272:
own juntas. These did not recognize the authority of either the central junta or the regency and so did not send representatives although many other regions in
America did. The Regency made the decision to have the Americans elect representatives from their regions to attend the Cortes. Since part of Spanish America was in open revolt, this question of representatives from those regions was fraught. It was argued that the process was illegal, but the Regency decided it was better to have some American representation than none at all. The Regency set electoral procedures for delegates and the number of seats from each region. There were to be 30 representatives from Spanish America: 15 from northern Spanish America plus the Philippines (which was under the administrative jurisdiction of
344:, argued for the convocation of a general Cortes. Jovellanos sought precedents in Spanish history for earlier forms of constitutionalism and found them in the Visigoths. Jovellanos rejected the notion that the Cortes could fundamentally change "the essence of our ancient constitution," and was concerned that sweeping changes would open Spain to the dangers of democracy and despotism. However, he did argue for the independence of the executive, the judiciary, and the legislature, but also argued for a bicameral legislature that would have an upper house reserved for the aristocracy. He advocated voting rights based on "qualities of property, rank, and education," to limit democracy.
111:
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181:, who was crowned in July 1808. Napoleon thought that a reformist regime would be welcomed by the Spanish people, but they chose loyalty to Ferdinand VII. In order to further shore up French dominance and implement structural changes, Napoleon brought together as many aristocrats as possible to Bayonne, where they ratified "the first written constitution of the Spanish-speaking world." This document is variously called the
452:, and during the 19th century, it served as a model for liberal constitutions of Latin nations. The national assembly created a unitary state with equal laws across the Spanish Empire. The principal aim of the new constitution was the prevention of arbitrary and corrupt royal rule; it provided for a limited monarchy that governed through ministers subject to parliamentary control. It established that the
1066:
330:) of Cádiz influenced discussions in the Cortes. The consulado attempted to maintain their trade advantages. The Americans wanted freer trade, but the Cortes's location gave the large merchant houses power. In Cádiz, pressures grew to send Spanish troops to quell rebellions in Spanish America, which alarmed Great Britain, now Cádiz's ally against the French in the
280:: Guatemala, 2; Cuba, 2; the Philippines, 2; Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico, 1; Spanish South America got 15: Peru, 5; Santa Fé, 3; Buenos Aires, 3; Venezuela, 2; and Chile, 2. Those eligible to serve were to be at least 25 years old and from the place they would represent. Not made explicit was that only males were eligible to serve.
177:(2 May) 1808, Napoleon forced Ferdinand to abdicate the throne in favor of his father, who had abdicated under pressure. Because Charles hated his son so much that he did not want him to be his heir, he then abdicated in favor of Napoleon himself. Napoleon turned over the throne of Spain to his older brother
271:
dissolved itself on 29 January 1810 and set up a five-person
Regency, charged with convening the Cortes. The Regency drew up a list of American-born Spaniards already present in Spain. By the time the delegates were to be chosen, some of Spain's American territories had successfully established their
238:
on 25 September 1808. Serving as surrogate for the absent royal government, it called for representatives from local provinces and overseas territories to meet in an "Extraordinary and
General Cortes of the Spanish Nation." It was so called because it would be both the legislative body for the empire
396:
In its first session, the Cortes promulgated the proposition that it, rather than the king, was the national sovereign since it represented the people. Then, the national assembly divided the government into legislative, executive and judiciary branches. Given the contingencies of war that resulted
161:
to be sacked; and then
Charles IV himself was forced to abdicate under pressure. French armies were occupying Portugal and Spain, with some 50,000 in the capital Madrid, so that whoever was on the throne of Spain, the monarch had to contend with French troops. Napoleon saw the opportunity to bring
468:. The constitution set up a rational and efficient centralised administrative system, based on newly formed provinces and municipalities, rather than following historic boundaries. The repeal of traditional property restrictions gave the liberals the freer economy that they wanted. However, the
404:
The national assembly restructured the government while prosecuting a war in Spain and maintaining control overseas. Once deliberations started, the delegates split into liberal and conservative factions. Conservative
Spaniards saw the Cortes at Cádiz as, at best, an interim solution until "the
941:
For
Hispanic America, , the Creoles claimed that their political connection was with the Castilian monarchy, not the Spanish nation, and that the throne being vacant, they had recovered their sovereignty. The new sovereign entities, which considered themselves heirs to the sovereignty of the
515:
Spain's
American colonies took advantage of the postwar chaos to proclaim their independence. Most established republican governments. The fact that the Constitution was considered too liberal by the conservative elements in the colonies only precipitated their decision to join the effort for
283:
When the Cortes convened for the first time on 24 September 1810, 104 deputies were present, 30 representing overseas territories (interim delegates who were living in Spain at the time of the French invasion). Only one of the 36 American deputies arrived in time for the opening session,
334:. Britain ordinarily would have been for the opening up of trade in Spanish America, but during the Peninsular conflict, it wanted as many troops as possible in Spain to defeat the French. Britain rejected pressure to support Spain's attempt to repress rebellion in Spanish America.
