036148 9575:83001795 9542:65338721 9501:11443805 9493:84023632 9447:72078387 9420:(1972). 9406:26502431 9398:92196964 9370:(1991). 9342:13003390 9312:18021459 9281:34036671 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