Supernova - Knowledge

506: 3454:, but none have so far been detected. The only gravitational wave events so far detected are from mergers of black holes and neutron stars, probable remnants of supernovae. Like the neutrino emissions, the gravitational waves produced by a core-collapse supernova are expected to arrive without the delay that affects light. Consequently, they may provide information about the core-collapse process that is unavailable by other means. Most gravitational-wave signals predicted by supernova models are short in duration, lasting less than a second, and thus difficult to detect. Using the arrival of a neutrino signal may provide a trigger that can identify the time window in which to seek the gravitational wave, helping to distinguish the latter from background noise. 3553:. There is a smaller chance that the next core collapse supernova will be produced by a different type of massive star such as a yellow hypergiant, luminous blue variable, or Wolf–Rayet. The chances of the next supernova being a type Ia produced by a white dwarf are calculated to be about a third of those for a core collapse supernova. Again it should be observable wherever it occurs, but it is less likely that the progenitor will ever have been observed. It is not even known exactly what a type Ia progenitor system looks like, and it is difficult to detect them beyond a few parsecs. The total supernova rate in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 2 and 12 per century, although one has not actually been observed for several centuries. 23761: 1575: 963: 2252:). In the most extreme cases, ultra-stripped supernovae can occur in naked metal cores, barely above the Chandrasekhar mass limit. SN 2005ek might be the first observational example of an ultra-stripped supernova, giving rise to a relatively dim and fast decaying light curve. The nature of ultra-stripped supernovae can be both iron core-collapse and electron capture supernovae, depending on the mass of the collapsing core. Ultra-stripped supernovae are believed to be associated with the second supernova explosion in a binary system, producing for example a tight double neutron star system. 23785: 2378: 3231: 3138: 2330: 16650: 19495: 2043:. These thermal neutrinos are several times more abundant than the electron-capture neutrinos. About 10 joules, approximately 10% of the star's rest mass, is converted into a ten-second burst of neutrinos, which is the main output of the event. The suddenly halted core collapse rebounds and produces a shock wave that stalls in the outer core within milliseconds as energy is lost through the dissociation of heavy elements. A process that is not clearly understood is necessary to allow the outer layers of the core to reabsorb around 10 joules (1 3146: 23773: 1478: 3295: 3557:

most-massive red supergiants shed their atmospheres and evolve to Wolf–Rayet stars before their cores collapse. All Wolf–Rayet stars end their lives from the Wolf–Rayet phase within a million years or so, but again it is difficult to identify those that are closest to core collapse. One class that is expected to have no more than a few thousand years before exploding are the WO Wolf–Rayet stars, which are known to have exhausted their core helium. Only eight of them are known, and only four of those are in the Milky Way.

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of hydrogen in the ejecta from the atmosphere of the supergiant progenitor star. In the initial destruction this hydrogen becomes heated and ionised. The majority of type II supernovae show a prolonged plateau in their light curves as this hydrogen recombines, emitting visible light and becoming more transparent. This is then followed by a declining light curve driven by radioactive decay although slower than in type I supernovae, due to the efficiency of conversion into light by all the hydrogen.

1651:-56. The peak luminosity of the light curve is extremely consistent across normal type Ia supernovae, having a maximum absolute magnitude of about −19.3. This is because typical type Ia supernovae arise from a consistent type of progenitor star by gradual mass acquisition, and explode when they acquire a consistent typical mass, giving rise to very similar supernova conditions and behaviour. This allows them to be used as a secondary standard candle to measure the distance to their host galaxies. 2215:, and they occur at moderate to high metallicity where continuum driven winds cause sufficiently high mass-loss rates. Observations of type Ib/c supernova do not match the observed or expected occurrence of Wolf–Rayet stars. Alternate explanations for this type of core collapse supernova involve stars stripped of their hydrogen by binary interactions. Binary models provide a better match for the observed supernovae, with the proviso that no suitable binary helium stars have ever been observed. 881: 954:(JWST) has significantly advanced our understanding of supernovae by identifying around 80 new instances through its JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. This includes the most distant spectroscopically confirmed supernova at a redshift of 3.6, indicating its explosion occurred when the universe was merely 1.8 billion years old. These findings offer crucial insights into the early universe's stellar evolution and the frequency of supernovae during its formative years. 1510: 20972: 1979: 2730:, and black holes presumably do as well, although they are far harder to observe in isolation. The initial impetus can be substantial, propelling an object of more than a solar mass at a velocity of 500 km/s or greater. This indicates an expansion asymmetry, but the mechanism by which momentum is transferred to the compact object remains a puzzle. Proposed explanations for this kick include convection in the collapsing star, asymmetric ejection of matter during 23809: 1149:, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed; since 1988, they have been needed every year. Since 2016, the increasing number of discoveries has regularly led to the additional use of three-letter designations. After zz comes aaa, then aab, aac, and so on. For example, the last supernova retained in the Asiago Supernova Catalogue when it was terminated on 31 December 2017 bears the designation SN 2017jzp. 1020: 20825: 20325: 18776: 17249: 3616: 3012:. The progenitors of type IIn supernovae also have high rates of mass loss in the period just prior to their explosions. Type Ic supernovae have been observed to occur in regions that are more metal-rich and have higher star-formation rates than average for their host galaxies. The table shows the progenitor for the main types of core collapse supernova, and the approximate proportions that have been observed in the local neighbourhood. 1072: 2195: 3357: 480: 2707: 20835: 20335: 17259: 23749: 2102:, the fusion of oxygen and heavier elements is so energetic that the entire star is disrupted, causing a supernova. At the upper end of the mass range, the supernova is unusually luminous and extremely long-lived due to many solar masses of ejected Ni. For even larger core masses, the core temperature becomes high enough to allow photodisintegration and the core collapses completely into a black hole. 1376: 3530: 23797: 2963:

comparable to other core collapse supernovae but neutrino production is thought to be very low, hence the kinetic and electromagnetic energy released is very high. The cores of these stars are much larger than any white dwarf and the amount of radioactive nickel and other heavy elements ejected from their cores can be orders of magnitude higher, with consequently high visual luminosity.

21478: 19358: 18787: 1322: 40: 1632:. At this point, it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. Eventually, the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass. The exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the catastrophic event remain unclear. 3263:

clearly imaged. Population modelling shows that the observed type Ib/c supernovae could be reproduced by a mixture of single massive stars and stripped-envelope stars from interacting binary systems. The continued lack of unambiguous detection of progenitors for normal type Ib and Ic supernovae may be due to most massive stars collapsing directly to a black hole

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each type of supernovae is delivered promptly, the light curves are dominated by subsequent radioactive heating of the rapidly expanding ejecta. The intensely radioactive nature of the ejecta gases was first calculated on sound nucleosynthesis grounds in the late 1960s, and this has since been demonstrated as correct for most supernovae. It was not until

3380:, while all heavier elements are synthesised in stars, supernovae, and collisions between neutron stars (thus being indirectly due to supernovae). Supernovae tend to enrich the surrounding interstellar medium with elements other than hydrogen and helium, which usually astronomers refer to as "metals". These ejected elements ultimately enrich the 2168:. Extremely luminous stars at near solar metallicity will lose all their hydrogen before they reach core collapse and so will not form a supernova of type II. At low metallicity, all stars will reach core collapse with a hydrogen envelope but sufficiently massive stars collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova. 2148:) evolve in a complex fashion, progressively burning heavier elements at hotter temperatures in their cores. The star becomes layered like an onion, with the burning of more easily fused elements occurring in larger shells. Although popularly described as an onion with an iron core, the least massive supernova progenitors only have oxygen- 2410:

decline at a rate slightly greater than the decay rate of the radioactive cobalt (which has the longer half-life and controls the later curve), because the ejected material becomes more diffuse and less able to convert the high energy radiation into visual radiation. After several months, the light curve changes its decline rate again as

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Hodapp, K. W.; Howell, D. A.; Huber, M.; Kaiser, N.; Leloudas, G.; Magill, L.; Magnier, E. A.; McCrum, M. G.; Metcalfe, N.; Price, P. A.; Rest, A.; Sollerman, J.; Sweeney, W.; Taddia, F.; Taubenberger, S.; Tonry, J. L.; Wainscoat, R. J.; Waters, C.; Young, D. (2013). "Super-luminous Type Ic Supernovae: Catching a Magnetar by the Tail".

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by the highly efficient conversion of kinetic energy of the ejecta into electromagnetic radiation by interaction with the dense shell of material. This only occurs when the material is sufficiently dense and compact, indicating that it has been produced by the progenitor star itself only shortly before the supernova occurs.

2294:, about 31 million light-years from Earth) appeared to be the first observation of an electron-capture supernova. The 1054 supernova explosion that created the Crab Nebula in our galaxy had been thought to be the best candidate for an electron-capture supernova, and the 2021 paper makes it more likely that this was correct. 2350:, such as SN 1987A, is explained by those predicted radioactive decays. Although the luminous emission consists of optical photons, it is the radioactive power absorbed by the ejected gases that keeps the remnant hot enough to radiate light. The radioactive decay of Ni through its daughters Co to Fe produces gamma-ray 1495:: the type number is based on the light observed from the supernova, not necessarily its cause. For example, type Ia supernovae are produced by runaway fusion ignited on degenerate white dwarf progenitors, while the spectrally similar type Ib/c are produced from massive stripped progenitor stars by core collapse. 1047:); on average, more-distant objects recede with greater velocity than those nearby, and so have a higher redshift. Thus the search is split between high redshift and low redshift, with the boundary falling around a redshift range of z=0.1–0.3, where z is a dimensionless measure of the spectrum's frequency shift. 1997:), resulting in a rapid increase in temperature and density. What follows depends on the mass and structure of the collapsing core, with low-mass degenerate cores forming neutron stars, higher-mass degenerate cores mostly collapsing completely to black holes, and non-degenerate cores undergoing runaway fusion. 2389:

material. The light curves can be significantly different at other wavelengths. For example, at ultraviolet wavelengths there is an early extremely luminous peak lasting only a few hours corresponding to the breakout of the shock launched by the initial event, but that breakout is hardly detectable optically.

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supernova without progressing to a different evolutionary stage. One study has shown a possible route for low-luminosity post-red supergiant luminous blue variables to collapse, most likely as a type IIn supernova. Several examples of hot luminous progenitors of type IIn supernovae have been detected:

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Foley, R. J.; Challis, P. J.; Chornock, R.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Li, W.; Marion, G. H.; Morrell, N. I.; Pignata, G.; Stritzinger, M. D.; Silverman, J. M.; Wang, X.; Anderson, J. P.; Filippenko, A. V.; Freedman, W. L.; Hamuy, M.; Jha, S. W.; Kirshner, R. P.; McCully, C.; Persson, S. E.; Phillips, M. M.;

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Foley, Ryan J.; Chornock, Ryan; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Ganeshalingam, Mohan; Kirshner, Robert P.; Li, Weidong; Cenko, S. Bradley; Challis, Peter J.; Friedman, Andrew S.; Modjaz, Maryam; Silverman, Jeffrey M.; Wood-Vasey, W. Michael (2009). "SN 2008ha: an extremely low luminosity and exceptionally low

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Blue supergiants form an unexpectedly high proportion of confirmed supernova progenitors, partly due to their high luminosity and easy detection, while not a single Wolf–Rayet progenitor has yet been clearly identified. Models have had difficulty showing how blue supergiants lose enough mass to reach

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The light curves for type II supernovae are characterised by a much slower decline than type I, on the order of 0.05 magnitudes per day, excluding the plateau phase. The visual light output is dominated by kinetic energy rather than radioactive decay for several months, due primarily to the existence

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Type Ib and Ic light curves are similar to type Ia although with a lower average peak luminosity. The visual light output is again due to radioactive decay being converted into visual radiation, but there is a much lower mass of the created nickel-56. The peak luminosity varies considerably and there

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The light curves for type Ia are mostly very uniform, with a consistent maximum absolute magnitude and a relatively steep decline in luminosity. Their optical energy output is driven by radioactive decay of ejected nickel-56 (half-life 6 days), which then decays to radioactive cobalt-56 (half-life 77

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Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements undergo fusion, forming an iron core (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and starts to collapse. The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons (c), causing infalling material to bounce (d) and form an outward-propagating

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Very massive stars can undergo core collapse when nuclear fusion becomes unable to sustain the core against its own gravity; passing this threshold is the cause of all types of supernova except type Ia. The collapse may cause violent expulsion of the outer layers of the star resulting in a supernova.

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and would begin to collapse. However, the current view is that this limit is not normally attained; increasing temperature and density inside the core ignite carbon fusion as the star approaches the limit (to within about 1%) before collapse is initiated. In contrast, for a core primarily composed of

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absorption line. Type I supernovae without this strong line are classified as type Ib and Ic, with type Ib showing strong neutral helium lines and type Ic lacking them. Historically, the light curves of type I supernovae were seen as all broadly similar, too much so to make useful distinctions. While

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De, K.; Kasliwal, M. M.; Ofek, E. O.; Moriya, T. J.; Burke, J.; Cao, Y.; Cenko, S. B.; Doran, G. B.; Duggan, G. E.; Fender, R. P.; Fransson, C.; Gal-Yam, A.; Horesh, A.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Laher, R. R.; Lunnan, R.; Manulis, I.; Masci, F.; Mazzali, P. A.; Nugent, P. E.; Perley, D. A.; Petrushevska, T.;

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Silverman, J. M.; Nugent, P. E.; Gal-Yam, A.; Sullivan, M.; Howell, D. A.; Filippenko, A. V.; Arcavi, I.; Ben-Ami, S.; Bloom, J. S.; Cenko, S. B.; Cao, Y.; Chornock, R.; Clubb, K. I.; Coil, A. L.; Foley, R. J.; Graham, M. L.; Griffith, C. V.; Horesh, A.; Kasliwal, M. M.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Leonard, D.

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Identification of candidates for a type Ia supernova is much more speculative. Any binary with an accreting white dwarf might produce a supernova although the exact mechanism and timescale is still debated. These systems are faint and difficult to identify, but the novae and recurrent novae are such

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Type Ia supernovae are thought to be potentially the most dangerous if they occur close enough to the Earth. Because these supernovae arise from dim, common white dwarf stars in binary systems, it is likely that a supernova that can affect the Earth will occur unpredictably and in a star system that

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There are a number of difficulties reconciling modelled and observed stellar evolution leading up to core collapse supernovae. Red supergiants are the progenitors for the vast majority of core collapse supernovae, and these have been observed but only at relatively low masses and luminosities, below

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Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesised to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium, either via strong stellar winds or mass transfer to a companion. They normally occur in regions of new star formation, and are extremely rare in

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As survey programmes rapidly increase the number of detected supernovae, collated collections of observations (light decay curves, astrometry, pre-supernova observations, spectroscopy) have been assembled. The Pantheon data set, assembled in 2018, detailed 1048 supernovae. In 2021, this data set was

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Because supernovae are relatively rare events within a galaxy, occurring about three times a century in the Milky Way, obtaining a good sample of supernovae to study requires regular monitoring of many galaxies. Today, amateur and professional astronomers are finding several hundred every year, some

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Gal-Yam, A.; Bruch, R.; Schulze, S.; Yang, Y.; Perley, D. A.; Irani, I.; Sollerman, J.; Kool, E. C.; Soumagnac, M. T.; Yaron, O.; Strotjohann, N. L.; Zimmerman, E.; Barbarino, C.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Kasliwal, M. M.; De, K.; Yao, Y.; Fremling, C.; Yan, L.; Ofek, E. O.; Fransson, C.; Filippenko, A. V.;

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Drout, M. R.; Soderberg, A. M.; Mazzali, P. A.; Parrent, J. T.; Margutti, R.; Milisavljevic, D.; Sanders, N. E.; Chornock, R.; Foley, R. J.; Kirshner, R. P.; Filippenko, A. V.; Li, W.; Brown, P. J.; Cenko, S. B.; Chakraborti, S.; Challis, P.; Friedman, A.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Hicken, M.; Jensen, C.;

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Inserra, C.; Smartt, S. J.; Jerkstrand, A.; Valenti, S.; Fraser, M.; Wright, D.; Smith, K.; Chen, T.-W.; Kotak, R.; Pastorello, A.; Nicholl, M.; Bresolin, S. F.; Kudritzki, R. P.; Benetti, S.; Botticella, M. T.; Burgett, W. S.; Chambers, K. C.; Ergon, M.; Flewelling, H.; Fynbo, J. P. U.; Geier, S.;

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Malesani, D.; Fynbo, J. P. U.; Hjorth, J.; Leloudas, G.; Sollerman, J.; Stritzinger, M. D.; Vreeswijk, P. M.; Watson, D. J.; Gorosabel, J.; Michałowski, M. J.; Thöne, C. C.; Augusteijn, T.; Bersier, D.; Jakobsson, P.; Jaunsen, A. O.; Ledoux, C.; Levan, A. J.; Milvang-Jensen, B.; Rol, E.; Tanvir, N.

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Merle, Thibault; Hamers, Adrian S.; Van Eck, Sophie; Jorissen, Alain; Van der Swaelmen, Mathieu; Pollard, Karen; Smiljanic, Rodolfo; Pourbaix, Dimitri; Zwitter, Tomaž; Traven, Gregor; Gilmore, Gerry; Randich, Sofia; Gonneau, Anaïs; Hourihane, Anna; Sacco, Germano; Worley, C. Clare (12 May 2022). "A

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Perlmutter, S. A.; Gabi, S.; Goldhaber, G.; Goobar, A.; Groom, D. E.; Hook, I. M.; Kim, A. G.; Kim, M. Y.; Lee, J. C.; Pain, R.; Pennypacker, C. R.; Small, I. A.; Ellis, R. S.; McMahon, R. G.; Boyle, B. J.; Bunclark, P. S.; Carter, D.; Irwin, M. J.; Glazebrook, K.; Newberg, H. J. M.; Filippenko, A.

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Standard type Ia supernovae derive their energy from a runaway nuclear fusion of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. The details of the energetics are still not fully understood, but the result is the ejection of the entire mass of the original star at high kinetic energy. Around half a solar mass of that

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Initial asymmetries have also been confirmed in type Ia supernovae through observation. This result may mean that the initial luminosity of this type of supernova depends on the viewing angle. However, the expansion becomes more symmetrical with the passage of time. Early asymmetries are detectable

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Type IIn supernovae are characterised by additional narrow spectral lines produced in a dense shell of circumstellar material. Their light curves are generally very broad and extended, occasionally also extremely luminous and referred to as a superluminous supernova. These light curves are produced

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In type II-L the plateau is absent because the progenitor had relatively little hydrogen left in its atmosphere, sufficient to appear in the spectrum but insufficient to produce a noticeable plateau in the light output. In type IIb supernovae the hydrogen atmosphere of the progenitor is so depleted

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The ejecta gases would dim quickly without some energy input to keep them hot. The source of this energy—which can maintain the optical supernova glow for months—was, at first, a puzzle. Some considered rotational energy from the central pulsar as a source. Although the energy that initially powers

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Abnormally bright type Ia supernovae occur when the white dwarf already has a mass higher than the Chandrasekhar limit, possibly enhanced further by asymmetry, but the ejected material will have less than normal kinetic energy. This super-Chandrasekhar-mass scenario can occur, for example, when the

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Nicholl, M.; Smartt, S. J.; Jerkstrand, A.; Inserra, C.; McCrum, M.; Kotak, R.; Fraser, M.; Wright, D.; Chen, T. W.; Smith, K.; Young, D. R.; Sim, S. A.; Valenti, S.; Howell, D. A.; Bresolin, F.; Kudritzki, R. P.; Tonry, J. L.; Huber, M. E.; Rest, A.; Pastorello, A.; Tomasella, L.; Cappellaro, E.;

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such as oxygen and neon, and elements heavier than zinc. The latter is especially true with electron capture supernovae. The bulk of the material ejected by type II supernovae is hydrogen and helium. The heavy elements are produced by: nuclear fusion for nuclei up to S; silicon photodisintegration

3205:, respectively. The former is consistent with the expected upper mass limits for white dwarf progenitors to form, but the latter is not consistent with massive star populations in the Local Group. The upper limit for red supergiants that produce a visible supernova explosion has been calculated at 2954:

which may produce a brief energetic and directional burst of gamma rays and also transfers substantial further energy into the ejected material. This is one scenario for producing high-luminosity supernovae and is thought to be the cause of type Ic hypernovae and long-duration gamma-ray bursts. If

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The late-time decay phase of visual light curves for different supernova types all depend on radioactive heating, but they vary in shape and amplitude because of the underlying mechanisms, the way that visible radiation is produced, the epoch of its observation, and the transparency of the ejected

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that are the sites of star formation. Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a

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Type II supernovae with normal spectra dominated by broad hydrogen lines that remain for the life of the decline are classified on the basis of their light curves. The most common type shows a distinctive "plateau" in the light curve shortly after peak brightness where the visual luminosity stays

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Perets, H. B.; Gal-Yam, A.; Mazzali, P. A.; Arnett, D.; Kagan, D.; Filippenko, A. V.; Li, W.; Arcavi, I.; Cenko, S. B.; Fox, D. B.; Leonard, D. C.; Moon, D.-S.; Sand, D. J.; Soderberg, A. M.; Anderson, J. P.; James, P. A.; Foley, R. J.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Ofek, E. O.; Bildsten, L.; Nelemans, G.;

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Dong, Subo; Shappee, B. J.; Prieto, J. L.; Jha, S. W.; Stanek, K. Z.; Holoien, T. W. -S.; Kochanek, C. S.; Thompson, T. A.; Morrell, N.; Thompson, I. B.; Basu, U.; Beacom, J. F.; Bersier, D.; Brimacombe, J.; Brown, J. S.; Bufano, F.; Chen, Ping; Conseil, E.; Danilet, A. B.; Falco, E.; Grupe, D.;

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that drives highly directional jets, propelling matter at a high velocity out of the star, and driving transverse shocks that completely disrupt the star. These jets might play a crucial role in the resulting supernova. (A similar model is used for explaining long gamma-ray bursts.) The dominant

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When a supernova occurs inside a small dense cloud of circumstellar material, it will produce a shock wave that can efficiently convert a high fraction of the kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation. Even though the initial energy was entirely normal the resulting supernova will have high

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The core collapse of some massive stars may not result in a visible supernova. This happens if the initial core collapse cannot be reversed by the mechanism that produces an explosion, usually because the core is too massive. These events are difficult to detect, but large surveys have detected

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A second model for the formation of type Ia supernovae involves the merger of two white dwarf stars, with the combined mass momentarily exceeding the Chandrasekhar limit. This is sometimes referred to as the double-degenerate model, as both stars are degenerate white dwarfs. Due to the possible

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Hayden, B. T.; Garnavich, P. M.; Kessler, R.; Frieman, J. A.; Jha, S. W.; Bassett, B.; Cinabro, D.; Dilday, B.; Kasen, D.; Marriner, J.; Nichol, R. C.; Riess, A. G.; Sako, M.; Schneider, D. P.; Smith, M.; Sollerman, J. (2010). "The Rise and Fall of Type Ia Supernova Light Curves in the SDSS-II