503:
have the sovereignty of all kingdoms of the
Monarchy of Spain (including those of the Crown of Castile in the Americas) and proclaimed the extinction of the system of kingdoms and provinces of Spain and the Indies. The majority of the
487:
A revolutionary document, the
Spanish Constitution of 1812 marked the initiation of the Spanish tradition of liberalism, and when Fernando VII was restored to the throne in 1814, he refused to recognize it. He dismissed the
152:
Napoleon's armies invaded
Portugal (1807) and then Spain (1808), upending the Bourbon monarchy. At the time of the invasion, Charles IV had been at serious odds with his son and heir Ferdinand VII. In March 1808, the
288:. Eventually, about 300 deputies, including 63 from the Spanish America, participated. The composition of the Cortes of Cádiz was diverse, with about one-third clerical, one-sixth nobles and the remainder from the "
351:
had aided Jovellanos in his research into the precedents for Spanish constitutionalism. But his influence on Spanish America's view of the Cortes was considerable, since he had founded a review in London called
520:, he expended wealth and manpower in a vain effort to reassert control over the colonies. The move was unpopular among liberal officers assigned to the American wars. By the second half of 1826 only
366:
constitution, and, more important, to effect reconciliation between the insurgent juntas in America and Spain." He was deeply sympathetic to the Americans, publishing letters from Mexican elite
362:
and distributed by British firms with trade in Spanish America. It became highly influential in Spanish America. The aim of the publication was to "assist the Cortes frame a
292:", the middle class. Historians of Mexico have investigated many aspects of New Spain's representation at the Cortes. Among the most prominent delegates at the Cortes were
251:
The French inflicted large losses on the Spanish, took control of southern Spain and forced the government to retreat to Cádiz, its last available redoubt on Spanish soil.
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Castilian crown, the sovereign bodies considered representative of the cities, and the provinces, or Latin American States, rejected decisions made without their consent.
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leaders or local civilian groups. Convinced that unity was needed to co-ordinate efforts against the French and to deal with British aid, several provincial juntas, in
456:
would meet annually in the capital. The constitution maintained that suffrage was not to be determined by property qualifications, and it favoured the position of the
162:
down the dysfunctional and weak Bourbon monarchy by pitting father and son against each other further, to his own advantage. He invited Ferdinand VII to
496:. These events foreshadowed the long conflict between liberals and traditionalists that marked Spanish history in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
49:), which as an institution had not functioned for many years, but it met as a single body, rather than divided into estates as with previous ones.
197:, and preserved the Cortes. Catholicism was kept as the sole religion. It is said that all but a few pro-French Spaniards rejected this document.
409:, however, did not admit that a parliamentary body could legislate in the absence of a king. The liberals carried on the reformist philosophy of
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The fact that the Cortes was located in Cádiz, the most important port for trade with the Americas, meant that the powerful merchant guild (
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475:
Its first regulation includes one of the first examples of a seasonally adjusted schedule, a practice which led to the adoption of
166:, France, where Ferdinand thought that Napoleon was going to affirm him as Spain's legitimate ruler. His father Charles and mother
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of Spanish America rejected the pretensions of the Spaniards and assumed the sovereignty of the former American kingdoms of the
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for it. By the beginning of 1810, the forces under the Junta's command had suffered serious military reverses at the battles of
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89:
25:
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107:, which established a constitutional monarchy and eliminated many institutions that privileged some groups over others.
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204:, which erupted in Spain; in resistance to the French invasion and occupation of the peninsula, local ruling bodies or
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Fundamentos intelectuales y políticos de las independencias: Notas para una nueva historia intelectual de Iberoamérica
210:
appeared as the underground opposition to the French-imposed government. They were established by army commanders,
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remained under the Spanish flag in the Americas, with the Philippines and Guam also under Spanish rule in Asia.