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Statistically, the most common variety of core-collapse supernova is type II-P, and the progenitors of this type are red supergiants. It is difficult to identify which of those supergiants are in the final stages of heavy element fusion in their cores and which have millions of years left. The

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of life on the planet. Geological records suggest that nearby supernova events have led to an increase in cosmic rays, which in turn produced a cooler climate. A greater temperature difference between the poles and the equator created stronger winds, increased ocean mixing, and resulted in the

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are extremely rare and visually relatively faint, so it is difficult to say whether such progenitors are missing or just yet to be observed. Very luminous progenitors have not been securely identified, despite numerous supernovae being observed near enough that such progenitors would have been

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while it may show a small shoulder in the visual at about 40 days, but this is only a hint of a secondary maximum that occurs in the infra-red as certain ionised heavy elements recombine to produce infra-red radiation and the ejecta become transparent to it. The visual light curve continues to

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Stars with an initial mass up to about 90 times the Sun, or a little less at high metallicity, result in a type II-P supernova, which is the most commonly observed type. At moderate to high metallicity, stars near the upper end of that mass range will have lost most of their hydrogen when core

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Theoretical models of SNIa have remained limited because of uncertainties in the explosion mechanisms. SNIa explosions are driven by fast thermonuclear burning in C/O white dwarf (WD) stars with a mass close to, or below, the Chandrasekhar mass limit of ≈1.4 solar masses Beyond this general

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Bersten, M. C.; Folatelli, G.; García, F.; Van Dyk, S. D.; Benvenuto, O. G.; Orellana, M.; Buso, V.; Sánchez, J. L.; Tanaka, M.; Maeda, K.; Filippenko, A. V.; Zheng, W.; Brink, T. G.; Cenko, S. B.; De Jaeger, T.; Kumar, S.; Moriya, T. J.; Nomoto, K.; Perley, D. A.; Shivvers, I.; Smith, N. (21

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of more recent supernovae have been found, and observations of supernovae in other galaxies suggest they occur in the Milky Way on average about three times every century. A supernova in the Milky Way would almost certainly be observable through modern astronomical telescopes. The most recent

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Copin, Y.; Blanc, N.; Bongard, S.; Gangler, E.; Saugé, L.; Smadja, G.; Antilogus, P.; Garavini, G.; Gilles, S.; Pain, R.; Aldering, G.; Bailey, S.; Lee, B.C.; Loken, S.; Nugent, P. E.; Perlmutter, S. A.; Scalzo, R.; Thomas, R.C.; Wang, L.; Weaver, B.A.; Pécontal, E.; Kessler, R.; Baltay, C.;

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Supernovae are a major source of elements in the interstellar medium from oxygen through to rubidium, though the theoretical abundances of the elements produced or seen in the spectra varies significantly depending on the various supernova types. Type Ia supernovae produce mainly silicon and

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It is thought that higher mass red supergiants do not explode as supernovae, but instead evolve back towards hotter temperatures. Several progenitors of type IIb supernovae have been confirmed, and these were K and G supergiants, plus one A supergiant. Yellow hypergiants or LBVs are proposed

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Although pair-instability supernovae are core collapse supernovae with spectra and light curves similar to type II-P, the nature after core collapse is more like that of a giant type Ia with runaway fusion of carbon, oxygen and silicon. The total energy released by the highest-mass events is

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of material from a companion, the collision of two white dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a shell that then ignites the core. The dominant mechanism by which type Ia supernovae are produced remains unclear. Despite this uncertainty in how type Ia supernovae are produced, type Ia

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Barwick, S. W; Beacom, J. F; Cianciolo, V.; Dodelson, S.; Feng, J. L; Fuller, G. M; Kaplinghat, M.; McKay, D. W; Meszaros, P.; Mezzacappa, A.; Murayama, H.; Olive, K. A; Stanev, T.; Walker, T. P (2004). "APS Neutrino Study: Report of the Neutrino Astrophysics and Cosmology Working Group".

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designates the third supernova reported in the year 2003. The last supernova of 2005, SN 2005nc, was the 367th (14 × 26 + 3 = 367). Since 2000, professional and amateur astronomers have been finding several hundred supernovae each year (572 in 2007, 261 in 2008, 390 in 2009; 231 in 2013).

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The supernova classification type is closely tied to the type of progenitor star at the time of the collapse. The occurrence of each type of supernova depends on the star's metallicity, since this affects the strength of the stellar wind and thereby the rate at which the star loses mass.

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The next supernova in the Milky Way will likely be detectable even if it occurs on the far side of the galaxy. It is likely to be produced by the collapse of an unremarkable red supergiant, and it is very probable that it will already have been catalogued in infrared surveys such as

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Tanaka, M.; Kawabata, K. S.; Yamanaka, M.; Maeda, K.; Hattori, T.; Aoki, K.; Nomoto, K. I.; Iye, M.; Sasaki, T.; Mazzali, P. A.; Pian, E. (2010). "Spectropolarimetry of Extremely Luminous Type Ia Supernova 2009dc: Nearly Spherical Explosion of Super-Chandrasekhar Mass White Dwarf".

8030:

Howell, D. A.; Sullivan, M.; Nugent, P. E.; Ellis, R. S.; Conley, A. J.; Le Borgne, D.; Carlberg, R. G.; Guy, J.; Balam, D.; Basa, S.; Fouchez, D.; Hook, I. M.; Hsiao, E. Y.; Neill, J. D.; Pain, R.; Perrett, K. M.; Pritchet, C. J. (2006). "The type Ia supernova SNLS-03D3bb from a

10553:

In 1980, Ken'ichi Nomoto of the University of Tokyo predicted a third type called an electron capture supernova. ... In an electron capture supernova, as the core runs out of fuel, gravity forces electrons in the core into their atomic nuclei, causing the star to collapse in on

2745:

above the core. The convection can create variations in the local abundances of elements, resulting in uneven nuclear burning during the collapse, bounce and resulting expansion. Another possible explanation is that accretion of gas onto the central neutron star can create a

2764: 1537:

over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high redshift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.

14199:

Rho, Jeonghee; Milisavljevic, Danny; Sarangi, Arkaprabha; Margutti, Raffaella; Chornock, Ryan; Rest, Armin; Graham, Melissa; Craig Wheeler, J.; DePoy, Darren; Wang, Lifan; Marshall, Jennifer; Williams, Grant; Street, Rachel; Skidmore, Warren; Haojing, Yan; Bloom, Joshua;

1414:

relatively constant for several months before the decline resumes. These are called type II-P referring to the plateau. Less common are type II-L supernovae that lack a distinct plateau. The "L" signifies "linear" although the light curve is not actually a straight line.

14204:; Lee, Chien-Hsiu; Cowperthwaite, Philip S.; Stringfellow, Guy S.; Coppejans, Deanne; Terreran, Giacomo; Sravan, Niharika; Geballe, Thomas R.; Evans, Aneurin; Marion, Howie (2019). "Astro2020 Science White Paper: Are Supernovae the Dust Producer in the Early Universe?". 2393:

days). These radioisotopes excite the surrounding material to incandescence. Modern studies of cosmology rely on Ni radioactivity providing the energy for the optical brightness of supernovae of type Ia, which are the "standard candles" of cosmology but whose diagnostic

2233:(GRB), though it is also believed that any hydrogen-stripped type Ib or Ic supernova could produce a GRB, depending on the circumstances of the geometry. The mechanism for producing this type of GRB is the jets produced by the magnetic field of the rapidly spinning 8734:

Smith, N.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Chornock, R.; Filippenko, A. V.; Li, W.; Silverman, J. M.; Steele, T. N.; Griffith, C. V.; Joubert, N.; Lee, N. Y.; Lowe, T. B.; Mobberley, M. P.; Winslow, D. M. (2009). "Sn 2008S: A Cool Super-Eddington Wind in a Supernova Impostor".

2823:) path with a half life of 77 days into stable Fe. These two processes are responsible for the electromagnetic radiation from type Ia supernovae. In combination with the changing transparency of the ejected material, they produce the rapidly declining light curve. 16043:

Van Boekel, R.; Kervella, P.; Schöller, M.; Herbst, T.; Brandner, W.; De Koter, A.; Waters, L. B. F. M.; Hillier, D. J.; Paresce, F.; Lenzen, R.; Lagrange, A.-M. (2003). "Direct measurement of the size and shape of the present-day stellar wind of eta Carinae".

1796:

is the proportion of elements other than hydrogen or helium, as compared to the Sun. The initial mass is the mass of the star prior to the supernova event, given in multiples of the Sun's mass, although the mass at the time of the supernova may be much lower.

13184:

Galbany, L.; Anderson, J. P.; Sánchez, S. F.; Kuncarayakti, H.; Pedraz, S.; González-Gaitán, S.; Stanishev, V.; Domínguez, I.; Moreno-Raya, M. E.; Wood-Vasey, W. M.; Mourão, A. M.; Ponder, K. A.; Badenes, C.; Mollá, M.; López-Sánchez, A. R. (13 March 2018).

2996:. Core collapse supernovae are only found in galaxies undergoing current or very recent star formation, since they result from short-lived massive stars. They are most commonly found in type Sc spirals, but also in the arms of other spiral galaxies and in 2373:

decaying to Fe. Later measurements by space gamma-ray telescopes of the small fraction of the Co and Co gamma rays that escaped the SN 1987A remnant without absorption confirmed earlier predictions that those two radioactive nuclei were the power sources.

2279:

O+Ne+Mg core, imploded after its core ran out of nuclear fuel, causing gravity to compress the electrons in the star's core into their atomic nuclei, leading to a supernova explosion and leaving behind a neutron star. In June 2021, a paper in the journal

1800:

Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table. They can be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous

13976:

Eichler, M.; Nakamura, K.; Takiwaki, T.; Kuroda, T.; Kotake, K.; Hempel, M.; Cabezón, R.; Liebendörfer, M.; Thielemann, F-K (2018). "Nucleosynthesis in 2D core-collapse supernovae of 11.2 and 17.0 M⊙ progenitors: Implications for Mo and Ru production".

3396:

The kinetic energy of an expanding supernova remnant can trigger star formation by compressing nearby, dense molecular clouds in space. The increase in turbulent pressure can also prevent star formation if the cloud is unable to lose the excess energy.

6696:

Bianco, F. B.; Modjaz, M.; Hicken, M.; Friedman, A.; Kirshner, R. P.; Bloom, J. S.; Challis, P.; Marion, G. H.; Wood-Vasey, W. M.; Rest, A. (2014). "Multi-color Optical and Near-infrared Light Curves of 64 Stripped-envelope Core-Collapse Supernovae".

1340:

A small number of type Ia supernovae exhibit unusual features, such as non-standard luminosity or broadened light curves, and these are typically categorised by referring to the earliest example showing similar features. For example, the sub-luminous

1655:

combinations of mass and chemical composition of the pair there is much variation in this type of event, and, in many cases, there may be no supernova at all, in which case they will have a less luminous light curve than the more normal SN type Ia.

2206:

These supernovae, like those of type II, are massive stars that undergo core collapse. Unlike the progenitors of type II supernovae, the stars which become types Ib and Ic supernovae have lost most of their outer (hydrogen) envelopes due to strong

3484:. In 2009, elevated levels of nitrate ions were found in Antarctic ice, which coincided with the 1006 and 1054 supernovae. Gamma rays from these supernovae could have boosted atmospheric levels of nitrogen oxides, which became trapped in the ice. 977:

when near maximum brightness, others on old astronomical photographs or plates. Supernovae in other galaxies cannot be predicted with any meaningful accuracy. Normally, when they are discovered, they are already in progress. To use supernovae as

12099:

Wang, L.; Baade, D.; Höflich, P. A.; Khokhlov, A. M.; Wheeler, J. C.; Kasen, D.; Nugent, P. E.; Perlmutter, S. A.; Fransson, C.; Lundqvist, P. (2003). "Spectropolarimetry of SN 2001el in NGC 1448: Asphericity of a Normal Type Ia Supernova".

3275:

Supernovae events generate heavier elements that are scattered throughout the surrounding interstellar medium. The expanding shock wave from a supernova can trigger star formation. Galactic cosmic rays are generated by supernova explosions.

348:

Compared to a star's entire history, the visual appearance of a supernova is very brief, sometimes spanning several months, so that the chances of observing one with the naked eye are roughly once in a lifetime. Only a tiny fraction of the

2422:

and tend to have broadened light curves in addition to the increased peak luminosity. The source of the extra energy is thought to be relativistic jets driven by the formation of a rotating black hole, which also produce gamma-ray bursts.

8150:

Fink, M.; Kromer, M.; Hillebrandt, W.; Röpke, F. K.; Pakmor, R.; Seitenzahl, I. R.; Sim, S. A. (October 2018). "Thermonuclear explosions of rapidly differentially rotating white dwarfs: Candidates for superluminous Type Ia supernovae?".

10180:

Tauris, T. M.; Kramer, M.; Freire, P. C. C.; Wex, N.; Janka, H.-T.; Langer, N.; Podsiadlowski, Ph.; Bozzo, E.; Chaty, S.; Kruckow, M. U.; Heuvel, E. P. J. van den; Antoniadis, J.; Breton, R. P.; Champion, D. J. (13 September 2017).

2365:, that are absorbed and dominate the heating and thus the luminosity of the ejecta at intermediate times (several weeks) to late times (several months). Energy for the peak of the light curve of SN1987A was provided by the decay of 2333:

Typical light curves for several types of supernovae; in practice, magnitude and duration varies within each type. See Karttunen et al. for types Ia, Ib, II-L and II-P; Modjaz et al. for types Ic and IIb; and Nyholm et al. for type

1054:

and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift. Low redshift observations also anchor the low-distance end of the

15091:

Al Kharusi, S.; BenZvi, S. Y.; Bobowski, J. S.; Bonivento, W.; Brdar, V.; Brunner, T.; Caden, E.; Clark, M.; Coleiro, A.; Colomer-Molla, M.; Crespo-Anadón, J. I.; Depoian, A.; Dornic, D.; Fischer, V.; et al. (1 March 2021).

12898:

Prochaska, J. X.; Bloom, J. S.; Chen, H.-W.; Foley, R. J.; Perley, D. A.; Ramirez-Ruiz, E.; Granot, J.; Lee, W. H.; Pooley, D.; Alatalo, K.; Hurley, K.; Cooper, M. C.; Dupree, A. K.; Gerke, B. F.; Hansen, B. M. S. (10 May 2006).

11589:

de Jaeger, T.; Galbany, L.; González-Gaitán, S.; Kessler, R.; Filippenko, A. V.; Förster, F.; Hamuy, M.; Brown, P. J.; Davis, T. M.; Gutiérrez, C. P.; Inserra, C.; Lewis, G. F.; Möller, A.; Scolnic, D.; Smith, M. (11 July 2020).

3472:. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3,000 light-years away. In 1996 it was theorised that traces of past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of metal isotope signatures in 2179:

will reach core collapse by pair instability while they still have a hydrogen atmosphere and an oxygen core and the result will be a supernova with type II characteristics but a very large mass of ejected Ni and high luminosity.

5036:

Iyudin, A. F.; Schönfelder, V.; Bennett, K.; Bloemen, H.; Diehl, R.; Hermsen, W.; Lichti, G. G.; Van Der Meulen, R. D.; Ryan, J.; Winkler, C. (1998). "Emission from Ti associated with a previously unknown Galactic supernova".

3172:. It was first described in 2009 by Stephen Smartt, who also coined the term. After performing a volume-limited search for supernovae, Smartt et al. found the lower and upper mass limits for type II-P supernovae to form to be 884:

Jades Deep Field. A team of astronomers studying JADES data identified about 80 objects (circled in green) that changed in brightness over time. Most of these objects, known as transients, are the result of exploding stars or

2244:

Ultra-stripped supernovae occur when the exploding star has been stripped (almost) all the way to the metal core, via mass transfer in a close binary. As a result, very little material is ejected from the exploding star (c.

5253:

Yaron, O.; Perley, D. A.; Gal-Yam, A.; Groh, J. H.; Horesh, A.; Ofek, E. O.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Sollerman, J.; Fransson, C. (13 February 2017). "Confined dense circumstellar material surrounding a regular type II supernova".

443:

began observing SN 1604 at its peak on 17 October 1604, and continued to make estimates of its brightness until it faded from naked eye view a year later. It was the second supernova to be observed in a generation, after

1352:

A small proportion of type Ic supernovae show highly broadened and blended emission lines which are taken to indicate very high expansion velocities for the ejecta. These have been classified as type Ic-BL or Ic-bl.

21709: 21641: 21631: 21621: 21590: 21580: 11244:

Churazov, E.; Sunyaev, R.; Isern, J.; Knödlseder, J.; Jean, P.; Lebrun, F.; Chugai, N.; Grebenev, S.; Bravo, E.; Sazonov, S.; Renaud, M. (2014). "Cobalt-56 γ-ray emission lines from the Type Ia supernova 2014J".

1671:

There is no formal sub-classification for non-standard type Ia supernovae. It has been proposed that a group of sub-luminous supernovae that occur when helium accretes onto a white dwarf should be classified as

8315:

McCully, C.; Jha, S. W.; Foley, R. J.; Bildsten, L.; Fong, W.-F.; Kirshner, R. P.; Marion, G. H.; Riess, A. G.; Stritzinger, M. D. (2014). "A luminous, blue progenitor system for the type Iax supernova 2012Z".

2976: 1683:

One specific type of supernova originates from exploding white dwarfs, like type Ia, but contains hydrogen lines in their spectra, possibly because the white dwarf is surrounded by an envelope of hydrogen-rich

1189:. In each of these two types there are subdivisions according to the presence of lines from other elements or the shape of the light curve (a graph of the supernova's apparent magnitude as a function of time). 505: 1464:

These types would now all be treated as peculiar type II supernovae (IIpec), of which many more examples have been discovered, although it is still debated whether SN 1961V was a true supernova following an

8380:

C.; Li, W.; Matheson, T.; Miller, A. A.; Modjaz, M.; Ofek, E. O.; Pan, Y.-C.; Perley, D. A.; Poznanski, D.; Quimby, R. M. (2013). "Type Ia Supernovae strongly interaction with their circumstellar medium".

3508:(HR 8210), about 150 light-years away, but observations suggest it could be as long as 1.9 billion years before the white dwarf can accrete the critical mass required to become a type Ia supernova. 3385:

star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may influence the possibility of having

2775:

they release is almost a minor side-effect. Particularly in the case of core collapse supernovae, the emitted electromagnetic radiation is a tiny fraction of the total energy released during the event.

2163:

If core collapse occurs during a supergiant phase when the star still has a hydrogen envelope, the result is a type II supernova. The rate of mass loss for luminous stars depends on the metallicity and

5586:

Filippenko, A. V.; Li, W.-D.; Treffers, R. R.; Modjaz, M. (2001). "The Lick Observatory Supernova Search with the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope". In Paczynski, B.; Chen, W.-P.; Lemme, C. (eds.).

10327:

Zheng, W.; Brink, T. G.; Copperwheat, C. M.; Foley, R. J.; Brown, J.; Siebert, M.; Leloudas, G.; Cabrera-Lavers, A. L. (2022). "A WC/WO star exploding within an expanding carbon–oxygen–neon nebula".

920:. This is among the earliest supernovae caught after detonation, and it is the earliest for which spectra have been obtained, beginning six hours after the actual explosion. The star is located in a 8591:

Renzo, M.; Farmer, R.; Justham, S.; Götberg, Y.; De Mink, S. E.; Zapartas, E.; Marchant, P.; Smith, N. (2020). "Predictions for the hydrogen-free ejecta of pulsational pair-instability supernovae".

2061:, there is sufficient fallback to form a black hole. This fallback will reduce the kinetic energy created and the mass of expelled radioactive material, but in some situations, it may also generate 1781:

Electron-positron pair production in a large post-helium burning core removes thermodynamic support and causes initial collapse followed by runaway fusion, resulting in a pair-instability supernova.

16006:

Lobel, A.; Stefanik, R. P.; Torres, G.; Davis, R. J.; Ilyin, I.; Rosenbush, A. E. (2004). "Spectroscopy of the Millennium Outburst and Recent Variability of the Yellow Hypergiant Rho Cassiopeiae".

9943:

Benetti, S.; Mattila, S.; Kankare, E.; Kangas, T.; Leloudas, G.; Sollerman, J.; Taddia, F.; Berger, E. (2013). "Slowly fading super-luminous supernovae that are not pair-instability explosions".

2275:, called an electron-capture supernova. It would arise when a star "in the transitional range (~8 to 10 solar masses) between white dwarf formation and iron core-collapse supernovae", and with a 861:. Techniques were developed for reconstructing supernovae events that have no written records of being observed. The date of the Cassiopeia A supernova event was determined from light echoes off 1433:

was the prototype and only member of the type III supernova class, noted for its broad light curve maximum and broad hydrogen Balmer lines that were slow to develop in the spectrum. SN 1961f in

1145:). Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only one supernova discovered that year (for example, SN 1885A, SN 1907A, etc.); this last happened with SN 1947A. 2024:

tries to halt the collapse. If the core mass is more than about 15 solar masses then neutron degeneracy is insufficient to stop the collapse and a black hole forms directly with no supernova.

21652: 21647: 3600:, each contain blue stars with sufficient masses to explode as supernovae. Others have gained notoriety as possible, although not very likely, progenitors for a gamma-ray burst; for example 21662: 9573:

R.; Wiersema, K.; Xu, D.; Albert, L.; Bayliss, M. B.; Gall, C.; Grove, L. F.; Koester, B. P.; Leitet, E.; Pursimo, T.; Skillen, I. (2009). "Early Spectroscopic Identification of SN 2008D".

5108:

Kiyota, S.; Masi, G.; Nicholls, B.; Olivares E., F.; Pignata, G.; Pojmanski, G.; Simonian, G. V.; Szczygiel, D. M.; Woźniak, P. R. (2016). "ASASSN-15lh: A highly super-luminous supernova".

13870:

Maeda, K.; Röpke, F.K.; Fink, M.; Hillebrandt, W.; Travaglio, C.; Thielemann, F.-K. (2010). "Nucleosynthesis in Two-Dimensional Delayed Detonation Models of Type Ia Supernova Explosions".

3853: 5231: 7785:

Macri, L. M.; Stanek, K. Z.; Bersier, D.; Greenhill, L. J.; Reid, M. J. (2006). "A New Cepheid Distance to the Maser-Host Galaxy NGC 4258 and Its Implications for the Hubble Constant".

3303:

iron-peak elements, metals such as nickel and iron. Core collapse supernovae eject much smaller quantities of the iron-peak elements than type Ia supernovae, but larger masses of light

2255:

In 2022 a team of astronomers led by researchers from the Weizmann Institute of Science reported the first supernova explosion showing direct evidence for a Wolf-Rayet progenitor star.

13714:

François, P.; Matteucci, F.; Cayrel, R.; Spite, M.; Spite, F.; Chiappini, C. (2004). "The evolution of the Milky Way from its earliest phases: Constraints on stellar nucleosynthesis".

2779:

There is a fundamental difference between the balance of energy production in the different types of supernova. In type Ia white dwarf detonations, most of the energy is directed into

2431:(thought to be due to tidal stripping by a companion star) that the light curve is closer to a type I supernova and the hydrogen even disappears from the spectrum after several weeks. 6868:

Shen, K. J.; Weinberg, N. N.; Metzger, B. D.; Piro, A. L.; Quataert, E.; Kiewe, M.; Poznanski, D. (2010). "A faint type of supernova from a white dwarf with a helium-rich companion".

910:

of any other known supernova. The nature of this supernova is debated and several alternative explanations, such as tidal disruption of a star by a black hole, have been suggested.

3168:, respectively. Most progenitors of type II supernovae are not detected and must be considerably fainter, and presumably less massive. This discrepancy has been referred to as the 1792:

The table below lists the known reasons for core collapse in massive stars, the types of stars in which they occur, their associated supernova type, and the remnant produced. The

939:, Argentina, on 20 September 2016. It was the first time that the initial "shock breakout" from an optical supernova had been observed. The progenitor star has been identified in 857:, hence indicators of astronomical distances. Some of the most distant supernovae observed in 2003 appeared dimmer than expected. This supports the view that the expansion of the 18627: 2791:

emission, and while some of this apparently powers the observed destruction, 99%+ of the neutrinos escape the star in the first few minutes following the start of the collapse.

318:, which refers to what appears to be a temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix "super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous. The word 15210:

Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Faestermann, T.; Dorfi, E.; Rugel, G.; Wallner, A. (2004). "Fe Anomaly in a Deep-Sea Manganese Crust and Implications for a Nearby Supernova Source".

10249:

Piro, A. L.; Rumsey, C.; Sollerman, J.; Sullivan, M.; Taddia, F. (12 October 2018). "A hot and fast ultra-stripped supernova that likely formed a compact neutron star binary".

5634:; Schwendener, M.; Sinnott, R. W.; Stacey, B.; Suzuki, Y.; Tafirout, R.; Vigorito, C.; Viren, B.; Virtue, C.; Zichichi, A. (2004). "SNEWS: The SuperNova Early Warning System". 4546:

Ritter, Andreas; Parker, Quentin A.; Lykou, Foteini; Zijlstra, Albert A.; Guerrero, Martín A. (1 September 2021), "The Remnant and Origin of the Historical Supernova 1181 AD",

1628:. The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue 1813:. In these events, material previously ejected from the star creates the narrow absorption lines and causes a shock wave through interaction with the newly ejected material. 9470:

Faran, T.; Poznanski, D.; Filippenko, A. V.; Chornock, R.; Foley, R. J.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Leonard, D. C.; Li, W.; Modjaz, M.; Serduke, F. J. D.; Silverman, J. M. (2014).

3316:

and that rapidly beta decay into more stable forms. In supernovae, r-process reactions are responsible for about half of all the isotopes of elements beyond iron, although

2955:

the relativistic jets are too brief and fail to penetrate the stellar envelope then a low-luminosity gamma-ray burst may be produced and the supernova may be sub-luminous.

21975: 12958:

Petrosian, Artashes; Navasardyan, Hripsime; Cappellaro, Enrico; McLean, Brian; Allen, Ron; Panagia, Nino; Leitherer, Claus; MacKenty, John; Turatto, Massimo (March 2005).

20220: 10962: 830:

was performed during the 1920s. These were variously called "upper-class Novae", "Hauptnovae", or "giant novae". The name "supernovae" is thought to have been coined by

853:

developed the modern supernova classification scheme beginning in 1941. During the 1960s, astronomers found that the maximum intensities of supernovae could be used as

3584:; the luminous blue variable Eta Carinae that has already produced a supernova impostor; and both components, a blue supergiant and a Wolf–Rayet star, of the Regor or 467:

from dust along the plane of the galactic disk could have dimmed the event sufficiently for it to go unnoticed. The situation for Cassiopeia A is less clear; infrared

5323: 3234:

Approximate stellar evolution pathways of supernova progenitor stars (and lower mass stars) with circle size reflecting relative size and color related to temperature

985:, who greatly outnumber professional astronomers, have played an important role in finding supernovae, typically by looking at some of the closer galaxies through an 11708:

Richardson, D.; Branch, D.; Casebeer, D.; Millard, J.; Thomas, R. C.; Baron, E. (2002). "A Comparative Study of the Absolute Magnitude Distributions of Supernovae".

10987:

Matz, S. M.; Share, G. H.; Leising, M. D.; Chupp, E. L.; Vestrand, W. T.; Purcell, W.R.; Strickman, M.S.; Reppin, C. (1988). "Gamma-ray line emission from SN1987A".

203:

will undergo sudden collapse once it is unable to produce sufficient energy from fusion to counteract the star's own gravity, which must happen once the star begins

10006:

Tauris, T. M.; Langer, N.; Moriya, T. J.; Podsiadlowski, P.; Yoon, S.-C.; Blinnikov, S. I. (2013). "Ultra-stripped Type Ic supernovae from close binary evolution".

21934: 12471:

Smartt, Stephen J.; Nomoto, Ken'ichi; Cappellaro, Enrico; Nakamura, Takayoshi; Umeda, Hideyuki; Iwamoto, Koichi (2009). "Progenitors of core-collapse supernovae".

7260:

Howell, D. A.; Sullivan, M.; Conley, A. J.; Carlberg, R. G. (2007). "Predicted and Observed Evolution in the Mean Properties of Type Ia Supernovae with Redshift".

2826:

Core collapse supernovae are on average visually fainter than type Ia supernovae, but the total energy released is far higher, as outlined in the following table.

7564:

Röpke, F. K.; Hillebrandt, W. (2004). "The case against the progenitor's carbon-to-oxygen ratio as a source of peak luminosity variations in type Ia supernovae".

1113:, followed by the year of discovery, suffixed with a one or two-letter designation. The first 26 supernovae of the year are designated with a capital letter from 21222: 20746: 16984: 15474: 14977:

Ott, C. D.; O'Connor, E. P.; Gossan, S. E.; Abdikamalov, E.; Gamma, U. C. T.; Drasco, S. (2012). "Core-Collapse Supernovae, Neutrinos, and Gravitational Waves".

12160:"Can Differences in the Nickel Abundance in Chandrasekhar-Mass Models Explain the Relation between the Brightness and Decline Rate of Normal Type Ia Supernovae?" 3662: 1050:

High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate

21738: 12046:

Khokhlov, A. M.; Höflich, P. A.; Oran, E. S.; Wheeler, J. Craig; Wang, L.; Chtchelkanova, A. Yu. (1999). "Jet-induced Explosions of Core Collapse Supernovae".

11471:

Pastorello, A.; Turatto, M.; Benetti, S.; Cappellaro, E.; Danziger, I. J.; Mazzali, P. A.; Patat, F.; Filippenko, A. V.; Schlegel, D. J.; Matheson, T. (2002).

22361: 16284:

Thoroughgood, T. D.; Dhillon, V. S.; Littlefair, S. P.; Marsh, T. R.; Smith, D. A. (2002). "The recurrent nova U Scorpii – A type Ia supernova progenitor".

11651:"Nearby supernova rates from the Lick Observatory Supernova Search – II. The observed luminosity functions and fractions of supernovae in a complete sample" 21847: 2984:

Occasional supernovae appear in this sped-up artist's impression of distant galaxies. Each exploding star briefly rivals the brightness of its host galaxy.

2418:

are even occasional type Ib/c supernovae orders of magnitude more and less luminous than the norm. The most luminous type Ic supernovae are referred to as

1635:

Type Ia supernovae produce a characteristic light curve—the graph of luminosity as a function of time—after the event. This luminosity is generated by the

1586:

Within a few seconds of the collapse process, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes nuclear fusion, releasing enough energy (1–

1406:, appear to change types: they show lines of hydrogen at early times, but, over a period of weeks to months, become dominated by lines of helium. The term 981:

for measuring distance, observation of their peak luminosity is required. It is therefore important to discover them well before they reach their maximum.

3414:(FRBs) are intense, transient pulses of radio waves that typically last no more than milliseconds. Many explanations for these events have been proposed; 8206: 13068:"Core-collapse, superluminous, and gamma-ray burst supernova host galaxy populations at low redshift: the importance of dwarf and starbursting galaxies" 1359:

are a rare type of very fast supernova with unusually strong calcium lines in their spectra. Models suggest they occur when material is accreted from a

13007:

Shao, X.; Liang, Y. C.; Dennefeld, M.; Chen, X. Y.; Zhong, G. H.; Hammer, F.; Deng, L. C.; Flores, H.; Zhang, B.; Shi, W. B.; Zhou, L. (25 July 2014).

10540: 6100:"The Complete Light-curve Sample of Spectroscopically Confirmed SNe Ia from Pan-STARRS1 and Cosmological Constraints from the Combined Pantheon Sample" 14354:; Van Loon, J. Th.; Smith, J. D. T. (2009). "Measuring Dust Production in the Small Magellanic Cloud Core-Collapse Supernova Remnant 1E 0102.2–7219". 11649:

Li, W.; Leaman, J.; Chornock, R.; Filippenko, A. V.; Poznanski, D.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Wang, X.; Modjaz, M.; Jha, S.; Foley, R. J.; Smith, N. (2011).

13304: 9833: 9721: 7910: 7150: 5630:

Antonioli, P.; Fienberg, R. T.; Fleurot, F.; Fukuda, Y.; Fulgione, W.; Habig, A.; Heise, J.; McDonald, A. B.; Mills, C.; Namba, T.; Robinson, L. J.;

3345:

Remnants of many supernovae consist of a compact object and a rapidly expanding shock wave of material. This cloud of material sweeps up surrounding

1016:

that are produced in great quantities by a supernova, and they are not significantly absorbed by the interstellar gas and dust of the galactic disk.

6289: 2442:

and test models. Average characteristics vary somewhat with distance and type of host galaxy, but can broadly be specified for each supernova type.

21863: 16231:

Tuthill, P. G.; Monnier, J. D.; Lawrance, N.; Danchi, W. C.; Owocki, S. P.; Gayley, K. G. (2008). "The Prototype Colliding-Wind Pinwheel WR 104".

15157:

Fields, B. D.; Hochmuth, K. A.; Ellis, J. (2005). "Deep-Ocean Crusts as Telescopes: Using Live Radioisotopes to Probe Supernova Nucleosynthesis".

13546:

Yoon, S.-C.; Gräfener, G.; Vink, J. S.; Kozyreva, A.; Izzard, R. G. (2012). "On the nature and detectability of Type Ib/c supernova progenitors".

5459:

Reynolds, S. P.; Borkowski, K. J.; Green, D. A.; Hwang, U.; Harrus, I. M.; Petre, R. (2008). "The Youngest Galactic Supernova Remnant: G1.9+0.3".

3254:

The progenitors of type Ib/c supernovae are not observed at all, and constraints on their possible luminosity are often lower than those of known

2160:

may form the majority of core collapse supernovae, although less luminous and so less commonly observed than those from more massive progenitors.

1425:

Zwicky defined additional supernovae types based on a very few examples that did not cleanly fit the parameters for type I or type II supernovae.

22695: 20871: 16381:

Takahashi, K.; Sato, K.; Burrows, A.; Thompson, T. A. (2003). "Supernova Neutrinos, Neutrino Oscillations, and the Mass of the Progenitor Star".

13817:

Nomoto, Ken'Ichi; Leung, Shing-Chi (2018). "Single Degenerate Models for Type Ia Supernovae: Progenitor's Evolution and Nucleosynthesis Yields".

4727: 3939:

Winkler, P. F.; Gupta, G.; Long, K. S. (2003). "The SN 1006 Remnant: Optical Proper Motions, Deep Imaging, Distance, and Brightness at Maximum".

2679:

These magnitudes are measured in the R band. Measurements in V or B bands are common and will be around half a magnitude brighter for supernovae.

11761:

Frail, D. A.; Giacani, E. B.; Goss, W. Miller; Dubner, G. M. (1996). "The Pulsar Wind Nebula Around PSR B1853+01 in the Supernova Remnant W44".

6073: 3842: 1367:-rich star. Because of helium lines in their spectra, they can resemble type Ib supernovae, but are thought to have very different progenitors. 947:

noted: "Observations of stars in the first moments they begin exploding provide information that cannot be directly obtained in any other way."

23633: 22513: 18824: 5223: 2095:, the collapse halts and the star remains intact, but collapse will occur again when a larger core has formed. For cores of around 60–130 164:

Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a

23263: 21723: 21719: 21601: 21515: 19576: 12416: 4694: 2722:

A long-standing puzzle surrounding type II supernovae is why the remaining compact object receives a large velocity away from the epicentre;

2346:

It is now known by direct observation that much of the light curve (the graph of luminosity as a function of time) after the occurrence of a

7437:

Canal, R.; Gutiérrez, J. L. (1997). "The possible white dwarf-neutron star connection". In Isern, J.; Hernanz, M.; Gracia-Berro, E. (eds.).

3619:

Map showing some of the closest core-collapse supernova candidates to Earth within one kiloparsec, most of which are K-type red supergiants.

2959:

luminosity and extended duration since it does not rely on exponential radioactive decay. This type of event may cause type IIn hypernovae.

2134:

never develop a core large enough to collapse and they eventually lose their atmospheres to become white dwarfs. Stars with at least 9

22422: 19581: 17199: 13378: 5961:

V.; Matheson, T.; Dopita, M.; Couch, W. J. (1997). "Measurements of the Cosmological Parameters Ω and Λ from the First Seven Supernovae at

2256: 12260:

Nomoto, Ken'Ichi; Iwamoto, Koichi; Kishimoto, Nobuhiro (1997). "Type Ia Supernovae: Their Origin and Possible Applications in Cosmology".

1461:

Great Outburst was noted. Supernovae in M101 (1909) and M83 (1923 and 1957) were also suggested as possible type IV or type V supernovae.

22107: 21826: 12473: 11436: 8382: 7628: 3240: 2222:

which still have helium in their atmospheres. For a narrow range of masses, stars evolve further before reaching core collapse to become

1288: 1279: 1272: 10501: 10127:

Modjaz, M.; Perets, H. B.; Silverman, J. M.; Wong, D. S. (2013). "The Fast and Furious Decay of the Peculiar Type Ic Supernova 2005ek".

5572: 5409: 4492:

Winkler, P. Frank; Gupta, G. (2003), "The SN 1006 Reminant: Optical Proper Motions, Deep Imaging, Distance, and Brightness at Maximum",

22488: 22087: 21617: 21576: 20300: 19957: 15566:

Gehrels, N.; Laird, C. M.; Jackman, C. H.; Cannizzo, J. K.; Mattson, B. J.; Chen, W. (2003). "Ozone Depletion from Nearby Supernovae".

14979: 15782:

Tramper, F.; Gräfener, G.; Hartoog, O. E.; Sana, H.; De Koter, A.; Vink, J. S.; Ellerbroek, L. E.; Langer, N.; Garcia, M.; Kaper, L.;

7877:

Ruiz-Lapuente, P.; Blinnikov, S.; Canal, R.; Mendez, J.; Sorokina, E.; Visco, A.; Walton, N. (2000). "Type IA supernova progenitors".

511:

A 1414 text cites a 1055 report: since "the baleful star appeared, a full year has passed and until now its brilliance has not faded".

330:, who began using it in astrophysics lectures in 1931. Its first use in a journal article came the following year in a publication by 23639: 22354: 21657: 10388: 7535:

Khokhlov, A. M.; Mueller, E.; Höflich, P. A. (1993). "Light curves of Type IA supernova models with different explosion mechanisms".

1991:

When a stellar core is no longer supported against gravity, it collapses in on itself with velocities reaching 70,000 km/s (0.23

1616:

The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to

1337:

variations in light curves have been studied, classification continues to be made on spectral grounds rather than light-curve shape.

1106: 15621:

Van Der Sluys, M. V.; Lamers, H. J. G. L. M. (2003). "The dynamics of the nebula M1-67 around the run-away Wolf-Rayet star WR 124".

13599:

Groh, J. H.; Meynet, G.; Ekström, S. (2013). "Massive star evolution: Luminous blue variables as unexpected supernova progenitors".

13125:

Moriya, Takashi J.; Maeda, Keiichi; Taddia, Francesco; Sollerman, Jesper; Blinnikov, Sergei I.; Sorokina, Elena I. (11 April 2014).

3560:

A number of close or well-known stars have been identified as possible core collapse supernova candidates: the high-mass blue stars

1788:

may generate gamma-rays energetic enough to initiate photodisintegration directly, which will cause a complete collapse of the core.

22035: 21078: 20586: 19895: 19721: 19621: 6322: 2088:

pairs, thereby reducing the radiation pressure) oxygen fusion begins and the collapse may be halted. For core masses of 40–60

2027:

In lower mass cores the collapse is stopped and the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion

1457:

with a slow rise to brightness, a maximum lasting many months, and an unusual emission spectrum. The similarity of SN 1961V to the

1031:

Supernova searches fall into two classes: those focused on relatively nearby events and those looking farther away. Because of the

13923:

Wanajo, Shinya; Janka, Hans-Thomas; Müller, Bernhard (2011). "Electron-Capture Supernovae as the Origin of Elements Beyond Iron".

3312:) during the supernova's collapse for elements heavier than iron. The r-process produces highly unstable nuclei that are rich in 23412: 22370: 22030: 21714: 17179: 7710:"A unified mechanism for unconfined deflagration-to-detonation transition in terrestrial chemical systems and type Ia supernovae" 4026:

Supernovae: A survey of current research; Proceedings of the Advanced Study Institute, Cambridge, England, 29 June – 10 July 1981

3515:(26 light-years) to destroy half of the Earth's ozone layer, and there are no such candidates closer than about 500 light-years. 17: 10464: 5169:

Leloudas, G.; et al. (2016). "The superluminous transient ASASSN-15lh as a tidal disruption event from a Kerr black hole".

2401:

gamma rays were first detected only in 2014. The initial phases of the light curve decline steeply as the effective size of the

431:, the latest Milky Way supernovae to be observed with the naked eye, had a notable influence on the development of astronomy in 23167: 20371: 16787: 14820: 10934: 2369:

to Co (half-life 6 days) while energy for the later light curve in particular fit very closely with the 77.3-day half-life of

23188: 22938: 20810: 19398: 18659: 16371: 16352: 16132: 15903: 15354: 14828: 13801: 10754: 9400: 9076: 8204:

Wang, B.; Liu, D.; Jia, S.; Han, Z. (2014). "Helium double-detonation explosions for the progenitors of type Ia supernovae".

7515: 7476: 6562: 6490: 5611: 5566: 4801: 4422: 4093: 4008: 10687:

Adams, S. M.; Kochanek, C. S.; Beacom, J. F.; Vagins, M. R.; Stanek, K. Z. (2013). "Observing the Next Galactic Supernova".

7521: 3227:

progenitors for type IIb supernovae, and almost all type IIb supernovae near enough to observe have shown such progenitors.

1763:

When a massive star develops an iron core larger than the Chandrasekhar mass it will no longer be able to support itself by

996:

for hunting supernovae. While such systems are popular with amateurs, there are also professional installations such as the

22347: 16576: 15674:

Cristofari, P; Marcowith, A; Renaud, M; Dwarkadas, V V; Tatischeff, V; Giacinti, G; Peretti, E; Sol, H (18 February 2022).

10882:

Michel, F. Curtis; Kennel, C. F.; Fowler, William A. (13 November 1987). "When Will a Pulsar in Supernova 1987a Be Seen?".

5434: 2237:

formed at the collapsing core of the star. The jets would also transfer energy into the expanding outer shell, producing a

357:

have the capacity to become a supernova, the ability being restricted to those having high mass and those in rare kinds of

21559: 17209: 13490:

Georgy, C. (2012). "Yellow supergiants as supernova progenitors: An indication of strong mass loss for red supergiants?".

7318:

Mazzali, P. A.; Röpke, F. K.; Benetti, S.; Hillebrandt, W. (2007). "A Common Explosion Mechanism for Type Ia Supernovae".

6352: 5313: 5082: 1528:

nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. There are three avenues by which this detonation is theorised to happen: stable

23713: 22892: 21627: 21346: 20864: 17194: 16289: 7122: 5595: 3251:

had a highly luminous progenitor likely to have been an LBV, but is a peculiar supernova whose exact nature is disputed.

2993: 997: 842:

in 1933, and in a 1934 paper by Baade and Zwicky. By 1938, the hyphen was no longer used and the modern name was in use.

14687:"The Host Galaxies and Progenitors of Fast Radio Bursts Localised with the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder" 8531:

Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How Massive Single Stars End Their Life".

7412: 23682: 23075: 22837: 22174: 21913: 21799: 19937: 18817: 18634: 17953: 10829:

Nyholm, A.; et al. (2020). "Type IIn supernova light-curve properties measured from an untargeted survey sample".

9225:

Kasen, D.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2011). "Pair Instability Supernovae: Light Curves, Spectra, and Shock Breakout".

7566: 3899: 3825: 3308:

rearrangement and quasiequilibrium during silicon burning for nuclei between Ar and Ni; and rapid capture of neutrons (

1546:

There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. If a

1517:

A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a stellar companion to raise its core temperature enough to

23009: 10773:

Modjaz, M.; Gutiérrez, C. P.; Arcavi, I. (August 2019). "New regimes in the observation of core-collapse supernovae".

810:, observation and discovery of fainter and more distant supernovae became possible. The first such observation was of 21970: 21508: 21341: 20026: 19296: 14691: 14085:

Siegel, Daniel M.; Barnes, Jennifer; Metzger, Brian D. (2019). "Collapsars as a major source of r-process elements".

9829:"Modulations in the radio light curve of the Type IIb supernova 2001ig: evidence for a Wolf-Rayet binary progenitor?" 9575: 8795:

Janka, H.-T.; Langanke, K.; Marek, A.; Martínez-Pinedo, G.; Müller, B. (2007). "Theory of core-collapse supernovae".

6385: 5461: 4676: 3349:

during a free expansion phase, which can last for up to two centuries. The wave then gradually undergoes a period of

3331:

elements. However, in the early universe, before AGB stars formed, supernovae may have been the main source of dust.

373:

The earliest record of a possible supernova, known as HB9, was likely viewed by an unknown prehistoric people of the

14586:

Preibisch, T.; Zinnecker, H. (2001). "Triggered Star Formation in the Scorpius-Centaurus OB Association (Sco OB2)".

12725:"Recycling of neutron stars in common envelopes and hypernova explosions: Recycling of neutron stars and hypernovae" 4235:

Pankenier, David W. (2006). "Notes on translations of the East Asian records relating to the supernova of AD 1054".

2172:

collapse occurs and the result will be a type II-L supernova. At very low metallicity, stars of around 140–250

1063:

expanded to 1701 light curves for 1550 supernovae taken from 18 different surveys, a 50% increase in under 3 years.

23039: 23029: 20021: 16979: 16540: 16501: 15729:; Kaper, L. (2015). "Massive stars on the verge of exploding: The properties of oxygen sequence Wolf-Rayet stars". 13777: 13376:

Smartt, Stephen J.; Thompson, Todd A.; Kochanek, Christopher S. (2009). "Progenitors of Core-Collapse Supernovae".