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437:. As the liberals were the majority, they were able to transform the assembly from an interim government to a
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230:, called for the formation of a central body. After a series of negotiations that included the discredited
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Berry, Charles R. "The Election of Mexican Delegates to the Spanish Cortes, 1810–1822" in Benson, ed.
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King, John F. (1953). "The Colored Castes and the American Representation of the Cortes of Cadiz."
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Desired One", as Fernando VII was called by his supporters, could be restored to the throne. Most
374:, who had called for the opening of trade that would destroy the Spanish monopoly. Blanco White's
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was denounced by one delegate to the Cortes as "an enemy of his country worse than Napoleon."
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The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867
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Response to Revolution. Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810–1840
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The Cortes of Cádiz was seen then, and by historians today, as a major step towards
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Oath of the Cortes of Cádiz in the main parish church of San Fernando, the work of
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401:, the regency announced that it would act as the executive until his restoration.
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The product of the Cortes' deliberations reflected the liberals' dominance. The
300:, who served as secretary, vice president, and president at various points; and
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547:
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340:, who had served as Charles IV's minister of justice but had been sidelined by
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417:. They wanted equality before the law, a centralized government, an efficient
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Las Cortes de Cádiz frente a la emancipaciónóó hispanoamericana, 1808–1814
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Los diputados americanos en las Cortes de Cádiz: Igualdad o independencia
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La Constitución de Cádiz y su influencia en América (175 años, 1812–1987)
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denied people of African ancestry political rights and representation.
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independence from Spain. When Ferdinand was restored to the throne in
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in the new parliament since there was no special provision for the
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669:. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 414–415.
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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and Spanish America. The liberal Cortes drafted and ratified the
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1810–1814 revival of the traditional Spanish parliament (cortes)
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190:
1054:
Zimmerman, A. F. (1931). "Spain and Its Colonies, 1808–1820."
80:. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire
52:
The General and Extraordinary Cortes that met in the port of
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The End of Iberian Rule on the American Continent, 1770–1830
1016:. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.
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311:
The declaration of the Constitution of 1812, the work of
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Britain and the Independence of Latin America, 1812–1830
981:. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
727:
Mexico and the Spanish Cortes, 1810–1822: Eight Essays
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The Cádiz Experiment in Central America, 1808 to 1826
755:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 192–194.
979:
La cuestión nacional americana en la Cortes de Cádiz
810:. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 541–543.
593:, vol. 2, p. 277. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
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met between 24 September 1810, and 20 February 1811.
781:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–57.
768:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 55, 60–62.
512:, over which the King of Spain had been sovereign.
863:Reglamento para el gobierno interior de las Cortes
844:The Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy
591:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
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958:Sovereignty and Revolution in the Iberian World
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589:Thieseen, Heather (1996). "Cortes of Cádiz" in
891:Martín Olalla, José María (3 September 2018).
580:. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 82.
296:, who served as vice president in April 1813;
890:
1044:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
665:Lockhart, James and Stuart Schwartz (1983).
638:
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157:, first forced Charles IV's first minister
960:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
413:and added to it many of the ideas of the
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543:Provincial deputation in Spanish America
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306:
258:
170:were also separately called to Bayonne.
125:
109:
20:
1000:Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain.
984:García la Guardia, Jorge Mario (1987).
682:. New York: Penguin Books, pp. 483–484.
263:Deputies of Cádiz Cortes by territories
254:
1095:
848:Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes
699:Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes
60:as the sole representative of Spanish
1123:Spanish American wars of independence
859:
627:
358:(1810–1814), which was backed by the
133:, where the deputies who drafted the
1002:New York: New York University Press.
729:. Austin: University of Texas Press.
56:starting 24 September 1810 "claimed
1056:Hispanic American Historical Review
1028:The Independence of Spanish America
993:Hispanic American Historical Review
833:Articles 18–26 of the Constitution.
711:The Independence of Spanish America
642:The Independence of Spanish America
578:The Independence of Spanish America
499:The Cádiz Cortes declared that the
84:, that is, not only Spain but also
68:and occupation of Spain during the
13:
974:Austin: University of Texas Press.
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794:. 2 vols. London, vol. 2, 309–331.