6750:

Lyman, J. D.; Levan, A. J.; James, P. A.; Angus, C. R.; Church, R. P.; Davies, M. B.; Tanvir, N. R. (11 May 2016).

6348: 6318: 4079: 3430:, but direct evidence for cosmic ray production has only been found in a small number of remnants. Gamma rays from 2672:

Faint types may be a distinct sub-class. Bright types may be a continuum from slightly over-luminous to hypernovae.

1102: 343: 231:, sweeping up an expanding shell of gas and dust observed as a supernova remnant. Supernovae are a major source of 23760: 19906: 2689:

kinetic energy. Total electromagnetic radiated energy is usually lower, (theoretical) neutrino energy much higher.

1437:

was the prototype and only member of the type IV class, with a light curve similar to a type II-P supernova, with

1399:, have relatively narrow features in their spectra. These are called type IIn, where the "n" stands for "narrow". 22128: 20769: 19942: 19738: 18346: 17015: 14914:

Ackermann, M.; et al. (2013). "Detection of the Characteristic Pion-Decay Signature in Supernova Remnants".

2414:

from the remaining cobalt-56 becomes dominant, although this portion of the light curve has been little-studied.

2072:

The collapse of a massive non-degenerate core will ignite further fusion. When the core collapse is initiated by

12528:"The Proto-Neutron Star Phase of the Collapsar Model and the Route to Long-Soft Gamma-Ray Bursts and Hypernovae" 1736:

However, if the release of gravitational potential energy is insufficient, the star may instead collapse into a

23859: 22897: 22832: 21550: 21540: 20857: 20838: 20164: 19845: 19484: 18639: 18276: 18260: 17295: 17224: 16956: 16639: 4819: 1676:. This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf progenitor and could leave behind a 1001: 412:. This event was described by observers in China, Japan, Iraq, Egypt and Europe. The widely observed supernova 14623:

Krebs, J.; Hillebrandt, W. (1983). "The interaction of supernova shockfronts and nearby interstellar clouds".

11030:

Kasen, D.; Woosley, S. E. (2009). "Type Ii Supernovae: Model Light Curves and Standard Candle Relationships".

7906:"How the merger of two white dwarfs depends on their mass ratio: Orbital stability and detonations at contact" 5849:

Perlmutter, S. A. (1997). "Scheduled discovery of 7+ high-redshift SNe: First cosmology results and bounds on

22948: 22232: 21784: 20939: 20795: 20774: 19932: 19807: 19259: 19114: 18945: 18810: 18686: 18553: 13249:"'On the red supergiant problem': A rebuttal, and a consensus on the upper mass cut-off for II-P progenitors" 11763: 11083:

Nagy, A. P.; Vinkó, J. (2016). "A two-component model for fitting light curves of core-collapse supernovae".

7708:

Poludnenko, Alexei Y.; Chambers, Jessica; Ahmed, Kareem; Gamezo, Vadim N.; Taylor, Brian D. (November 2019).

7262: 6165: 3353:, and will slowly cool and mix with the surrounding interstellar medium over a period of about 10,000 years. 11138:"Properties of Type II Plateau Supernova SNLS-04D2dc: Multicolor Light Curves of Shock Breakout and Plateau" 10528: 9283:

Poelarends, A. J. T.; Herwig, F.; Langer, N.; Heger, A. (2008). "The Supernova Channel of Super-AGB Stars".

3998: 1137:

Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred: SN 185, SN 1006, SN 1054, SN 1572 (called

1109:, which sends out a circular with the name it assigns to that supernova. The name is formed from the prefix 23834: 23065: 22973: 22852: 21965: 21524: 21501: 21306: 20338: 19850: 19753: 19541: 18935: 18669: 18620: 18595: 17888: 17214: 17189: 17000: 16699: 11993:

Gilkis, A.; Soker, N. (2014). "Implications of turbulence for jets in core-collapse supernova explosions".

8856: 5794:

Frieman, J. A.; et al. (2008). "The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-Ii Supernova Survey: Technical Summary".

5558: 3524: 2054:

Some material from the outer envelope falls back onto the neutron star, and, for cores beyond about 8

1764: 1598: 1563: 378: 22437: 22195: 19860: 19280: 16097:

Thielemann, F.-K.; Hirschi, R.; Liebendörfer, M.; Diehl, R. (2011). "Massive Stars and Their Supernovae".

9778:"Towards a better understanding of the evolution of Wolf–Rayet stars and Type Ib/Ic supernova progenitors" 9683:

Pols, O. (1997). "Close Binary Progenitors of Type Ib/Ic and IIb/II-L Supernovae". In Leung, K.-C. (ed.).

1485:

a supernova (the bright dot slightly above the galactic center) rapidly brightens, then fades more slowly.

992:

Toward the end of the 20th century, astronomers increasingly turned to computer-controlled telescopes and

23628: 23507: 23381: 22427: 22287: 22169: 22132: 20764: 20607: 20154: 20119: 20109: 19076: 18902: 18610: 18590: 17262: 17219: 16727: 14146:

Gonzalez, G.; Brownlee, D.; Ward, P. (2001). "The Galactic Habitable Zone: Galactic Chemical Evolution".

13716: 8644:

Nomoto, K.; Tanaka, M.; Tominaga, N.; Maeda, K. (2010). "Hypernovae, gamma-ray bursts, and first stars".

6246: 2405:

decreases and trapped electromagnetic radiation is depleted. The light curve continues to decline in the

1574: 1306: 1297: 745: 568: 20715: 17973: 7966: 23854: 23849: 23739: 22882: 22872: 22493: 22383: 21317: 21111: 20561: 20364: 19840: 19792: 19775: 19474: 19338: 19135: 18866: 18674: 18605: 18575: 17020: 17010: 16629: 15725:

Tramper, F.; Straal, S. M.; Sanyal, D.; Sana, H.; De Koter, A.; Gräfener, G.; Langer, N.; Vink, J. S.;

11824: 7537: 7507: 7442: 6456: 6254: 5861: 5694: 4789: 3887: 3640: 2073: 1840: 1752: 1609:, or roughly 3% of the speed of light. There is also a significant increase in luminosity, reaching an 951: 724: 681: 660: 184:

nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. Possible causes are an accumulation of material from a

31: 22503: 13300:"The death of massive stars – I. Observational constraints on the progenitors of Type II-P supernovae" 9717:"The death of massive stars – II. Observational constraints on the progenitors of Type Ibc supernovae" 6752:"Hubble Space Telescope observations of the host galaxies and environments of calcium-rich supernovae" 2051:, producing the visible brightness, although there are other theories that could power the explosion. 23844: 23777: 23149: 22730: 22614: 21311: 21101: 21011: 20944: 20779: 20295: 19797: 19711: 19459: 19391: 19167: 19159: 19109: 18968: 18955: 18681: 18558: 18535: 18117: 17566: 17561: 17556: 17551: 17546: 17541: 16684: 16609: 14351: 10689: 9630: 9285: 9227: 8737: 8681: 8262: 8097: 7842: 7787: 7773:

statement, however, the exact mechanisms of SNIa remain unclear, with a number of possible scenarios.

7387: 7207: 7000: 6104: 6022: 5967: 5516: 4494: 3783: 3289: 2772: 2189: 1228: 1170: 1032: 917: 16464: 16326: 11862: 9827:

Ryder, S. D.; Sadler, E. M.; Subrahmanyan, R.; Weiler, K. W.; Panagia, N.; Stockdale, C. J. (2004).

9523:"Mind the Gap: The Location of the Lower Edge of the Pair-instability Supernova Black Hole Mass Gap" 9024: 7205:

Chen, W.-C.; Li, X.-D. (2009). "On the Progenitors of Super-Chandrasekhar Mass Type Ia Supernovae".

6545: 6060: 5726: 22963: 22857: 22735: 22498: 22458: 21178: 21018: 20576: 20546: 20435: 20394: 19972: 19343: 19104: 17824: 17698: 17333: 17204: 16569: 11819:

Höflich, P. A.; Kumar, P.; Wheeler, J. Craig (2004). "Neutron star kicks and supernova asymmetry".

11367: 11136:

Tominaga, N.; Blinnikov, S.; Baklanov, P.; Morokuma, T.; Nomoto, K.; Suzuki, T. (1 November 2009).

8260:

Reichart, D. E.; Soderberg, A. M. (2013). "Type Iax Supernovae: A New Class of Stellar Explosion".

7065: 6605: 6526: 5796: 2238: 2012:

is cut off as they become trapped in the core. The inner core eventually reaches typically 30

1529: 1438: 200: 189: 22953: 9421:"The red supergiant and supernova rate problems: Implications for core-collapse supernova physics" 7681:

Paczyński, B. (1976). "Common Envelope Binaries". In Eggleton, P.; Mitton, S.; Whelan, J. (eds.).

3648: – Hypothetical violent explosion resulting from conversion of a neutron star to a quark star 3468:

A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its

2343:

that direct observation of gamma-ray lines unambiguously identified the major radioactive nuclei.

962: 22968: 22917: 22579: 22569: 22508: 22272: 21353: 21267: 20996: 20959: 20493: 20149: 19685: 19648: 19551: 19546: 19464: 19140: 18994: 18973: 18600: 18351: 18150: 18060: 18020: 18002: 17928: 17499: 17425: 17229: 16634: 16624: 15265: 15212: 14650:

Cameron, A.G.W.; Truran, J.W. (1977). "The supernova trigger for formation of the solar system".

14030:

Qian, Y.-Z.; Vogel, P.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1998). "Diverse Supernova Sources for the r-Process".

12839:

Ganss, R; Pledger, J L; Sansom, A E; James, P A; Puls, J; Habergham-Mawson, S M (22 March 2022).

3788: 3651: 3324: 3285: 2800: 6413: 2223: 2219: 23839: 23386: 23346: 23160: 23101: 23060: 22887: 22867: 22786: 22664: 21411: 21363: 21068: 20883: 20828: 20425: 20179: 20067: 20052: 19911: 19604: 19418: 19367: 19071: 19024: 19020: 18989: 18940: 18761: 18741: 18513: 18508: 18406: 18301: 18250: 18055: 18045: 17718: 17516: 17484: 17375: 17358: 17234: 17138: 16974: 16847: 16827: 16459: 10496: 9019: 6540: 6451:

Cappellaro, E.; Turatto, M. (2001). "The Influence of Binaries on Stellar Population Studies".

6055: 5721: 5636: 4692:

Osterbrock, D. E. (2001). "Who Coined the Word Supernova? Who First Predicted Neutron Stars?".

4443:"A search for the modern counterparts of the Far Eastern guest stars 369 CE, 386 CE and 393 CE" 3925: 3361: 3098: 2992:

Type Ia supernovae are produced from white dwarf stars in binary star systems and occur in all

2731: 2406: 1775: 1579: 1534: 1521: 1466: 1442: 1356: 970: 940: 785: 639: 464: 169: 154: 17184: 16536: 15263:

Fields, B. D.; Ellis, J. (1999). "On Deep-Ocean Fe-60 as a Fossil of a Near-Earth Supernova".

15093: 12774:

Wright, Warren P.; Gilmer, Matthew S.; Fröhlich, Carla; Kneller, James P. (13 November 2017).

4666: 4412: 2767:

The radioactive decays of nickel-56 and cobalt-56 that produce a supernova visible light curve

1562:(for a non-rotating star), it would no longer be able to support the bulk of its mass through 1417:

Supernovae that do not fit into the normal classifications are designated peculiar, or "pec".

1387:

can also be sub-divided based on their spectra. While most type II supernovae show very broad

1332:

Type I supernovae are subdivided on the basis of their spectra, with type Ia showing a strong

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Proceedings of the Third Pacific Rim Conference on Recent Development on Binary Star Research

9123: 9060: 8926:"Comprehensive analytic formulae for stellar evolution as a function of mass and metallicity" 8533: 5591: 5552: 3941: 3796: 3657: 3534: 2787:

of the ejecta. In core collapse supernovae, the vast majority of the energy is directed into

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Mazzali, P. A.; Nomoto, K. I.; Cappellaro, E.; Nakamura, T.; Umeda, H.; Iwamoto, K. (2001).

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Zwicky, F. (1962). "New Observations of Importance to Cosmology". In McVittie, G. C. (ed.).

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was a type Icn supernova and is also the first in which the element neon has been detected.

23672: 23646: 23487: 23457: 22862: 22842: 22533: 22432: 22417: 21795: 21452: 20929: 20693: 20681: 20488: 20328: 20036: 20008: 19891: 19819: 19787: 19631: 19439: 19384: 19275: 18930: 18925: 18882: 18870: 18756: 18654: 18644: 18493: 18461: 18255: 18050: 18035: 17348: 16837: 16674: 16451: 16402: 16332: 16303: 16250: 16112: 16063: 16025: 15970: 15852: 15805: 15748: 15640: 15587: 15524: 15483: 15450: 15395: 15327: 15284: 15221: 15176: 15115: 15094:"SNEWS 2.0: a next-generation supernova early warning system for multi-messenger astronomy" 15055: 14998: 14935: 14872: 14769: 14710: 14659: 14632: 14605: 14552: 14497: 14430: 14373: 14298: 14254: 14223: 14165: 14104: 14051: 13996: 13942: 13889: 13836: 13781: 13735: 13670: 13618: 13565: 13509: 13454: 13397: 13323: 13270: 13208: 13148: 13089: 13030: 12971: 12922: 12862: 12797: 12746: 12673: 12608: 12549: 12492: 12435: 12376: 12330: 12279: 12181: 12119: 12065: 12012: 11959: 11902: 11838: 11782: 11727: 11672: 11613: 11592:"Studying Type II supernovae as cosmological standard candles using the Dark Energy Survey" 11553: 11494: 11445: 11416: 11376: 11329: 11264: 11208: 11159: 11102: 11049: 10996: 10946: 10891: 10848: 10792: 10708: 10648: 10589: 10440: 10346: 10268: 10204: 10146: 10082: 10025: 9964: 9908: 9852: 9799: 9740: 9692: 9649: 9594: 9544: 9493: 9442: 9304: 9246: 9186: 9132: 9064: 9011: 8947: 8875: 8816: 8756: 8700: 8653: 8610: 8552: 8482: 8463:

spectroscopic quadruple as a possible progenitor of sub-Chandrasekhar type Ia supernovae".

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Barbon, R.; Ciatti, F.; Rosino, L. (1979). "Photometric properties of type II supernovae".

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is used to describe the combination of features normally associated with types II and Ib.

826:

a decade later. Early work on what was originally believed to be simply a new category of

180:

In the re-ignition of a white dwarf, the object's temperature is raised enough to trigger

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Gilmore, Gerry; Randich, Sofia (March 2012). "The Gaia-ESO Public Spectroscopic Survey".

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Svirski, G.; Nakar, E. (2014). "Sn 2008D: A Wolf-Rayet Explosion Through a Thick Wind".

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with very little helium remaining, and these are the progenitors of type Ic supernovae.

1571:. In this case, only a fraction of the star's mass will be ejected during the collapse. 23801: 23677: 23618: 23296: 23248: 23106: 22659: 22453: 22277: 22164: 21980: 21868: 21535: 21457: 21296: 21272: 21190: 20710: 20688: 20536: 20478: 19993: 19865: 19770: 19561: 19529: 19494: 19454: 19449: 19193: 19081: 18751: 18712: 18664: 18649: 18563: 18503: 18426: 18336: 18306: 18296: 18240: 18162: 17853: 17489: 17288: 17005: 16914: 16890: 16782: 16742: 16604: 16477: 16441: 16418: 16392: 16293: 16266: 16240: 16138: 16102: 16079: 16053: 16015: 15960: 15821: 15795: 15764: 15738: 15687: 15656: 15630: 15603: 15577: 15548: 15441: 15339: 15300: 15274: 15245: 15192: 15166: 15139: 15105: 15073: 15045: 15014: 14988: 14959: 14925: 14896: 14862: 14801: 14759: 14728: 14700: 14595: 14568: 14542: 14515: 14461: 14420: 14408: 14389: 14385: 14363: 14332: 14213: 14181: 14155: 14128: 14094: 14067: 14041: 14012: 13986: 13958: 13932: 13905: 13879: 13852: 13826: 13751: 13725: 13696: 13634: 13608: 13581: 13555: 13525: 13499: 13472: 13444: 13413: 13387: 13349: 13313: 13260: 13198: 13138: 13079: 13020: 12912: 12852: 12821: 12787: 12736: 12705: 12663: 12632: 12598: 12539: 12508: 12482: 12453: 12448: 12425: 12411: 12392: 12366: 12303: 12269: 12242: 12199: 12171: 12135: 12109: 12081: 12055: 12028: 12002: 11975: 11949: 11892: 11850: 11828: 11798: 11772: 11743: 11717: 11690: 11662: 11603: 11543: 11512: 11484: 11406: 11347: 11319: 11288: 11254: 11149: 11118: 11092: 11065: 11061: 11039: 11012: 10915: 10864: 10838: 10808: 10782: 10724: 10698: 10666: 10638: 10627:"The search for failed supernovae with the Large Binocular Telescope: first candidates" 10607: 10579: 10456: 10430: 10370: 10336: 10308: 10284: 10258: 10230: 10222: 10194: 10162: 10136: 10100: 10072: 10041: 10015: 9988: 9954: 9924: 9898: 9870: 9842: 9789: 9758: 9730: 9665: 9639: 9610: 9584: 9534: 9483: 9432: 9365: 9320: 9294: 9262: 9236: 9204: 9176: 9097: 9037: 9001: 8937: 8898: 8865: 8851: 8832: 8806: 8772: 8746: 8716: 8690: 8626: 8600: 8568: 8542: 8498: 8472: 8417: 8391: 8361: 8327: 8297: 8271: 8241: 8215: 8186: 8160: 8132: 8128: 8106: 8076: 8042: 8012: 7978: 7947: 7919: 7822: 7796: 7763: 7721: 7663: 7637: 7601: 7575: 7482: 7446: 7363: 7329: 7297: 7271: 7242: 7216: 7187: 7159: 6911: 6877: 6846: 6763: 6732: 6706: 6678: 6652: 6568: 6530: 6460: 6202: 6174: 6141: 6113: 6037: 6002: 5976: 5942: 5916: 5865: 5831: 5805: 5766: 5739: 5703: 5671: 5645: 5496: 5470: 5391: 5357: 5289: 5263: 5204: 5178: 5151: 5117: 5064: 5018: 4973: 4844: 4793: 4783: 4759: 4722: 4647: 4599: 4555: 4529: 4503: 4454: 4337: 4260: 4217: 4183: 4154: 4126: 3976: 3950: 3919: 3915: 3891: 3635: 3451: 2788: 2686: 2455: 2370: 2366: 2268: 1716: 1685: 1610: 1491: 1454: 1407: 1013: 490: 358: 252: 15296: 15010: 13954: 13901: 12775: 12586: 12388: 11197:"Characterizing Mid-Ultraviolet to Optical Light Curves of Nearby Type IIn Supernovae" 11172: 11137: 10720: 10037: 9920: 9661: 9606: 9258: 8768: 8712: 7709: 7238: 6674: 5827: 4256: 3817: 3811: 3408:

4.5 billion years ago, and may even have triggered the formation of this system.

1983:

shock front (red). The shock starts to stall (e), but it is re-invigorated, likely by

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have been detected showing that it was not in a region of especially high extinction.

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Mukhopadhyay, Mainak; Lunardini, Cecilia; Timmes, F. X.; Zuber, Kai (1 August 2020).

15899: 15868: 15864: 15825: 15707: 15552: 15540: 15512: 15421: 15237: 15143: 15131: 15077: 14951: 14916: 14900: 14888: 14805: 14793: 14785: 14732: 14671: 14572: 14519: 14466: 14448: 14324: 14316: 14201: 14120: 14016: 13962: 13909: 13856: 13797: 13688: 13638: 13585: 13476: 13467: 13433:"Circumstellar dust as a solution to the red supergiant supernova progenitor problem" 13432: 13341: 13336: 13299: 13226: 13166: 13107: 13048: 13043: 13008: 12989: 12940: 12880: 12825: 12813: 12759: 12724: 12697: 12689: 12624: 12567: 12457: 12396: 12295: 12234: 12032: 12024: 11920: 11821:

Cosmic explosions in three dimensions: Asymmetries in supernovae and gamma-ray bursts

11802: 11685: 11650: 11631: 11571: 11516: 11507: 11472: 11342: 11307: 11280: 11226: 11221: 11196: 11177: 10907: 10868: 10812: 10750: 10728: 10670: 10611: 10536: 10460: 10418: 10374: 10362: 10300: 10292: 10234: 10166: 10158: 10108: 9980: 9865: 9828: 9762: 9669: 9396: 9369: 9357: 9340: 9266: 9072: 9041: 8965: 8960: 8925: 8903: 8720: 8630: 8502: 8353: 8301: 8293: 8245: 8190: 8068: 8004: 7951: 7942: 7905: 7767: 7755: 7747: 7511: 7472: 7355: 7320: 7093: 6903: 6850: 6838: 6830: 6783: 6736: 6728: 6558: 6486: 6391: 6381: 6206: 6006: 5907: 5675: 5607: 5562: 5383: 5143: 4977: 4965: 4948: 4848: 4797: 4764: 4672: 4651: 4603: 4591: 4418: 4393: 4329: 4209: 4174: 4158: 4149: 4115:"Young Remnants of type Ia Supernovae and Their Progenitors: A Study Of SNR G1.9+0.3" 4114: 4089: 4004: 3895: 3821: 3724: 3511:

According to a 2003 estimate, a type II supernova would have to be closer than eight

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Eldridge, J. J.; Fraser, M.; Smartt, S. J.; Maund, J. R.; Crockett, R. Mark (2013).

9324: 9208: 8836: 8776: 8572: 8421: 8413: 8136: 8016: 7826: 7667: 7367: 7301: 7246: 7191: 7146:"Reconciling 56Ni production in Type Ia supernovae with double degenerate scenarios" 6682: 6572: 6314: 6220: 6145: 5835: 5667: 5500: 5293: 5208: 5155: 4264: 4221: 4053:

Contributions from the Mount Wilson Observatory / Carnegie Institution of Washington

3696: 1023:"A star set to explode", the SBW1 nebula surrounds a massive blue supergiant in the 23753: 23718: 23687: 23562: 23552: 23482: 23341: 23301: 23286: 23209: 23174: 23154: 23096: 23019: 23004: 22999: 22725: 22574: 22463: 22262: 22253: 21277: 21217: 21028: 20612: 20514: 20290: 20250: 19998: 19947: 19802: 19716: 19509: 19479: 19233: 19220: 18850: 18530: 18483: 18433: 18421: 18399: 18394: 18321: 18281: 18228: 18010: 17933: 17908: 17802: 17723: 17447: 17408: 16924: 16732: 16722: 16469: 16410: 16340: 16258: 16120: 16071: 15978: 15891: 15860: 15813: 15756: 15697: 15660: 15648: 15595: 15532: 15491: 15411: 15403: 15379: 15335: 15304: 15292: 15229: 15184: 15123: 15063: 15006: 14943: 14880: 14777: 14718: 14667: 14560: 14505: 14456: 14438: 14393: 14381: 14306: 14262: 14173: 14112: 14059: 14004: 13950: 13897: 13844: 13789: 13743: 13678: 13626: 13573: 13517: 13462: 13405: 13353: 13331: 13278: 13216: 13156: 13097: 13038: 12979: 12930: 12870: 12805: 12754: 12709: 12681: 12616: 12557: 12500: 12443: 12384: 12338: 12307: 12287: 12226: 12203: 12189: 12139: 12127: 12073: 12020: 11979: 11967: 11910: 11790: 11747: 11735: 11680: 11621: 11561: 11502: 11457: 11453: 11365:

Tsvetkov, D. Yu. (1987). "Light curves of type Ib supernova: SN 1984l in NGC 991".

11337: 11272: 11216: 11167: 11110: 11057: 11016: 11004: 10954: 10899: 10856: 10800: 10716: 10656: 10597: 10448: 10354: 10276: 10212: 10154: 10090: 10033: 9992: 9972: 9945: 9916: 9860: 9807: 9748: 9657: 9614: 9602: 9552: 9501: 9450: 9388: 9349: 9312: 9254: 9194: 9140: 9029: 8955: 8893: 8883: 8824: 8764: 8708: 8661: 8618: 8560: 8490: 8409: 8365: 8345: 8318: 8289: 8233: 8178: 8124: 8080: 8060: 8033: 7996: 7937: 7859: 7814: 7739: 7659: 7655: 7605: 7593: 7486: 7464: 7404: 7347: 7289: 7234: 7177: 7089: 7085: 7017: 6976: 6959:

Filippenko, A. V. (1988). "Supernova 1987K: Type II in Youth, Type Ib in Old Age".

6915: 6895: 6822: 6773: 6724: 6670: 6622: 6550: 6478: 6279: 6271: 6192: 6131: 6065: 5994: 5946: 5934: 5883: 5823: 5743: 5731: 5663: 5533: 5488: 5395: 5375: 5348: 5281: 5196: 5135: 5068: 5056: 5039: 5022: 5010: 4993: 4957: 4926: 4885: 4836: 4754: 4744: 4637: 4583: 4573: 4533: 4521: 4472: 4388: 4383: 4363: 4341: 4321: 4252: 4201: 4144: 3980: 3968: 3716: 3411: 3264: 3145: 3001: 2997: 2951: 2303: 2282: 2062: 1748: 1477: 1166: 898: 854: 815: 278: 232: 158: 16206: 15817: 15760: 15233: 14533:

Zhu, Wei; Dong, Subo (2021). "Exoplanet Statistics and Theoretical Implications".

13630: 13577: 13521: 12291: 11292: 11114: 10860: 8828: 8622: 8182: 6802: 3426:

Supernova remnants are thought to accelerate a large fraction of galactic primary

2202:(left) and visible light (right), with the brighter SN 2007uy closer to the centre 1987:. The surrounding material is blasted away (f), leaving only a degenerate remnant. 1292:

Displays a "linear" decrease in its light curve (linear in magnitude versus time)

23623: 23557: 23321: 23276: 22806: 22680: 22649: 22599: 22584: 22412: 21291: 21200: 21042: 21022: 20934: 20924: 20531: 20521: 20483: 20310: 20260: 20235: 20031: 19875: 19782: 19748: 19660: 19043: 18877: 18717: 18520: 18389: 18233: 18204: 18145: 18140: 18015: 17743: 17708: 17642: 17588: 17583: 17528: 17338: 16832: 16737: 16181: 16156: 16075: 15919: 15895: 15652: 13793: 13747: 12652:"Pulsational pair instability as an explanation for the most luminous supernovae" 11195:

de la Rosa, Janie; Roming, Pete; Pritchard, Tyler; Fryer, Chris (22 March 2016).

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underwent a modest outburst in March 2009, before fading from view. Only a faint

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of −19.3 (or 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation.

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Woosley, S. E.; Janka, H.-T. (2005). "The Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae".

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Woosley, S. E.; Janka, H.-T. (2005). "The Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae".

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Hillebrandt, W.; Niemeyer, J. C. (2000). "Type IA Supernova Explosion Models".

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Cosmic Catastrophes: Supernovae, Gamma-Ray Bursts, and Adventures in Hyperspace

6344: 6197: 6160: 6136: 6099: 5938: 5689: 5631: 4578: 4302:"Identification of the guest star of AD 185 as a comet rather than a supernova" 3880: 3816:. New York, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 2784: 2747: 2157: 2017: 1992: 1629: 1578:

The blue spot at the centre of the red ring is an isolated neutron star in the

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from around 1680. Neither was noted at the time. In the case of G1.9+0.3, high

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Inglis, M. (2015). "Star Death: Supernovae, Neutron Stars & Black Holes".

15536: 14781: 14116: 13848: 12901:"The Galaxy Hosts and Large-Scale Environments of Short-Hard Gamma-Ray Bursts" 12651: 11879:

Janka, Hans-Thomas; Wongwathanarat, Annop; Kramer, Michael (1 February 2022).

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Karttunen, H.; Kröger, P.; Oja, H.; Poutanen, M.; Donner, K. J., eds. (2016).

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Probably a heterogeneous group, any of the other types embedded in nebulosity.

1731:

The layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse (not to scale)

439:

idea that the universe beyond the Moon and planets was static and unchanging.

23823: 23587: 23497: 23371: 23241: 23234: 22933: 22801: 22715: 22321: 22142: 21996: 21378: 21052: 20741: 20736: 20705: 20466: 20451: 20285: 20205: 19733: 19728: 18963: 18833: 18731: 18525: 18488: 18456: 18331: 18040: 17863: 17834: 17812: 17430: 17403: 17380: 17281: 17068: 15992: 15872: 15783: 15726: 15711: 15676:"The first days of Type II-P core collapse supernovae in the gamma-ray range" 15544: 15135: 14892: 14850: 14789: 14452: 14320: 13345: 13283: 13248: 13230: 13170: 13111: 13052: 12993: 12944: 12884: 12817: 12693: 12628: 12571: 11924: 11635: 11626: 11591: 11575: 11230: 11181: 10296: 10288: 10226: 10112: 10104: 8969: 8008: 7751: 7382: 7102:

SN 1961V in NGC 1058 (Type V) had the most bizarre light curve ever recorded.

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oxygen, neon and magnesium, the collapsing white dwarf will typically form a

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was recorded three hours after the supernova event on 6 October 2013, by the

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Morozova, Viktoriya; Radice, David; Burrows, Adam; Vartanyan, David (2018).

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Truran, J. W. (1977). "Supernova Nucleosynthesis". In Schramm, D. N. (ed.).

13683: 13658: 13102: 13067: 12875: 12840: 12587:"Choked jets and low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts as hidden neutrino sources" 12230: 11881:"Supernova Fallback as Origin of Neutron Star Spins and Spin-kick Alignment" 11566: 11531: 10602: 10568:"Gone without a bang: an archival HST survey for disappearing massive stars" 10567: 10280: 9812: 9777: 9753: 9716: 9506: 9471: 9455: 9420: 9353: 7743: 7351: 7182: 7145: 6826: 6554: 6395: 5200: 5139: 4961: 4205: 3654: – Supernova at least ten times more luminous than a standard supernova 3298:

Periodic table showing the source of each element in the interstellar medium

23789: 23417: 23311: 23024: 22958: 22811: 22554: 22518: 22282: 21482: 21447: 21416: 21406: 21158: 21148: 21047: 20954: 20914: 20880: 20617: 20591: 20461: 20456: 20380: 20240: 20114: 20082: 19690: 19609: 19187: 19050: 18791: 18466: 18416: 18411: 18311: 18194: 18177: 18135: 18105: 18095: 18030: 17913: 17858: 17839: 17819: 17797: 17789: 17632: 17625: 17464: 17385: 17368: 17046: 16946: 16919: 16897: 15425: 15384:"A persistent influence of supernovae on biodiversity over the Phanerozoic" 15241: 14955: 14821:"Astronomers detect a radio "heartbeat" billions of light-years from Earth" 14797: 14470: 14328: 14177: 14124: 13692: 13161: 13126: 12701: 12238: 11284: 10911: 10661: 10626: 10366: 10304: 10095: 10060: 10059:

Tauris, Thomas M.; Langer, Norbert; Podsiadlowski, Philipp (11 June 2015).

9984: 9361: 8907: 8357: 8072: 7759: 7359: 6907: 6778: 6751: 5387: 5147: 4969: 4768: 4213: 3488: 3405: 3390: 3360:

Supernova remnant N 63A lies within a clumpy region of gas and dust in the

2438:

Large numbers of supernovae have been catalogued and classified to provide

2357: 2218:

Type Ib supernovae are the more common and result from Wolf–Rayet stars of

2208: 1785: 1743:

Core collapse can be caused by several different mechanisms: exceeding the

1605:

is generated, with matter reaching velocities on the order of 5,000–20,000

1568: 1056: 850: 831: 717: 460: 449: 327: 323: 173: 102: 86: 13298:

Smartt, S. J.; Eldridge, J. J.; Crockett, R. M.; Maund, J. R. (May 2009).

13009:"Comparing the Host Galaxies of Type Ia, Type II, and Type Ibc Supernovae" 12299: 11397:

Filippenko, A.V. (2004). "Supernovae and Their Massive Star Progenitors".

5858:

Thermonuclear Supernovae, Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute

4931: 4906: 4749: 4301: 3747:"Who Really Coined the Word Supernova? Who First Predicted Neutron Stars?" 3230: 1774:

O/Ne/Mg core (8–10 solar mass progenitor star) removes support and causes

1509: 23592: 23582: 23547: 23356: 23336: 23215: 23055: 22791: 22740: 22700: 22468: 21368: 21282: 21207: 21185: 20971: 20949: 20919: 20676: 20661: 20627: 20556: 20280: 20230: 20184: 20087: 19962: 19901: 19626: 19534: 19362: 18707: 18379: 18371: 18361: 18341: 18316: 18245: 18167: 17923: 17898: 17893: 17807: 17767: 17728: 17693: 17676: 17671: 17343: 17148: 17056: 16951: 16941: 16929: 16854: 16767: 16446: 16298: 16058: 16020: 15635: 15582: 15279: 15171: 14600: 14160: 14046: 13730: 12917: 12274: 12176: 12114: 12060: 11954: 11833: 11777: 11722: 11489: 11473:"The type IIn supernova 1995G: interaction with the circumstellar medium" 11411: 9847: 9521:

Farmer, R.; Renzo, M.; de Mink, S. E.; Marchant, P.; Justham, S. (2019).

9419:

Horiuchi, S.; Nakamura, K.; Takiwaki, T.; Kotake, K.; Tanaka, M. (2014).

9102: 9006: 8942: 8811: 8547: 8047: 7801: 7642: 7580: 7451: 7334: 7276: 6535: 6465: 6375: 6284: 6042: 5981: 5921: 5870: 5708: 5650: 4508: 4085: 3955: 3473: 3040: 2804: 2715: 2402: 1978: 1810: 1793: 1677: 1458: 1158: 890: 874: 486: 445: 417: 362: 208: 185: 165: 90: 20849: 14443: 12685: 11276: 9976: 8888: 8349: 8064: 7840:

Colgate, S. A. (1979). "Supernovae as a standard candle for cosmology".

7383:"A rigorous examination of the Chandrasekhar theory of stellar collapse" 6899: 5379: 4991:

Aschenbach, B. (1998). "Discovery of a young nearby supernova remnant".

4668:

Classifying the Cosmos: How We Can Make Sense of the Celestial Landscape

4587: 3777: 1019: 838:

in 1931. It was used, as "super-Novae", in a journal paper published by

455:

There is some evidence that the youngest known supernova in our galaxy,

23537: 23527: 23517: 23422: 23402: 23326: 22994: 22943: 22781: 22771: 22609: 22604: 22589: 22248: 22220: 22006: 21462: 21421: 21401: 21396: 21212: 21121: 21006: 20805: 20720: 20700: 20671: 20622: 20571: 20270: 20200: 20169: 20144: 20097: 20092: 20077: 19743: 19680: 19670: 19571: 19407: 19172: 19130: 18291: 17988: 17961: 17938: 17918: 17903: 17755: 17659: 17637: 17615: 17610: 17474: 17163: 17158: 17153: 17133: 16934: 16810: 16772: 16669: 16397: 8679:

Moriya, T. J. (2012). "Progenitors of Recombining Supernova Remnants".

7439:

White Dwarfs: Proceedings of the 10th European Workshop on White Dwarfs

6435: 5860:. NATO Advanced Science Institutes Series C. Vol. 486. Dordrecth: 5771: 4840: 3645: 3615: 3569: 3542: 3427: 3247:

were both apparently massive luminous stars, but are very distant; and

3112: 3094: 3080: 3067: 2841: 2742: 2461: 2381: 2165: 2044: 2001: 1826: 1806: 1802: 1737: 1602: 1559: 1208: 932: 894: 468: 248: 224: 216: 114: 106: 23808: 21831: 15407: 14588:

From Darkness to Light: Origin and Evolution of Young Stellar Clusters

12342: 11588: 8870: 6842: 5735: 5285: 4278: 3404:

shows that a nearby supernova helped determine the composition of the

23512: 23291: 23070: 23014: 22685: 22619: 22594: 22478: 22200: 21770: 21703: 21699: 21667: 21596: 21442: 21195: 21116: 21001: 20651: 20305: 19952: 19855: 19643: 19207: 18478: 18326: 18110: 18075: 18070: 18065: 18025: 17978: 17968: 17762: 17738: 17713: 17620: 17571: 17504: 17469: 17442: 17418: 17353: 17143: 17123: 17118: 17113: 17108: 17063: 16757: 16694: 16689: 16619: 16473: 11008: 10389:"Astronomers discover first supernova explosion of a Wolf-Rayet star" 9033: 7686: 5757:

Beacom, J. F. (1999). "Supernova neutrinos and the neutrino masses".

4618:"The Peak Brightness of SN 1895B in NGC 5253 and the Hubble Constant" 4325: 4029: 4024:

Clark, D. H.; Stephenson, F. R. (1982). "The Historical Supernovae".

3677: – Supernova that ejects a large mass at unusually high velocity 3674: 3668: 3609: 3577: 3505: 3493: 3469: 3328: 3309: 3248: 3244: 2816: 2808: 2796: 2419: 2310: 2287: 2153: 2013: 1907: 1625: 1396: 1379:

Light curves are used to classify type II-P and type II-L supernovae.

1346: 1342: 1215: 928:, 160 million light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus. 913: 870: 807: 739: 702: 547: 459:, occurred in the late 19th century, considerably more recently than 456: 436: 137: 125: 74: 16496:

Tsvetkov, D. Yu.; Pavlyuk, N. N.; Bartunov, O. S.; Pskovskii, Y. P.

15513:"The past, present and future supernova threat to Earth's biosphere" 14349: 12957: 12650:

Woosley, S. E.; Blinnikov, S.; Heger, Alexander (15 November 2007).

11938:

Fryer, C. L. (2004). "Neutron Star Kicks from Asymmetric Collapse".

8733: 7441:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 214. Dordrecht: 6641: 6455:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 264. Dordrecht: 6275: 3477: 3327:(AGB) stars are the dominant source of dust from oxides, carbon and 2950:

In some core collapse supernovae, fallback onto a black hole drives

2211:

or else from interaction with a companion. These stars are known as

2004:, photodisintegration and electron capture, which causes a burst of 1071: 1059:, which is a plot of distance versus redshift for visible galaxies. 897:. It was first detected in June 2015 and peaked at 570 billion 23597: 23567: 23532: 23522: 23462: 23281: 22796: 22766: 22710: 22644: 22634: 22559: 22473: 22205: 22179: 22081: 22075: 22070: 22060: 22055: 22050: 22045: 22040: 21821: 21816: 21260: 21255: 21173: 20656: 20415: 20215: 20174: 20072: 18471: 18172: 17846: 17605: 17578: 17128: 17093: 17088: 17083: 16907: 16747: 16262: 15965: 15743: 15692: 15599: 15496: 15469: 15188: 15110: 15050: 14867: 14764: 14705: 14547: 14510: 14485: 14425: 14267: 14242: 14218: 14099: 14063: 13991: 13831: 13265: 13203: 13084: 12984: 12959: 12935: 12900: 12857: 12792: 12603: 12562: 12527: 12526:

Dessart, L.; Burrows, A.; Livne, E.; Ott, C. D. (20 January 2008).

12194: 12159: 12131: 12077: 11971: 11897: 11794: 11739: 11608: 11548: 11097: 10843: 10787: 10584: 10532: 10435: 10341: 10263: 10199: 10077: 9794: 9539: 9316: 9181: 9145: 9118: 8605: 8564: 8477: 8165: 7863: 7818: 7726: 7408: 7293: 7039:

Problems of Extra-Galactic Research, Proceedings from IAU Symposium

7022: 6995: 6980: 6768: 6627: 6600: 6179: 6118: 5998: 5537: 5492: 5362: 5268: 5183: 5122: 4890: 4863: 4642: 4617: 4560: 4525: 4459: 4131: 4051:

Baade, W. (1943). "No. 675. Nova Ophiuchi of 1604 as a supernova".

3972: 3665: – Chronological list of developments in knowledge and records 3629: 3415: 3369: 2820: 2735: 2340: 2318: 2314: 2291: 2234: 2121: 2085: 2081: 1917:

Black hole after fallback of material onto an initial neutron star

1876:

Black hole after fallback of material onto an initial neutron star

1708: 1482: 1450: 1446: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1403: 1364: 1174: 1080: 1044: 1009: 925: 823: 819: 811: 780: 760: 589: 240: 146: 51: 43: 16497: 16283: 16245: 16107: 16096: 15890:. The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series. pp. 203–223. 15800: 15673: 15470:"The hot white-dwarf companions of HR 1608, HR 8210, and HD 15638" 14993: 14930: 14368: 13937: 13884: 13613: 13560: 13504: 13449: 13392: 13318: 13183: 13143: 13025: 12741: 12668: 12544: 12487: 12430: 12371: 12007: 11667: 11470: 11324: 11259: 11154: 11044: 10703: 10643: 10141: 10020: 9959: 9903: 9735: 9644: 9589: 9488: 9437: 9299: 9241: 8751: 8695: 8396: 8332: 8276: 8220: 8111: 7983: 7924: 7221: 7164: 6882: 6711: 6657: 6161:"The Pantheon+ Analysis: The Full Dataset and Light-Curve Release" 5810: 5475: 5435:"NASA's Webb Opens New Window on Supernova Science - NASA Science" 5083:"NASA's Webb Opens New Window on Supernova Science - NASA Science" 5060: 5014: 4279:"SNRcat – High Energy Observations of Galactic Supernova Remnants" 4188: 2194: 23502: 23492: 23427: 23376: 23316: 23306: 23271: 22629: 21939: 21250: 20509: 20255: 18802: 18746: 18221: 17983: 17750: 17703: 17686: 17681: 17600: 17103: 17073: 17051: 15090: 13187:"PISCO: The PMAS/PPak Integral-field Supernova Hosts Compilation" 12321:

Iwamoto, K. (2006). "Neutrino Emission from Type Ia Supernovae".

11135: 9338:

Gilmore, G. (2004). "The Short Spectacular Life of a Superstar".

8794: 8258: 7876: 6221:"What Kinds of Discovered Objects to Report for IAUC Publication" 4172:

Krause, O. (2008). "The Cassiopeia A Supernova was of type IIb".

3573: 3377: 3320:

may be the main astrophysical source for many of these elements.

3313: 3259: 3255: 1719:, has been predicted to become a non-standard type Ia supernova. 1712: 1333: 1211: 1095: 1084: 936: 835: 675: 654: 633: 604: 428: 424: 413: 405: 382: 350: 16042: 15946: 14976: 14849:

Petroff, E.; Hessels, J. W. T.; Lorimer, D. R. (29 March 2022).

14287:"Populating the periodic table: Nucleosynthesis of the elements" 13659:"Populating the periodic table: Nucleosynthesis of the elements" 12585:

Senno, Nicholas; Murase, Kohta; Mészáros, Peter (8 April 2016).

11532:"A cosmology-independent calibration of Type Ia supernovae data" 9469: 8443:(147). Garching, Germany: European Southern Observatory: 25–31. 7903: 5901:

Linder, E. V.; Huterer, D. (2003). "Importance of supernovae at

5514:

Colgate, S. A.; McKee, C. (1969). "Early Supernova Luminosity".

5346:

February 2018). "A surge of light at the birth of a supernova".

3356: 2819:

of six days) and gamma rays. Co itself decays by the beta plus (

2771:

Although supernovae are primarily known as luminous events, the

2384:

with supernova SN2020jfo, taken by an amateur astronomer in 2020

199:

In the case of a massive star's sudden implosion, the core of a

23477: 23472: 22227: 21775: 21586: 21245: 21168: 21163: 21126: 20399: 20349: 20275: 20265: 20245: 19967: 19566: 19556: 19301: 18736: 18724: 17943: 17829: 17098: 16902: 16526: 14198: 12157: 11707: 10005: 9119:"Neutrinos from type II supernovae- The first 100 milliseconds" 7965:

Maoz, Dan; Mannucci, Filippo; Nelemans, Gijs (18 August 2014).

7904:

Dan, M.; Rosswog, S.; Guillochon, J.; Ramirez-Ruiz, E. (2012).

5035: 4817:

da Silva, L. A. L. (1993). "The Classification of Supernovae".

3608:

systems that conveniently advertise themselves. One example is

3601: 3512: 3439: 3435: 3386: 3373: 2723: 2711: 2706: 2351: 2077: 2028: 1778:

followed by explosive oxygen fusion, with very similar results.

1644: 1640: 1551: 1547: 1360: 1238: 862: 583: 562: 541: 432: 397: 354: 268: 236: 118: 19376: 15209: 15031: 14913: 12470: 11243: 11194: 10982: 10980: 10052: 9941: 9887: 9418: 9163:

Piran, Tsvi; Nakar, Ehud; Mazzali, Paolo; Pian, Elena (2019).

9094: 8378: 7967:"Observational Clues to the Progenitors of Type Ia Supernovae" 7317: 5629: 5224:"Massive supernova visible millions of light-years from Earth" 3529: 2198:

Type Ib SN 2008D at the far upper end of the galaxy, shown in

1008:

to give early warning of a supernova in the Milky Way galaxy.

479: 296:

and is often abbreviated as SN or SNe. It is derived from the

284: 23542: 23407: 23331: 22001: 21790: 21759: 21637: 16554: 16532:

An open-access catalog of supernova light curves and spectra.

16101:. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 812. pp. 153–231. 15034:"The Gravitational Wave Signal from Core-collapse Supernovae" 13975: 12355: 10486: 10484: 10482: 9826: 9383:

Faure, G.; Mensing, T. M. (2007). "Life and Death of Stars".

7707: 5959: 5344: 5168: 4362:

Zhao, Fu-Yuan; Strom, R. G.; Jiang, Shi-Yang (October 2006).

3593: 3565: 3561: 3550: 3418:

produced by core-collapse supernovae are leading candidates.