72:and the abdication of the monarch
14:
1134:
1012:Rieu-Millan, Marie Laure (1990).
923:Chiaramonte, José Carlos (2010).
893:"La gestión de la estacionalidad"
606:Diccionario de historia de España
370:and Buenos Aires creole patriot,
234:, a Supreme Central Junta met in
39:was a revival of the traditional
1064:
970:Benson, Nettie Lee, ed. (1966).
448:came to be the "sacred code" of
397:from the forced displacement of
239:and the body that would write a
1026:Rodríguez O., Jaime E. (1998).
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576:Rodríguez O., Jaime E. (1998).
1030:. Cambridge University Press.
972:Mexico and the Spanish Cortes.
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645:. Cambridge University Press.
603:Ezquerra, Jaime Alvar (2001).
583:
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553:Timeline of the Peninsular War
315:(Museo de las Cortes de Cádiz)
1:
1005:Pérez Guilhou, Dardo (1981).
777:Costeloe, Michael P. (1986).
766:Spain and the Loss of America
740:Mexico and the Spanish Cortes
563:
298:José María Gutiérrez de Terán
276:). New Spain was allocated 7
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538:Spanish Constitution of 1812
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470:Spanish Constitution of 1812
446:Spanish Constitution of 1812
391:Spanish Constitution of 1812
368:Fray Servando Teresa de Mier
338:Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
135:Spanish Constitution of 1812
105:Spanish Constitution of 1812
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200:From the first days of the
10:
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1108:Political history of Spain
751:Hamnett, Brian R. (2017).
695:Documents of the Junta Era
189:. It abolished privileges
145:
1082:Federal Research Division
1040:Rodríguez, Mario (1978).
871:Congreso de los Diputados
558:Real Teatro de las Cortes
492:on 4 May and ruled as an
439:constitutional convention
131:Real Teatro de las Cortes
998:Lovett, Gabriel (1965).
956:Adelman, Jeremy (2006).
678:Roberts, Andrew (2014).
382:Reforms and constitution
320:Influences on the Cortes
790:Webster, C. K. (1938).
433:and the recognition of
977:Chust, Manuel (1999).
860:Luxan, Manuel (1810).
838:9 January 2019 at the
764:Anna, Timothy (1983).
454:unicameral legislature
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360:British Foreign Office
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116:José Casado del Alisal
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28:to the Cortes and the
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1103:History of liberalism
477:daylight savings time
425:, the replacement of
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269:Supreme Central Junta
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99:and democracy in the
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286:Ramón Power y Giralt
255:Convoking the Cortes
187:Bayonne Constitution
175:Dos de Mayo Uprising
120:Congress of Deputies
823:, pp. 544–545, 552.
667:Early Latin America
431:freedom of contract
349:Joseph Blanco White
302:Miguel Ramos Arizpe
118:. Presented at the
723:Benson, Nettie Lee
421:, a reform of the
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479:a century later.
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342:Manuel Godoy
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290:third estate
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241:constitution
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159:Manuel Godoy
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908:4 September
876:4 September
526:Puerto Rico
407:monarchists
195:inquisition
168:María Luisa
90:Philippines
62:sovereignty
1097:Categories
1036:0521626730
564:References
450:liberalism
423:tax system
411:Carlos III
376:El Español
355:El Español
173:After the
142:Background
97:liberalism
78:Charles IV
58:legitimacy
47:parliament
929:. Teseo.
819:Brading,
483:Aftermath
327:consulado
278:suplentes
274:New Spain
212:guerrilla
122:in Madrid
45:(Spanish
898:El Mundo
836:Archived
806:(1991).
532:See also
466:nobility
364:moderate
236:Aranjuez
220:Valencia
185:and the
88:and the
850:, 2003.
842:Spain,
464:or the
224:Seville
164:Bayonne
1073:.
1048:
1034:
1020:
964:
933:
649:
617:
518:Madrid
427:feudal
216:Murcia
207:juntas
193:, the
191:fueros
42:cortes
1088:Spain
995:33:1.
867:(PDF)
245:Ocaña
54:Cádiz
1046:ISBN
1032:ISBN
1018:ISBN
962:ISBN
931:ISBN
910:2018
878:2018
647:ISBN
615:ISBN
524:and
522:Cuba
267:The
247:and
226:and
35:The
1099::
1086:–
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697:.
629:^
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