2199: 1593: 1076: 16230: 13713: 10125: 7259: 2763: 2229:

A few percent of the type Ic supernovae are associated with

1489:

Supernova type codes, as summarised in the table above, are

1375: 22369: 21780: 21765: 21755: 20991: 20891: 19182: 18085: 17304: 16762: 16324: 15565: 13297: 12773: 11434:

Filippenko, A. V. (1997). "Optical Spectra of Supernovae".

10977: 9571: 9282: 8093: 7784: 5458: 3597: 3596:, two bright star systems in the southern constellation of 3431: 2751:

mechanism may depend upon the mass of the progenitor star.

2741:

One possible explanation for this asymmetry is large-scale

2149: 2116: 2000:

The initial collapse of degenerate cores is accelerated by

1648: 1321: 827: 303: 78: 21477: 19357: 18786: 15781: 13253:

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

13124: 12045: 11648: 10744: 10479: 10417:

Hiramatsu D; Howell D; Van S; et al. (28 June 2021).

9520: 9425:

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters

8461: 8149: 6866: 6695: 5585: 4108: 2035:. At this temperature, neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all 1767:

and will collapse further to a neutron star or black hole.

243:. The expanding shock waves of supernovae can trigger the 39: 23200: 18451: 13869: 12723:

Barkov, Maxim V.; Komissarov, Serguei S. (21 July 2011).

11878: 11305: 10686: 10058: 9714: 8643: 8590: 8029: 4545: 3016:

Fraction of core collapse supernovae types by progenitor

1391:

which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of

17273: 16286:

The Physics of Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects

16005: 14409:"Chemical element transport in stellar evolution models" 13776:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 66. 13545: 12098: 11306:

Seitenzahl, I. R.; Taubenberger, S.; Sim, S. A. (2009).

10416: 6019: 5793: 5410:"James Webb Telescope Revolutionizes Supernova Research" 5311: 3850:

Purātattva: Journal of the Indian Archaeological Society

3487:

Historically, nearby supernovae may have influenced the

1181:

in the visual portion of the spectrum) it is classified

408:, which was observed in AD 1006 in the constellation of 20747:

Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae

16985:

Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae

15724: 15475:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

15355:"Did Supernovae Help Push Life to Become More Diverse?" 12960:"Active and Star-forming Galaxies and Their Supernovae" 12897: 12838: 12217:

Janka, H.-Th. (2002). "The Secrets Behind Supernovae".

11530:

Hauret, C; Magain, P; Biernaux, J (21 September 2018).

10325: 10173: 9414: 9412: 8924:

Hurley, J. R.; Pols, O. R.; Tout, C. A. (1 July 2000).

8530: 8314: 3663:

Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae

1533:

supernovae have very uniform properties and are useful

16498:"Sternberg Astronomical Institute Supernova Catalogue" 13375: 13006: 12525: 12259: 11760: 10412: 10410: 7534: 7144:

Piro, A. L.; Thompson, T. A.; Kochanek, C. S. (2014).

5856:". In Ruiz-Lapuente, P.; Canal, R.; Isern, J. (eds.). 5252: 3671: – Star that has undergone gravitational collapse 3541:

WR124, which is located at a distance of about 21,000

3480:

enrichment was later reported in deep-sea rock of the

3450:

Supernovae are potentially strong galactic sources of

3434:-decay have been detected from the supernova remnants 3115:

with highly depleted hydrogen (stripped by companion?)

2267:

In 1980, a "third type" of supernova was predicted by

117:

of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire

23737: 15467: 14848: 12649: 10986: 10932: 10772: 10625:

Gerke, J. R.; Kochanek, C. S.; Stanek, K. Z. (2015).

10565: 10523: 10521: 10519: 10179: 9162: 9057:

Stardust: Supernovae and Life – The Cosmic Connection

6409: 5692:(2000). "SNEWS: The supernova early warning system". 5314:"Amateur astronomer makes once-in-lifetime discovery" 3843:"Oldest sky-chart with Supernova record (in Kashmir)" 14145: 11529: 10933:

Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968).

10247: 9409: 7964: 7143: 6749: 6521:

Turatto, M. (2003). "Classification of Supernovae".

5106: 4441:

Hoffmann, Susanne M.; Vogt, Nikolaus (1 July 2020).

4364:"The Guest Star of AD185 must have been a Supernova" 3504:

is not well studied. The closest-known candidate is

2755:

by measuring the polarisation of the emitted light.

2726:, and thus neutron stars, are observed to have high 2016:

in diameter with a density comparable to that of an

935:

was detected by amateur astronomer Victor Buso from

869:

was estimated from temperature measurements and the

670:

likely type Iax SN associated with the remnant Pa30

281: 15620: 15156: 14084: 14029: 13652: 13650: 13648: 12584: 11818: 10624: 10407: 10241: 8207:

Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union

7625: 6453:

Influence of Binaries on Stellar Population Studies

4907:"A cosmological surprise: The universe accelerates" 3775: 1157:Astronomers classify supernovae according to their 219:of material at speeds up to several percent of the 14585: 13979:Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 12776:"Neutrino signal from pair-instability supernovae" 12412:"Explosion Mechanisms of Core-Collapse Supernovae" 10881: 10516: 7621: 7619: 7617: 7615: 6931: 4671:. Springer International Publishing. p. 191. 3879: 3776: 3442:from the remnant impact on interstellar material. 15680:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 14407:Salaris, Maurizio; Cassisi, Santi (August 2017). 13922: 13598: 13437:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 13430: 13305:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 13131:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 13072:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 12845:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 12729:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 11655:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 11596:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 11536:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 11477:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 11312:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 11299: 10740: 10738: 10631:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 10572:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 10566:Reynolds, T. M.; Fraser, M.; Gilmore, G. (2015). 10419:"The electron-capture origin of supernova 2018zd" 10065:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 10061:"Ultra-stripped supernovae: progenitors and fate" 9834:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 9782:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 9722:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 9476:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 9224: 8930:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 8852:"Gravitational Waves from Gravitational Collapse" 7911:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 7151:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 6756:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 6450: 6380:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 1–5, 60, 82. 5625: 5623: 4447:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3840: 2718:is travelling at 375 km/s relative to the nebula. 2127:Stars with initial masses less than about 8 23821: 21523: 14684: 14622: 13645: 12722: 11814: 11812: 8985: 8983: 8981: 8979: 7563: 6374:Stephenson, F. Richard; Green, David A. (2002). 6158: 6097: 4436: 4434: 3938: 1817:Core collapse scenarios by mass and metallicity 1601:the star in a supernova. An outwardly expanding 1554:white dwarf accreted enough matter to reach the 404:in 185 AD. The brightest recorded supernova was 14907: 14280: 14278: 11464: 11427: 10824: 10822: 10768: 10766: 9165:"Relativistic Jets in Core-collapse Supernovae" 8919: 8917: 7683:Structure and Evolution of Close Binary Systems 7612: 6601:"A comparative study of supernova light curves" 6373: 6098:Scolnic, D. M.; Jones, D. O.; Rest, A. (2018). 5550: 4946:Fabian, A. C. (2008). "A Blast from the Past". 4728:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4023: 3751:American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts 3400:Evidence from daughter products of short-lived 3097:in a dense cloud of expelled material (such as 1035:, the distance to a remote object with a known 734:SNR known, unclear whether the SN was observed 16541:IAU: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams 15468:Landsman, W.; Simon, T.; Bergeron, P. (1999). 14748:"The physical mechanisms of fast radio bursts" 14483: 14406: 14243:"Cooling and Evolution of a Supernova Remnant" 13242: 13240: 11874: 11872: 10735: 9054: 8923: 8790: 8788: 8786: 8586: 8584: 8582: 8434: 7436: 7313: 7311: 6862: 6860: 5620: 4361: 2262: 1173:. If a supernova's spectrum contains lines of 1121:. Next, pairs of lower-case letters are used: 22355: 22078:(first-ever possible light from bh-bh merger) 21509: 20865: 20365: 19392: 18818: 17289: 16570: 15439:Gorelick, M. (2007). "The Supernova Menace". 14678: 14649: 14206:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 13379:Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics 13065: 12417:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 11809: 9158: 9156: 8976: 8203: 7374: 6927: 6925: 6598: 6319:IAU Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams 5900: 5312:Astronomy Now journalist (23 February 2018). 4695:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 4431: 4368:Chinese Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics 3841:Joglekar, H.; Vahia, M. N.; Sule, A. (2011). 3438:and W44. These are produced when accelerated 1841:Electron capture in a degenerate O+Ne+Mg core 1740:or neutron star with little radiated energy. 889:The most luminous supernova ever recorded is 17200:Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey 16325:Athem W. Alsabti; Paul Murdin, eds. (2017). 15841:"Observation of 23 Supernovae That Exploded" 14851:"Fast radio bursts at the dawn of the 2020s" 14275: 13246: 11029: 10819: 10763: 10529:"Astronomers discover new type of supernova" 9710: 9708: 9706: 9627: 9382: 9278: 9276: 8989: 8914: 8031:super-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarf star". 7432: 7430: 6159:Scolnic, D. M.; Brout, D.; Carr, A. (2021). 5513: 4781: 4609: 4491: 4440: 4300:Chin, Y.-N.; Huang, Y.-L. (September 1994). 4237:Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 3877: 3809: 3334: 943:images from before its collapse. Astronomer 435:because they were used to argue against the 207:, but may happen during an earlier stage of 124:The last supernova directly observed in the 121:before fading over several weeks or months. 15353:Petersen, Carolyn Collins (22 March 2023). 15262: 14535:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 13816: 13810: 13291: 13237: 12474:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 12153: 12151: 12149: 11992: 11869: 11701: 11437:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 9331: 9116: 9090: 9088: 8843: 8783: 8579: 8428: 8383:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 7971:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 7629:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 7308: 7070:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 6857: 6516: 6514: 6512: 6510: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6502: 4720: 4685: 4102: 3279: 3141:Supernova types by initial mass-metallicity 1964:None (or luminous supernova?), possible GRB 989:and comparing them to earlier photographs. 301: 136:in 1572, both of which were visible to the 22362: 22348: 21516: 21502: 20872: 20858: 20372: 20358: 19958:Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object 19399: 19385: 18825: 18811: 17296: 17282: 16577: 16563: 16537:"List of Supernovae with IAU Designations" 14980:Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements 13767: 13765: 13431:Walmswell, J. J.; Eldridge, J. J. (2012). 13371: 13369: 13367: 13365: 13363: 11433: 11396: 10393:Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias • IAC 10183:"Formation of Double Neutron Star Systems" 9153: 8455: 7879:Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana 7063: 6958: 6922: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6588: 6586: 6584: 6582: 5848: 4990: 4904: 4898: 4691: 4077: 3744: 2446:Physical properties of supernovae by type 1825:Progenitor star approximate initial mass ( 1101:Supernova discoveries are reported to the 20879: 16463: 16445: 16396: 16297: 16244: 16106: 16057: 16019: 15982: 15964: 15838: 15799: 15742: 15701: 15691: 15634: 15581: 15495: 15415: 15378: 15278: 15170: 15109: 15067: 15049: 15025: 14992: 14929: 14866: 14763: 14722: 14704: 14599: 14546: 14509: 14484:Fischer, Debra A.; Valenti, Jeff (2005). 14460: 14442: 14424: 14367: 14310: 14266: 14217: 14159: 14098: 14045: 13990: 13936: 13883: 13830: 13729: 13707: 13682: 13612: 13559: 13503: 13466: 13448: 13391: 13335: 13317: 13282: 13264: 13220: 13202: 13160: 13142: 13101: 13083: 13042: 13024: 12983: 12934: 12916: 12874: 12856: 12791: 12758: 12740: 12667: 12602: 12561: 12543: 12486: 12447: 12429: 12370: 12273: 12193: 12175: 12113: 12059: 12006: 11953: 11914: 11896: 11832: 11776: 11721: 11684: 11666: 11625: 11607: 11565: 11547: 11506: 11488: 11410: 11392: 11390: 11341: 11323: 11258: 11220: 11171: 11153: 11096: 11082: 11043: 10842: 10786: 10702: 10682: 10680: 10660: 10642: 10601: 10583: 10434: 10340: 10262: 10216: 10198: 10140: 10094: 10076: 10019: 9958: 9902: 9864: 9846: 9811: 9793: 9752: 9734: 9703: 9643: 9588: 9556: 9538: 9505: 9487: 9454: 9436: 9298: 9273: 9240: 9220: 9218: 9198: 9180: 9144: 9101: 9023: 9005: 8959: 8941: 8897: 8887: 8869: 8810: 8750: 8694: 8604: 8546: 8526: 8524: 8522: 8520: 8518: 8516: 8514: 8512: 8476: 8395: 8331: 8275: 8219: 8164: 8110: 8046: 7982: 7941: 7923: 7800: 7725: 7680: 7641: 7579: 7450: 7427: 7333: 7275: 7220: 7181: 7163: 7021: 6881: 6777: 6767: 6710: 6656: 6635: 6626: 6544: 6534: 6464: 6283: 6196: 6178: 6135: 6117: 6059: 6041: 5980: 5920: 5869: 5809: 5770: 5725: 5707: 5688: 5649: 5588:Small Telescope Astronomy on Global Scale 5474: 5361: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5267: 5182: 5121: 4930: 4889: 4758: 4748: 4714: 4641: 4577: 4559: 4507: 4476: 4458: 4387: 4299: 4234: 4187: 4148: 4130: 3954: 3393:form around stars of higher metallicity. 1950:II-P, sometimes a hypernova, possible GRB 1107:Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams 806:With the development of the astronomical 519:Historical supernovae in the Local Group 22090:(first black hole - neutron star merger) 15775: 15559: 15438: 15352: 13969: 13541: 13539: 13424: 13066:Taggart, K; Perley, D A (5 April 2021). 12146: 11642: 11364: 10935:"Nucleosynthesis During Silicon Burning" 9376: 9085: 8849: 8308: 7137: 7064:Filippenko, Alexei V. (September 1997). 6499: 6446: 6444: 6377:Historical Supernovae and Their Remnants 6244: 5554:The Origin and Evolution of the Universe 5452: 4816: 4615: 3614: 3528: 3355: 3293: 3229: 3144: 3136: 2970: 2762: 2705: 2376: 2328: 2309:possible candidates. The red supergiant 2193: 2115: 2069:or an exceptionally luminous supernova. 1977: 1726: 1573: 1508: 1476: 1374: 1320: 1310:Spectrum changes to become like Type Ib 1070: 1018: 961: 879: 873:emissions from the radioactive decay of 334:, who may have coined it independently. 38: 22371:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 15256: 14616: 14532: 14284: 14078: 13762: 13656: 13360: 12320: 10559: 10492:"New, Third Type Of Supernova Observed" 9337: 8672: 8637: 7839: 7524:from the original on 10 September 2015. 7499: 7380: 6987: 6803:"Supernovae: The explosion in a bubble" 6579: 6520: 6345:"The Padova-Asiago supernova catalogue" 6247:"Type I supernovae: An observer's view" 5338: 4071: 3996: 3914: 3834: 3518: 2321:source remains at the star's location. 1658: 1402:A few supernovae, such as SN 1987K and 1283:Reaches a "plateau" in its light curve 578:uncertain whether SN or classical nova 109:, or is completely destroyed to form a 14: 23822: 23168:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity 22514:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi 15942: 15940: 15885: 14285:Johnson, Jennifer A. (February 2019). 13863: 13771: 13489: 11387: 10828: 10677: 10618: 9215: 8727: 8678: 8509: 7528: 7204: 7036: 7030: 6993: 6800: 6689: 6079:from the original on 22 September 2017 5756: 5300: 5221: 4945: 4171: 4165: 4044: 3932: 3694: 3445: 1420: 1232:Weak or no silicon absorption feature 918:Intermediate Palomar Transient Factory 377:and recorded on a rock carving in the 337: 27:Explosion of a star at its end of life 23189:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries 23127: 22381: 22343: 21497: 21297:Inverse beta decay (electron capture) 20853: 20353: 19380: 18806: 17277: 16615:Type II (IIP, IIL, IIn, and IIb) 16558: 15510: 14855:The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 14829:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 14745: 14192: 13536: 13247:Davies, Ben; Beasor, Emma R. (2020). 12409: 12216: 11937: 10965:from the original on 13 February 2020 8252: 7557: 6441: 6325:from the original on 12 November 2010 5551:Zuckerman, B.; Malkan, M. A. (1996). 5234:from the original on 13 February 2017 4861: 4721:Baade, Walter; Zwicky, Fritz (1934). 4410: 4050: 3997:Fraknoi, Andrew; et al. (2022). 3878:Murdin, Paul; Murdin, Lesley (1985). 3871: 3745:Osterbrock, D. E. (1 December 2001). 2031:, 6,000 times the temperature of the 1903:≥ 40 with near-solar metallicity 1271: 957: 865:, while the age of supernova remnant 801: 81:. A supernova occurs during the last 23138: 21648:Stanford gravitational wave detector 20834: 20334: 17258: 16288:. Vol. 261. San Francisco, CA: 14486:"The planet-metallicity correlation" 13592: 13483: 9775: 9682: 9055:Gribbin, J. R.; Gribbin, M. (2000). 8850:Fryer, C. L.; New, K. C. B. (2003). 8197: 7198: 6699:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement 6355:from the original on 10 January 2014 5575:from the original on 20 August 2016. 4664: 3992: 3990: 3797:participating institution membership 3740: 3738: 3500:. This led to greater biodiversity. 2297: 1922:≥ 40 with very high metallicity 1688:. These supernovae have been dubbed 1221: 1066: 368: 17195:Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope 16362:Branch, D.; Wheeler, J. C. (2017). 16290:Astronomical Society of the Pacific 15937: 14818: 14565:10.1146/annurev-astro-112420-020055 14240: 13410:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101737 12505:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101737 9691:. Vol. 130. pp. 153–158. 8001:10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-141031 7685:. IAU Symposium No. 73. Dordrecht: 6599:Doggett, J. B.; Branch, D. (1985). 5596:Astronomical Society of the Pacific 4864:"Absolute magnitudes of supernovae" 1973: 1870:25–40 with low or solar metallicity 1770:Electron capture by magnesium in a 998:Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope 247:. Supernovae are a major source of 62: 46:(bright spot on the lower left), a 24: 21800:European Gravitational Observatory 18832: 16318: 15394:(3). Wiley Online Library: e9898. 15340:10.1038/scientificamerican0509-28a 14350:Sandstrom, K. M.; Bolatto, A. D.; 12449:10.1146/annurev-nucl-102711-094901 11399:The Fate of the Most Massive Stars 9472:"A sample of Type II-L supernovae" 7567:Astronomy and Astrophysics Letters 7115:"The Rise and Fall of a Supernova" 6349:Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova 6295:from the original on 7 August 2020 6021:Rabinowitz, D.; Bauer, A. (2006). 4616:Schaefer, Bradley E. (July 1995). 3457: 3270: 1498: 1445:. The type V class was coined for 1244: 1039:can be estimated by measuring its 1004:(SNEWS) project uses a network of 132:in 1604, appearing not long after 97:. The original object, called the 25: 23871: 22084:(first-ever "mass gap" collision) 16489: 15011:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2013.04.036 14692:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 10543:from the original on 30 June 2021 10504:from the original on 29 June 2021 10467:from the original on 30 June 2021 9576:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 9385:Introduction to Planetary Science 9117:Myra, E. S.; Burrows, A. (1990). 7415:from the original on 3 March 2020 6996:"NGC 1058 and its Supernova 1961" 6529:. Vol. 598. pp. 21–36. 6523:Supernovae and Gamma-Ray Bursters 6416:from the original on 3 March 2016 5462:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 4548:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 4257:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2006.01.06 3987: 3735: 2470:Days from peak to 10% luminosity 2286:reported that the 2018 supernova 2183: 2120:The atypical subluminous type II 1541: 1472: 1152: 1129:, and so on. Hence, for example, 23807: 23795: 23783: 23771: 23759: 23747: 22395: 21476: 21079:Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit 20970: 20833: 20824: 20823: 20587:Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit 20379: 20333: 20324: 20323: 19622:Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit 19493: 19356: 18785: 18775: 18774: 17257: 17248: 17247: 16980:History of supernova observation 16648: 16502:Sternberg Astronomical Institute 16277: 16224: 16199: 16174: 16149: 16090: 16036: 15999: 15912: 15879: 15832: 15718: 15667: 15614: 15504: 15461: 15432: 15372: 15346: 15311: 15203: 15150: 15084: 14970: 14842: 14812: 14739: 14685:Bhandan, Shivani (1 June 2020). 14643: 14579: 14526: 14477: 14400: 14343: 14234: 14139: 14023: 13916: 13468:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19860.x 13337:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14506.x 13177: 13118: 13059: 13000: 12951: 12891: 12832: 12767: 12760:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18762.x 12716: 12643: 12578: 12519: 12464: 12403: 12349: 12314: 12253: 12210: 12092: 12039: 11986: 11931: 11754: 11686:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18160.x 11582: 11523: 11508:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05366.x 11358: 11343:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15478.x 11237: 11188: 11129: 11076: 11023: 10926: 10875: 10381: 10319: 10119: 9999: 9935: 9881: 9866:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07589.x 9820: 9769: 9676: 9621: 9565: 9514: 9463: 9110: 9048: 8961:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03426.x 8372: 7943:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20794.x 7381:Lieb, E. H.; Yau, H.-T. (1987). 7125:from the original on 2 July 2013 5905:> 1.5 to probe dark energy". 5594:. Vol. 246. San Francisco: 5326:from the original on 16 May 2018 4078:Motz, L.; Weaver, J. H. (2001). 3859:from the original on 10 May 2019 3695:Zwicky, Fritz (1 January 1940). 3149:Remnants of single massive stars 2758: 1881:25–40 with very high metallicity 1722: 1711:, belonging to the open cluster 1513:Formation of a type Ia supernova 1453:, an unusual faint supernova or 1103:International Astronomical Union 557:possible SN, but may be a comet 504: 478: 344:History of supernova observation 277: 235:in the interstellar medium from 22893:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi 22382: 20770:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 19739:Innermost stable circular orbit 19406: 15511:Beech, Martin (December 2011). 14746:Zhang, Bing (5 November 2020). 8143: 8087: 8023: 7958: 7897: 7870: 7833: 7778: 7701: 7674: 7493: 7253: 7107: 7066:"Optical Spectra of Supernovae" 7057: 6952: 6794: 6743: 6434:Padova-Asiago Supernova Group, 6428: 6402: 6367: 6337: 6307: 6238: 6213: 6152: 6091: 6013: 5953: 5894: 5842: 5787: 5750: 5682: 5579: 5544: 5507: 5427: 5402: 5246: 5222:Sample, I. (13 February 2017). 5215: 5162: 5100: 5075: 5029: 4984: 4939: 4855: 4810: 4782:Murdin, P.; Murdin, L. (1985). 4775: 4658: 4539: 4485: 4417:. CRC Press. pp. 295–296. 4404: 4355: 4293: 4271: 4228: 4017: 3810:Murdin, P.; Murdin, L. (1978). 2324: 1961:≥ 250 with low metallicity 149:, which was the explosion of a 23382:Schema for horizontal sundials 22898:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi 22423:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 21541:Gravitational-wave observatory 20165:Timeline of black hole physics 17225:SuperNova Early Warning System 16640:Common envelope jets supernova 16584: 16099:Astronomy with Radioactivities 15839:Firestone, R. B. (June 2014). 15517:Astrophysics and Space Science 14819:Chu, Jennifer (13 July 2022). 11458:10.1146/annurev.astro.35.1.309 7660:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.191 7090:10.1146/annurev.astro.35.1.309 6023:"The Nearby Supernova Factory" 4820:Astrophysics and Space Science 3908: 3803: 3769: 3688: 3421: 3083:with a depleted hydrogen shell 2692: 2682: 2675: 2668: 1933:≥ 90 with low metallicity 1524:, at which point it undergoes 1363:-rich companion rather than a 1218:(nanometers), near peak light 1002:Supernova Early Warning System 649:certain: SNR and pulsar known 13: 1: 22233:Gravitational wave background 21785:LIGO Scientific Collaboration 20796:X-ray pulsar-based navigation 20775:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 19933:Nonsingular black hole models 18946:Blue large-amplitude pulsator 18687:Timeline of stellar astronomy 15297:10.1016/S1384-1076(99)00034-2 15234:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.171103 13657:Johnson, Jennifer A. (2019). 12292:10.1126/science.276.5317.1378 11764:Astrophysical Journal Letters 10008:Astrophysical Journal Letters 8829:10.1016/j.physrep.2007.02.002 7263:Astrophysical Journal Letters 6801:Nugent, Peter (2 June 2017). 6166:Astrophysical Journal Letters 5559:Jones & Bartlett Learning 4622:Astrophysical Journal Letters 4109:Chakraborti, S.; Childs, F.; 3681: 2966: 2354:, primarily with energies of 2141:(possibly as much as 12 1784:A sufficiently large and hot 1241:(He I) line at 587.6 nm 215:Supernovae can expel several 73:) is a powerful and luminous 23640:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din) 22036:First observation (GW150914) 21822:TAMA 20, later known as LISM 21525:Gravitational-wave astronomy 21364:Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) 21307:Electron degeneracy pressure 17215:Supernova/Acceleration Probe 17190:High-Z Supernova Search Team 16788:pulsational pair-instability 16522:"The Open Supernova Catalog" 15896:10.1007/978-3-319-11644-0_12 15788:Astronomy & Astrophysics 15731:Astronomy & Astrophysics 14672:10.1016/0019-1035(77)90101-4 14386:10.1088/0004-637X/696/2/2138 13794:10.1007/978-94-010-1229-4_14 13717:Astronomy & Astrophysics 13601:Astronomy & Astrophysics 13548:Astronomy & Astrophysics 13492:Astronomy & Astrophysics 11085:Astronomy & Astrophysics 11062:10.1088/0004-637X/703/2/2205 10904:10.1126/science.238.4829.938 8857:Living Reviews in Relativity 8153:Astronomy & Astrophysics 8129:10.1088/0004-637X/714/2/1209 6483:10.1007/978-94-015-9723-4_16 5888:10.1007/978-94-011-5710-0_46 3525:List of supernova candidates 3496:to shallow waters along the 3323:In the modern universe, old 3265:without a supernova outburst 2701: 2105: 2008:. As the density increases, 1947:140–250 with low metallicity 1765:electron degeneracy pressure 1564:electron degeneracy pressure 1269:Type II spectrum throughout 755:SNR known, but not observed 530:maximum apparent brightness 258: 7: 23629:University of al-Qarawiyyin 22833:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi 22170:Tests of general relativity 20765:Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer 20608:Gamma-ray burst progenitors 20155:Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer 20120:Hypercompact stellar system 20110:Gamma-ray burst progenitors 18347:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 17220:Supernova Cosmology Project 16728:Fast blue optical transient 16125:10.1007/978-3-642-12698-7_4 15818:10.1051/0004-6361/201322155 15761:10.1051/0004-6361/201425390 13955:10.1088/2041-8205/726/2/L15 13902:10.1088/0004-637X/712/1/624 13631:10.1051/0004-6361/201220741 13578:10.1051/0004-6361/201219790 13522:10.1051/0004-6361/201118372 12389:10.1088/0004-637X/712/1/350 11173:10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/L10 11115:10.1051/0004-6361/201527931 10861:10.1051/0004-6361/201936097 10721:10.1088/0004-637X/778/2/164 10038:10.1088/2041-8205/778/2/L23 9921:10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/128 9662:10.1088/2041-8205/788/1/L14 9607:10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/L84 9393:10.1007/978-1-4020-5544-7_4 9259:10.1088/0004-637X/734/2/102 8769:10.1088/0004-637X/697/1/L49 8713:10.1088/2041-8205/750/1/L13 8666:10.1016/j.newar.2010.09.022 8623:10.1051/0004-6361/202037710 8183:10.1051/0004-6361/201833475 7469:10.1007/978-94-011-5542-7_7 7239:10.1088/0004-637X/702/1/686 6675:10.1088/0004-6256/138/2/376 6070:10.1016/j.newar.2006.02.035 5828:10.1088/0004-6256/135/1/338 3632: – Neutron star merger 3623: 2263:Electron-capture supernovae 1664:extra mass is supported by 1624:, and it expands to form a 223:. This drives an expanding 10: 23876: 23128: 22873:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi 21832:Caltech 40m interferometer 20562:Quasi-periodic oscillation 19841:Black hole complementarity 19808:Bousso's holographic bound 19793:Quasi-periodic oscillation 19491: 19485:Malament–Hogarth spacetime 18261:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism 16415:10.1103/PhysRevD.68.113009 16076:10.1051/0004-6361:20031500 16046:Astronomy and Astrophysics 15865:10.1088/0004-637X/789/1/29 15653:10.1051/0004-6361:20021634 15623:Astronomy and Astrophysics 14885:10.1007/s00159-022-00139-w 14625:Astronomy and Astrophysics 14413:Royal Society Open Science 13748:10.1051/0004-6361:20034140 13044:10.1088/0004-637X/791/1/57 12810:10.1103/PhysRevD.96.103008 12621:10.1103/PhysRevD.93.083003 12323:AIP Conference Proceedings 12025:10.1088/0004-637X/806/1/28 11825:Cambridge University Press 11222:10.3847/0004-637X/820/1/74 10959:10.1103/PhysRevLett.20.161 10831:Astronomy and Astrophysics 10453:10.1038/s41550-021-01384-2 10359:10.1038/s41586-021-04155-1 10159:10.1088/0004-637X/774/1/58 8593:Astronomy and Astrophysics 8495:10.1038/s41550-022-01664-5 8294:10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/57 7598:10.1051/0004-6361:20040135 7538:Astronomy and Astrophysics 7508:Cambridge University Press 7443:Kluwer Academic Publishers 7041:. Vol. 15. New York: 6934:Astronomy and Astrophysics 6729:10.1088/0067-0049/213/2/19 6457:Kluwer Academic Publishers 6436:Asiago Supernova Catalogue 6255:AIP Conference Proceedings 5939:10.1103/PhysRevD.67.081303 5862:Kluwer Academic Publishers 5759:Revista Mexicana de Fisica 5695:AIP Conference Proceedings 5414:www.jameswebbdiscovery.com 4790:Cambridge University Press 4414:The Data Book of Astronomy 4150:10.3847/0004-637X/819/1/37 3888:Cambridge University Press 3641:List of supernova remnants 3522: 3461: 3338: 3283: 2301: 2187: 2109: 2039:are efficiently formed by 1892:40–90 with low metallicity 1502: 1370: 1349:-like or class Ia-2002cx. 952:James Webb Space Telescope 834:and Zwicky in lectures at 341: 251:. They might also produce 93:is triggered into runaway 32:Supernova (disambiguation) 29: 23714:Medieval European science 23696: 23665: 23606: 23395: 23262: 23198: 23145: 23134: 23123: 23084: 23048: 22987: 22974:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar 22926: 22825: 22754: 22731:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli 22673: 22542: 22446: 22405: 22394: 22390: 22377: 22241: 22188: 22157: 22097: 22023: 22016: 21989: 21956: 21922: 21906: 21897: 21877: 21856: 21840: 21809: 21748: 21737: 21692: 21676: 21610: 21569: 21558: 21549: 21531: 21471: 21435: 21387: 21327: 21312:Pauli exclusion principle 21231: 21147: 21087: 21061: 21012:Supernova nucleosynthesis 20979: 20968: 20945:Cataclysmic variable star 20890: 20819: 20788: 20780:Chandra X-ray Observatory 20755: 20729: 20600: 20502: 20444: 20408: 20387: 20319: 20193: 20045: 20007: 19986: 19925: 19884: 19833: 19712:Gravitational singularity 19699: 19592: 19502: 19427: 19414: 19352: 19319: 19289: 19268: 19252: 19245: 19158: 19123: 19097: 19062: 19019: 19012: 18982: 18954: 18916: 18849: 18840: 18770: 18695: 18544: 18442: 18370: 18269: 18126: 18001: 17879: 17788: 17524: 17515: 17394: 17324: 17311: 17303: 17243: 17172: 17034: 16993: 16967: 16878: 16803: 16715: 16657: 16646: 16592: 16366:. 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The peak optical 83:evolutionary stages 23778:History of science 23678:Egyptian astronomy 23619:House of Knowledge 23297:Astronomical clock 23107:Muhammad al-Rudani 22504:Banū Mūsā brothers 22454:Abu Ali al-Khayyat 22165:General relativity 21869:Einstein Telescope 21771:Fermilab holometer 21536:Gravitational wave 21458:Physical cosmology 21412:Quark–gluon plasma 21273:Strong interaction 20711:Pulsar wind nebula 20689:Stellar black hole 19994:Optical black hole 19907:Reissner–Nordström 19866:Firewall (physics) 19771:Gravitational lens 19281:FK Comae Berenices 19077:R Coronae Borealis 18867:Classical cepheids 18586:Lowest temperature 18337:Photometric system 18307:Absolute magnitude 18241:Circumstellar dust 17854:Stellar black hole 17490:Stellar population 17376:Herbig–Haro object 17263:Commons:Supernovae 16915:Stellar black hole 16891:Pulsar wind nebula 16743:Gravitational wave 14202:Starrfield, Sumner 9387:. pp. 35–48. 7720:(6465): eaau7365. 7689:. pp. 75–80. 4841:10.1007/BF00626878 3924:. Dover. pp. 3636:List of supernovae 3621: 3546: 3389:orbiting it: more 3366: 3300: 3236: 3151: 3143: 3015: 3002:starburst galaxies 2998:irregular galaxies 2986: 2829: 2769: 2720: 2687:Order of magnitude 2456:absolute magnitude 2445: 2386: 2336: 2204: 2125: 2006:electron neutrinos 1989: 1936:None, possible GRB 1856:Iron core collapse 1816: 1733: 1717:Vela constellation 1611:absolute magnitude 1584: 1515: 1487: 1455:supernova impostor 1383:The supernovae of 1381: 1330: 1301:Some narrow lines 1253:Weak or no helium 1207:Presents a singly 1192: 1185:; otherwise it is 1099: 1029: 1006:neutrino detectors 974: 958:Discovery programs 887: 802:Telescope findings 518: 491:pulsar wind nebula 400:was documented by 361:with at least one 161:of the Milky Way. 130:Kepler's Supernova 55: 23855:Stellar phenomena 23850:Stellar evolution 23735: 23734: 23731: 23730: 23727: 23726: 23709:Chinese astronomy 23704:Byzantine science 23578:Temporal finitism 23508:Islamic cosmology 23438:Celestial spheres 23258: 23257: 23150:Arabic star names 23119: 23118: 23115: 23114: 22979:Fathullah Shirazi 22913:Al-Ashraf Umar II 22625:Ibrahim ibn Sinan 22428:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 22337: 22336: 22153: 22152: 22104:Direct detection 21952: 21951: 21948: 21947: 21930:Big Bang Observer 21893: 21892: 21733: 21732: 21491: 21490: 21389:Degenerate matter 21374:Color confinement 21337:Quantum mechanics 21034:Carbon detonation 20980:Stellar processes 20847: 20846: 20640:Supernova remnant 20430:Ultra-long period 20347: 20346: 20140:Supermassive star 20130:Naked singularity 20125:Membrane paradigm 19851:Cosmic censorship 19825:Spaghettification 19813:Immirzi parameter 19766:Hawking radiation 19707:Astrophysical jet 19676:Supermassive star 19666:Binary black hole 19600:Stellar evolution 19542:Intermediate-mass 19374: 19373: 19339:Planetary transit 19315: 19314: 19236: 19229: 19210: 19196: 19178:Luminous red nova 19154: 19153: 19136:Gamma Cassiopeiae 19089:Yellow hypergiant 19085: 19053: 19046: 19008: 19007: 18894: 18874: 18800: 18799: 18703:Substellar object 18682:Planetary nebulae 18101:Luminous red nova 18011:Deuterium burning 17997: 17996: 17480:Instability strip 17460:Wolf-Rayet nebula 17414:Horizontal branch 17359:Pre-main-sequence 17271: 17270: 16886:Supernova remnant 16753:Luminous red nova 16665:Carbon detonation 16530:. 6 October 2022. 16506:Moscow University 16384:Physical Review D 16373:978-3-662-55052-6 16354:978-3-319-21845-8 16331:. 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or 3412:Fast radio bursts 3341:Supernova remnant 3161:and 100,000 3135: 3134: 2981: 2952:relativistic jets 2948: 2947: 2661: 2660: 2412:positron emission 2348:type II Supernova 2298:Failed supernovae 2112:Type II supernova 2065:that result in a 2063:relativistic jets 2010:neutrino emission 1971: 1970: 1822:Cause of collapse 1637:radioactive decay 1505:Type Ia supernova 1314: 1313: 1167:chemical elements 1092:supernova remnant 1075:Multi-wavelength 1067:Naming convention 1037:emission spectrum 987:optical telescope 967:Supernova remnant 847:Rudolph Minkowski 799: 798: 744:constellation of 723:constellation of 701:constellation of 680:constellation of 659:constellation of 638:constellation of 609:constellation of 588:constellation of 567:constellation of 546:constellation of 533:certainty of the 369:Early discoveries 134:Tycho's Supernova 48:type Ia supernova 16:(Redirected from 23867: 23845:Standard candles 23812: 23811: 23800: 23799: 23798: 23788: 23787: 23786: 23776: 23775: 23774: 23764: 23763: 23752: 23751: 23750: 23743: 23719:Indian astronomy 23688:Indian astronomy 23656: 23649: 23642: 23563:Sublunary sphere 23553:Specific gravity 23453:Earth's rotation 23342:Mural instrument 23287:Armillary sphere 23210:Alfonsine tables 23175:Tabula Rogeriana 23155:Islamic calendar 23143: 23142: 23136: 23135: 23125: 23124: 23020:Sibt al-Maridini 23005:Jamshid al-Kashi 22726:Said al-Andalusi 22529:Thābit ibn Qurra 22464:Abu Said Gorgani 22438:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq 22392: 22391: 22379: 22378: 22364: 22357: 22350: 22341: 22340: 22269:Binary inspiral 22263:Phase transition 22254:Cosmic inflation 22021: 22020: 21904: 21903: 21746: 21745: 21567: 21566: 21556: 21555: 21518: 21511: 21504: 21495: 21494: 21483:Stars portal 21481: 21480: 21278:Weak interaction 21234:and interactions 21218:Electroweak star 21112:Pair instability 21029:Electron capture 20974: 20874: 20867: 20860: 20851: 20850: 20837: 20836: 20827: 20826: 20613:Asteroseismology 20515:Fast radio burst 20374: 20367: 20360: 20351: 20350: 20337: 20336: 20327: 20326: 19999:Sonic black hole 19948:Dark-energy star 19803:Bekenstein bound 19788:M–sigma relation 19717:Ring singularity 19497: 19401: 19394: 19387: 19378: 19377: 19361: 19360: 19250: 19249: 19232: 19225: 19206: 19192: 19110:FS Canis Majoris 19079: 19049: 19042: 19017: 19016: 18880: 18864: 18847: 18846: 18827: 18820: 18813: 18804: 18803: 18792:Stars portal 18790: 18789: 18778: 18777: 18434:Planetary system 18357:Strömgren sphere 18229:Asteroseismology 17950:Black hole star 17522: 17521: 17448:Planetary nebula 17409:Red-giant branch 17298: 17291: 17284: 17275: 17274: 17261: 17260: 17251: 17250: 17114:Remnant G1.9+0.3 16733:Fast radio burst 16652: 16630:Pair-instability 16579: 16572: 16565: 16556: 16555: 16551: 16549: 16547: 16531: 16516: 16514: 16512: 16485: 16474:10.1038/nphys172 16467: 16449: 16447:astro-ph/0601261 16426: 16400: 16377: 16358: 16312: 16311: 16301: 16299:astro-ph/0109553 16281: 16275: 16274: 16248: 16228: 16222: 16221: 16219: 16217: 16203: 16197: 16196: 16194: 16192: 16178: 16172: 16171: 16169: 16167: 16153: 16147: 16146: 16110: 16094: 16088: 16087: 16061: 16059:astro-ph/0310399 16040: 16034: 16033: 16023: 16021:astro-ph/0312074 16003: 15997: 15996: 15986: 15968: 15944: 15935: 15934: 15932: 15930: 15916: 15910: 15909: 15883: 15877: 15876: 15836: 15830: 15829: 15803: 15779: 15773: 15772: 15746: 15722: 15716: 15715: 15705: 15695: 15686:(3): 3321–3329. 15671: 15665: 15664: 15638: 15636:astro-ph/0211326 15618: 15612: 15611: 15585: 15583:astro-ph/0211361 15576:(2): 1169–1176. 15563: 15557: 15556: 15508: 15502: 15501: 15499: 15482:(690): 841–847. 15465: 15459: 15458: 15436: 15430: 15429: 15419: 15376: 15370: 15369: 15367: 15365: 15350: 15344: 15343: 15315: 15309: 15308: 15282: 15280:astro-ph/9811457 15260: 15254: 15253: 15207: 15201: 15200: 15174: 15172:astro-ph/0410525 15154: 15148: 15147: 15113: 15088: 15082: 15081: 15071: 15053: 15029: 15023: 15022: 14996: 14974: 14968: 14967: 14933: 14924:(6121): 807–11. 14911: 14905: 14904: 14870: 14846: 14840: 14839: 14837: 14835: 14816: 14810: 14809: 14767: 14743: 14737: 14736: 14726: 14708: 14682: 14676: 14675: 14647: 14641: 14640: 14620: 14614: 14613: 14603: 14601:astro-ph/0008013 14583: 14577: 14576: 14550: 14530: 14524: 14523: 14513: 14496:(2): 1102–1117. 14481: 14475: 14474: 14464: 14446: 14428: 14404: 14398: 14397: 14371: 14362:(2): 2138–2154. 14352:Stanimirović, S. 14347: 14341: 14340: 14314: 14282: 14273: 14272: 14270: 14238: 14232: 14231: 14221: 14196: 14190: 14189: 14163: 14161:astro-ph/0103165 14143: 14137: 14136: 14102: 14082: 14076: 14075: 14049: 14047:astro-ph/9706120 14027: 14021: 14020: 13994: 13973: 13967: 13966: 13940: 13920: 13914: 13913: 13887: 13867: 13861: 13860: 13834: 13814: 13808: 13807: 13769: 13760: 13759: 13733: 13731:astro-ph/0401499 13711: 13705: 13704: 13686: 13654: 13643: 13642: 13616: 13596: 13590: 13589: 13563: 13543: 13534: 13533: 13507: 13487: 13481: 13480: 13470: 13452: 13428: 13422: 13421: 13395: 13373: 13358: 13357: 13339: 13321: 13312:(3): 1409–1437. 13295: 13289: 13288: 13286: 13268: 13259:(1): L142–L146. 13244: 13235: 13234: 13224: 13206: 13181: 13175: 13174: 13164: 13146: 13137:(3): 2917–2926. 13122: 13116: 13115: 13105: 13087: 13078:(3): 3931–3952. 13063: 13057: 13056: 13046: 13028: 13004: 12998: 12997: 12987: 12970:(3): 1369–1380. 12955: 12949: 12948: 12938: 12920: 12918:astro-ph/0510022 12895: 12889: 12888: 12878: 12860: 12851:(1): 1541–1556. 12836: 12830: 12829: 12795: 12771: 12765: 12764: 12762: 12744: 12720: 12714: 12713: 12671: 12647: 12641: 12640: 12606: 12582: 12576: 12575: 12565: 12547: 12523: 12517: 12516: 12490: 12468: 12462: 12461: 12451: 12433: 12407: 12401: 12400: 12374: 12353: 12347: 12346: 12318: 12312: 12311: 12277: 12275:astro-ph/9706007 12257: 12251: 12250: 12214: 12208: 12207: 12197: 12179: 12177:astro-ph/0009490 12155: 12144: 12143: 12117: 12115:astro-ph/0303397 12108:(2): 1110–1128. 12096: 12090: 12089: 12063: 12061:astro-ph/9904419 12043: 12037: 12036: 12010: 11990: 11984: 11983: 11957: 11955:astro-ph/0312265 11948:(2): L175–L178. 11935: 11929: 11928: 11918: 11900: 11876: 11867: 11866: 11860: 11856: 11854: 11846: 11836: 11834:astro-ph/0312542 11816: 11807: 11806: 11780: 11778:astro-ph/9604121 11771:(2): L165–L168. 11758: 11752: 11751: 11725: 11723:astro-ph/0112051 11705: 11699: 11698: 11688: 11670: 11646: 11640: 11639: 11629: 11611: 11602:(4): 4860–4892. 11586: 11580: 11579: 11569: 11551: 11542:(3): 3996–4003. 11527: 11521: 11520: 11510: 11492: 11490:astro-ph/0201483 11468: 11462: 11461: 11431: 11425: 11424: 11414: 11412:astro-ph/0412029 11394: 11385: 11384: 11362: 11356: 11355: 11345: 11327: 11303: 11297: 11296: 11262: 11241: 11235: 11234: 11224: 11192: 11186: 11185: 11175: 11157: 11133: 11127: 11126: 11100: 11080: 11074: 11073: 11047: 11027: 11021: 11020: 11009:10.1038/331416a0 10984: 10975: 10974: 10972: 10970: 10930: 10924: 10923: 10879: 10873: 10872: 10846: 10826: 10817: 10816: 10790: 10775:Nature Astronomy 10770: 10761: 10760: 10742: 10733: 10732: 10706: 10684: 10675: 10674: 10664: 10646: 10637:(3): 3289–3305. 10622: 10616: 10615: 10605: 10587: 10578:(3): 2886–2901. 10563: 10557: 10556: 10550: 10548: 10539:. 28 June 2021. 10525: 10514: 10513: 10511: 10509: 10500:. 28 June 2021. 10488: 10477: 10476: 10474: 10472: 10438: 10414: 10405: 10404: 10402: 10400: 10385: 10379: 10378: 10344: 10323: 10317: 10316: 10266: 10245: 10239: 10238: 10220: 10202: 10177: 10171: 10170: 10144: 10123: 10117: 10116: 10098: 10080: 10071:(2): 2123–2144. 10056: 10050: 10049: 10023: 10003: 9997: 9996: 9962: 9939: 9933: 9932: 9906: 9885: 9879: 9878: 9868: 9850: 9848:astro-ph/0401135 9841:(3): 1093–1100. 9824: 9818: 9817: 9815: 9797: 9788:(4): 3970–3980. 9773: 9767: 9766: 9756: 9738: 9712: 9701: 9700: 9680: 9674: 9673: 9647: 9625: 9619: 9618: 9592: 9569: 9563: 9562: 9560: 9542: 9518: 9512: 9511: 9509: 9491: 9467: 9461: 9460: 9458: 9440: 9416: 9407: 9406: 9380: 9374: 9373: 9335: 9329: 9328: 9302: 9280: 9271: 9270: 9244: 9222: 9213: 9212: 9202: 9184: 9160: 9151: 9150: 9148: 9114: 9108: 9107: 9105: 9103:astro-ph/0412544 9092: 9083: 9082: 9052: 9046: 9045: 9034:10.1038/nphys172 9027: 9009: 9007:astro-ph/0601261 8987: 8974: 8973: 8963: 8945: 8943:astro-ph/0001295 8921: 8912: 8911: 8901: 8891: 8873: 8847: 8841: 8840: 8814: 8812:astro-ph/0612072 8792: 8781: 8780: 8754: 8731: 8725: 8724: 8698: 8676: 8670: 8669: 8641: 8635: 8634: 8608: 8588: 8577: 8576: 8550: 8548:astro-ph/0212469 8528: 8507: 8506: 8480: 8465:Nature Astronomy 8459: 8453: 8452: 8432: 8426: 8425: 8399: 8376: 8370: 8369: 8335: 8312: 8306: 8305: 8279: 8256: 8250: 8249: 8223: 8201: 8195: 8194: 8168: 8147: 8141: 8140: 8114: 8091: 8085: 8084: 8050: 8048:astro-ph/0609616 8027: 8021: 8020: 7986: 7962: 7956: 7955: 7945: 7927: 7901: 7895: 7894: 7874: 7868: 7867: 7837: 7831: 7830: 7804: 7802:astro-ph/0608211 7795:(2): 1133–1149. 7782: 7776: 7775: 7729: 7705: 7699: 7698: 7678: 7672: 7671: 7645: 7643:astro-ph/0006305 7623: 7610: 7609: 7583: 7581:astro-ph/0403509 7561: 7555: 7554: 7545:(1–2): 223–248. 7532: 7526: 7525: 7497: 7491: 7490: 7454: 7452:astro-ph/9701225 7434: 7425: 7424: 7422: 7420: 7378: 7372: 7371: 7337: 7335:astro-ph/0702351 7315: 7306: 7305: 7279: 7277:astro-ph/0701912 7257: 7251: 7250: 7224: 7202: 7196: 7195: 7185: 7167: 7141: 7135: 7134: 7132: 7130: 7111: 7105: 7104: 7061: 7055: 7054: 7034: 7028: 7027: 7025: 6991: 6985: 6984: 6956: 6950: 6949: 6929: 6920: 6919: 6885: 6864: 6855: 6854: 6807:Nature Astronomy 6798: 6792: 6791: 6781: 6771: 6762:(2): 1768–1777. 6747: 6741: 6740: 6714: 6693: 6687: 6686: 6660: 6639: 6633: 6632: 6630: 6596: 6577: 6576: 6548: 6538: 6536:astro-ph/0301107 6518: 6497: 6496: 6468: 6466:astro-ph/0012455 6448: 6439: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6421: 6406: 6400: 6399: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6360: 6341: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6311: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6300: 6294: 6287: 6251: 6242: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6231: 6217: 6211: 6210: 6200: 6182: 6156: 6150: 6149: 6139: 6121: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6084: 6078: 6063: 6045: 6043:astro-ph/0401513 6036:(4–5): 637–640. 6027: 6017: 6011: 6010: 5984: 5982:astro-ph/9608192 5957: 5951: 5950: 5924: 5922:astro-ph/0208138 5898: 5892: 5891: 5873: 5871:astro-ph/9602122 5846: 5840: 5839: 5813: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5774: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5729: 5711: 5709:astro-ph/9911359 5686: 5680: 5679: 5653: 5651:astro-ph/0406214 5627: 5618: 5617: 5583: 5577: 5576: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5478: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5445: 5439:science.nasa.gov 5431: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5365: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5333: 5331: 5309: 5298: 5297: 5271: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5241: 5239: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5186: 5171:Nature Astronomy 5166: 5160: 5159: 5125: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5087:science.nasa.gov 5079: 5073: 5072: 5033: 5027: 5026: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4911:Europhysics News 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4859: 4853: 4852: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4788:(2nd ed.). 4779: 4773: 4772: 4762: 4752: 4723:"On Super-novae" 4718: 4712: 4711: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4645: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4581: 4563: 4543: 4537: 4536: 4511: 4509:astro-ph/0208415 4489: 4483: 4482: 4480: 4462: 4453:(2): 1419–1433. 4438: 4429: 4428: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4348: 4326:10.1038/371398a0 4297: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4275: 4269: 4268: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4191: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4152: 4134: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4021: 4015: 4014: 3994: 3985: 3984: 3958: 3956:astro-ph/0208415 3936: 3930: 3929: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3885: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3858: 3847: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3792: 3780: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3697:"Types of Novae" 3692: 3382:molecular clouds 3222: 3214: 3213: 3197: 3195: 3182: 3181: 3180: 3018: 3014: 2982: 2929:Pair instability 2832: 2828: 2807:and decays into 2695: 2685: 2678: 2671: 2448: 2444: 2440:distance candles 2400: 2396: 2364: 2360: 2304:Failed supernova 2283:Nature Astronomy 2231:gamma-ray bursts 2213:Wolf–Rayet stars 2074:pair instability 2041:thermal emission 1985:neutrino heating 1974:Detailed process 1944:Pair instability 1819: 1815: 1753:pair-instability 1749:electron capture 1596: 1591: 1535:standard candles 1395:, some, such as 1276:No narrow lines 1195: 1191: 1163:absorption lines 979:standard candles 855:standard candles 816:Andromeda Galaxy 766:Andromeda Galaxy 618: 521: 517: 508: 482: 395: 390: 317: 314: 311: 307: 291: 290: 287: 286: 283: 186:binary companion 168:, or the sudden 159:satellite galaxy 64: 21: 23875: 23874: 23870: 23869: 23868: 23866: 23865: 23864: 23820: 23819: 23818: 23806: 23796: 23794: 23784: 23782: 23772: 23770: 23758: 23748: 23746: 23738: 23736: 23723: 23692: 23661: 23652: 23645: 23638: 23624:House of Wisdom 23602: 23558:Spherical Earth 23391: 23322:Equatorial ring 23302:Celestial globe 23277:Analog computer 23254: 23249:Sullam al-sama' 23194: 23130: 23111: 23080: 23044: 22983: 22922: 22821: 22807:Jabir ibn Aflah 22750: 22681:Abu Nasr Mansur 22669: 22650:Abolfadl Harawi 22585:Ahmad ibn Yusuf 22538: 22442: 22413:Ahmad Nahavandi 22401: 22386: 22373: 22368: 22338: 22333: 22242:Types / sources 22237: 22184: 22175:Metric theories 22149: 22093: 22012: 21985: 21944: 21918: 21900:interferometers 21899: 21889: 21873: 21864:Cosmic Explorer 21852: 21836: 21805: 21741:interferometers 21740: 21729: 21724:Mario Schenberg 21688: 21672: 21606: 21602:Mario Schenberg 21561: 21545: 21527: 21522: 21492: 21487: 21475: 21467: 21431: 21383: 21323: 21292:Pair production 21233: 21227: 21201:Shell collapsar 21150: 21143: 21083: 21057: 21043:Gamma-ray burst 21023:Bondi accretion 20997:Nucleosynthesis 20975: 20966: 20925:Stellar physics 20886: 20878: 20848: 20843: 20815: 20784: 20757: 20751: 20725: 20596: 20532:Gamma-ray burst 20522:Bondi accretion 20498: 20440: 20426:Anomalous X-ray 20404: 20383: 20378: 20348: 20343: 20315: 20291:ULAS J1342+0928 20251:SDSS J0849+1114 20236:Phoenix Cluster 20189: 20041: 20003: 19982: 19921: 19880: 19876:No-hair theorem 19829: 19783:Bondi accretion 19749:Penrose process 19695: 19661:Gamma-ray burst 19588: 19498: 19489: 19475:Direct collapse 19423: 19410: 19405: 19375: 19370: 19363:Star portal 19355: 19348: 19344:W Ursae Majoris 19311: 19290:Magnetic fields 19285: 19264: 19241: 19150: 19119: 19105:Double periodic 19098:Eruptive binary 19093: 19064: 19058: 19004: 18978: 18950: 18918: 18917:Blue-white with 18912: 18854: 18836: 18831: 18801: 18796: 18784: 18766: 18691: 18660:Milky Way novae 18596:Smallest volume 18540: 18521:Radial velocity 18444: 18438: 18390:Common envelope 18366: 18265: 18234:Helioseismology 18205:Bipolar outflow 18146:Microturbulence 18141:Convection zone 18122: 18016:Lithium burning 18003:Nucleosynthesis 17993: 17875: 17784: 17511: 17390: 17339:Molecular cloud 17320: 17307: 17302: 17272: 17267: 17239: 17168: 17154:SN 2016aps 17134:SN Refsdal 17030: 16989: 16963: 16874: 16860:Wolf–Rayet star 16799: 16738:Gamma-ray burst 16711: 16685:Nucleosynthesis 16653: 16644: 16588: 16583: 16545: 16543: 16535: 16520: 16510: 16508: 16495: 16492: 16465:10.1.1.336.2176 16429: 16380: 16374: 16361: 16355: 16321: 16319:Further reading 16316: 16315: 16282: 16278: 16229: 16225: 16215: 16213: 16205: 16204: 16200: 16190: 16188: 16180: 16179: 16175: 16165: 16163: 16155: 16154: 16150: 16135: 16095: 16091: 16041: 16037: 16004: 16000: 15945: 15938: 15928: 15926: 15918: 15917: 15913: 15906: 15884: 15880: 15837: 15833: 15780: 15776: 15723: 15719: 15672: 15668: 15619: 15615: 15564: 15560: 15509: 15505: 15466: 15462: 15437: 15433: 15377: 15373: 15363: 15361: 15351: 15347: 15326:(5): 28. 2009. 15317: 15316: 15312: 15261: 15257: 15208: 15204: 15155: 15151: 15089: 15085: 15030: 15026: 14975: 14971: 14912: 14908: 14847: 14843: 14833: 14831: 14817: 14813: 14758:(7832): 45–53. 14744: 14740: 14683: 14679: 14648: 14644: 14621: 14617: 14584: 14580: 14531: 14527: 14482: 14478: 14405: 14401: 14348: 14344: 14283: 14276: 14239: 14235: 14197: 14193: 14144: 14140: 14083: 14079: 14028: 14024: 13974: 13970: 13921: 13917: 13868: 13864: 13815: 13811: 13804: 13770: 13763: 13712: 13708: 13655: 13646: 13597: 13593: 13544: 13537: 13488: 13484: 13429: 13425: 13374: 13361: 13296: 13292: 13245: 13238: 13182: 13178: 13123: 13119: 13064: 13060: 13005: 13001: 12956: 12952: 12896: 12892: 12837: 12833: 12772: 12768: 12721: 12717: 12648: 12644: 12583: 12579: 12524: 12520: 12469: 12465: 12408: 12404: 12354: 12350: 12319: 12315: 12258: 12254: 12215: 12211: 12156: 12147: 12097: 12093: 12044: 12040: 11991: 11987: 11936: 11932: 11877: 11870: 11858: 11857: 11848: 11847: 11827:. p. 276. 11817: 11810: 11759: 11755: 11706: 11702: 11647: 11643: 11587: 11583: 11528: 11524: 11469: 11465: 11432: 11428: 11395: 11388: 11363: 11359: 11304: 11300: 11253:(7515): 406–8. 11242: 11238: 11193: 11189: 11134: 11130: 11081: 11077: 11028: 11024: 10985: 10978: 10968: 10966: 10931: 10927: 10880: 10876: 10827: 10820: 10771: 10764: 10757: 10743: 10736: 10685: 10678: 10623: 10619: 10564: 10560: 10546: 10544: 10527: 10526: 10517: 10507: 10505: 10490: 10489: 10480: 10470: 10468: 10415: 10408: 10398: 10396: 10387: 10386: 10382: 10324: 10320: 10246: 10242: 10178: 10174: 10124: 10120: 10057: 10053: 10004: 10000: 9940: 9936: 9886: 9882: 9825: 9821: 9774: 9770: 9713: 9704: 9681: 9677: 9626: 9622: 9570: 9566: 9519: 9515: 9468: 9464: 9417: 9410: 9403: 9381: 9377: 9336: 9332: 9281: 9274: 9223: 9216: 9161: 9154: 9115: 9111: 9093: 9086: 9079: 9063:. p. 173. 9053: 9049: 9025:10.1.1.336.2176 8988: 8977: 8922: 8915: 8848: 8844: 8798:Physics Reports 8793: 8784: 8732: 8728: 8677: 8673: 8642: 8638: 8589: 8580: 8529: 8510: 8460: 8456: 8433: 8429: 8377: 8373: 8326:(7512): 54–56. 8313: 8309: 8257: 8253: 8202: 8198: 8148: 8144: 8092: 8088: 8028: 8024: 7963: 7959: 7902: 7898: 7875: 7871: 7838: 7834: 7783: 7779: 7706: 7702: 7679: 7675: 7624: 7613: 7562: 7558: 7533: 7529: 7518: 7498: 7494: 7479: 7435: 7428: 7418: 7416: 7379: 7375: 7316: 7309: 7258: 7254: 7203: 7199: 7142: 7138: 7128: 7126: 7113: 7112: 7108: 7062: 7058: 7045:. p. 347. 7043:Macmillan Press 7035: 7031: 6992: 6988: 6957: 6953: 6930: 6923: 6865: 6858: 6799: 6795: 6748: 6744: 6694: 6690: 6640: 6636: 6597: 6580: 6565: 6546:10.1.1.256.2965 6519: 6500: 6493: 6459:. p. 199. 6449: 6442: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6417: 6408: 6407: 6403: 6388: 6372: 6368: 6358: 6356: 6343: 6342: 6338: 6328: 6326: 6313: 6312: 6308: 6298: 6296: 6292: 6276:10.1063/1.32212 6249: 6243: 6239: 6229: 6227: 6219: 6218: 6214: 6157: 6153: 6096: 6092: 6082: 6080: 6076: 6061:10.1.1.316.4895 6025: 6018: 6014: 5958: 5954: 5899: 5895: 5864:. p. 749. 5855: 5847: 5843: 5792: 5788: 5755: 5751: 5727:10.1.1.314.8663 5687: 5683: 5628: 5621: 5614: 5598:. p. 121. 5584: 5580: 5569: 5549: 5545: 5512: 5508: 5457: 5453: 5443: 5441: 5433: 5432: 5428: 5418: 5416: 5408: 5407: 5403: 5343: 5339: 5329: 5327: 5310: 5301: 5251: 5247: 5237: 5235: 5220: 5216: 5167: 5163: 5105: 5101: 5091: 5089: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5034: 5030: 4989: 4985: 4944: 4940: 4903: 4899: 4860: 4856: 4815: 4811: 4804: 4780: 4776: 4719: 4715: 4690: 4686: 4679: 4663: 4659: 4614: 4610: 4544: 4540: 4490: 4486: 4439: 4432: 4425: 4409: 4405: 4360: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4298: 4294: 4284: 4282: 4277: 4276: 4272: 4233: 4229: 4170: 4166: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4076: 4072: 4049: 4045: 4022: 4018: 4011: 3995: 3988: 3937: 3933: 3913: 3909: 3902: 3876: 3872: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3852:(41): 207–211. 3845: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3808: 3804: 3794: 3774: 3770: 3743: 3736: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3626: 3582:Rho Cassiopeiae 3539:Wolf–Rayet star 3527: 3521: 3466: 3460: 3458:Effect on Earth 3448: 3424: 3343: 3337: 3292: 3284:Main articles: 3282: 3273: 3271:External impact 3221: 3211: 3209: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3178: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3157: 3127:Blue supergiant 3024:Progenitor star 2971: 2969: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2852:Neutrino energy 2848: 2839: 2813:beta plus decay 2801:silicon burning 2799:generated from 2761: 2704: 2699: 2398: 2394: 2362: 2355: 2327: 2306: 2300: 2290:(in the galaxy 2269:Ken'ichi Nomoto 2265: 2251: 2248: 2192: 2186: 2178: 2175: 2158:super-AGB stars 2156:) cores. These 2147: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2130: 2114: 2108: 2101: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2067:gamma-ray burst 2060: 2057: 1976: 1912:gamma-ray burst 1906:Faint Ib/c, or 1725: 1661: 1589: 1587: 1544: 1507: 1501: 1499:Thermal runaway 1475: 1423: 1373: 1334:ionised silicon 1319: 1309: 1300: 1291: 1282: 1275: 1268: 1262:Shows hydrogen 1261: 1252: 1236: 1231: 1222:Thermal runaway 1206: 1199: 1155: 1141:) and SN 1604 ( 1069: 1052:Hubble diagrams 960: 945:Alex Filippenko 904: 901: 895:gigalight-years 867:RX J0852.0-4622 804: 616: 516: 515: 514: 513: 512: 509: 500: 499: 498: 483: 441:Johannes Kepler 388: 386: 371: 346: 340: 315: 312: 309: 280: 276: 261: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 23873: 23863: 23862: 23857: 23852: 23847: 23842: 23837: 23832: 23817: 23816: 23804: 23792: 23780: 23768: 23756: 23733: 23732: 23729: 23728: 23725: 23724: 23722: 23721: 23716: 23711: 23706: 23700: 23698: 23694: 23693: 23691: 23690: 23685: 23680: 23675: 23669: 23667: 23663: 23662: 23660: 23659: 23658: 23657: 23650: 23643: 23631: 23626: 23621: 23616: 23610: 23608: 23604: 23603: 23601: 23600: 23595: 23590: 23585: 23580: 23575: 23570: 23565: 23560: 23555: 23550: 23545: 23540: 23535: 23530: 23525: 23520: 23515: 23510: 23505: 23500: 23495: 23490: 23485: 23480: 23475: 23470: 23468:Elliptic orbit 23465: 23460: 23455: 23450: 23445: 23443:Circular orbit 23440: 23435: 23430: 23425: 23420: 23415: 23410: 23405: 23399: 23397: 23393: 23392: 23390: 23389: 23384: 23379: 23374: 23369: 23364: 23359: 23354: 23349: 23344: 23339: 23334: 23329: 23324: 23319: 23314: 23309: 23304: 23299: 23294: 23289: 23284: 23279: 23274: 23268: 23266: 23260: 23259: 23256: 23255: 23253: 23252: 23245: 23238: 23231: 23229:Toledan Tables 23226: 23219: 23212: 23206: 23204: 23196: 23195: 23193: 23192: 23185: 23178: 23171: 23164: 23157: 23152: 23146: 23140: 23132: 23131: 23121: 23120: 23117: 23116: 23113: 23112: 23110: 23109: 23104: 23099: 23094: 23092:Yang Guangxian 23088: 23086: 23082: 23081: 23079: 23078: 23073: 23068: 23063: 23058: 23052: 23050: 23046: 23045: 23043: 23042: 23037: 23032: 23027: 23022: 23017: 23012: 23007: 23002: 22997: 22991: 22989: 22985: 22984: 22982: 22981: 22976: 22971: 22966: 22961: 22956: 22951: 22946: 22941: 22936: 22930: 22928: 22924: 22923: 22921: 22920: 22915: 22910: 22905: 22900: 22895: 22890: 22885: 22880: 22875: 22870: 22865: 22860: 22855: 22850: 22845: 22840: 22835: 22829: 22827: 22823: 22822: 22820: 22819: 22814: 22809: 22804: 22799: 22794: 22789: 22784: 22779: 22774: 22769: 22764: 22758: 22756: 22752: 22751: 22749: 22748: 22746:Ali ibn Khalaf 22743: 22738: 22733: 22728: 22723: 22721:Kushyar Gilani 22718: 22713: 22708: 22703: 22698: 22693: 22691:Ali ibn Ridwan 22688: 22683: 22677: 22675: 22671: 22670: 22668: 22667: 22662: 22657: 22655:Haseb-i Tabari 22652: 22647: 22642: 22637: 22632: 22627: 22622: 22617: 22612: 22607: 22602: 22597: 22592: 22587: 22582: 22577: 22572: 22567: 22562: 22557: 22552: 22546: 22544: 22540: 22539: 22537: 22536: 22531: 22526: 22524:Sahl ibn Bishr 22521: 22516: 22511: 22506: 22501: 22496: 22491: 22486: 22481: 22476: 22471: 22466: 22461: 22456: 22450: 22448: 22444: 22443: 22441: 22440: 22435: 22430: 22425: 22420: 22415: 22409: 22407: 22403: 22402: 22400: 22399: 22388: 22387: 22375: 22374: 22367: 22366: 22359: 22352: 22344: 22335: 22334: 22332: 22331: 22330: 22329: 22315: 22314: 22313: 22300: 22299: 22298: 22292: 22291: 22290: 22285: 22280: 22275: 22267: 22266: 22265: 22260: 22245: 22243: 22239: 22238: 22236: 22235: 22230: 22224: 22219:Chirp signal ( 22217: 22214: 22212:speed of light 22208: 22203: 22198: 22192: 22190: 22186: 22185: 22183: 22182: 22177: 22172: 22167: 22161: 22159: 22155: 22154: 22151: 22150: 22148: 22147: 22146: 22145: 22140: 22135: 22123: 22122: 22121: 22113: 22110: 22101: 22099: 22095: 22094: 22092: 22091: 22085: 22079: 22073: 22068: 22058: 22053: 22048: 22043: 22038: 22033: 22027: 22025: 22018: 22014: 22013: 22011: 22010: 22004: 21999: 21993: 21991: 21987: 21986: 21984: 21983: 21978: 21973: 21968: 21962: 21960: 21954: 21953: 21950: 21949: 21946: 21945: 21943: 21942: 21937: 21932: 21926: 21924: 21920: 21919: 21917: 21916: 21910: 21908: 21901: 21895: 21894: 21891: 21890: 21888: 21887: 21885:LIGO-Australia 21881: 21879: 21878:Past proposals 21875: 21874: 21872: 21871: 21866: 21860: 21858: 21854: 21853: 21851: 21850: 21844: 21842: 21838: 21837: 21835: 21834: 21829: 21824: 21819: 21813: 21811: 21807: 21806: 21804: 21803: 21796:Advanced Virgo 21793: 21788: 21778: 21773: 21768: 21763: 21752: 21750: 21743: 21735: 21734: 21731: 21730: 21728: 21727: 21722:(downsized to 21717: 21712: 21707: 21702:(downsized to 21696: 21694: 21693:Past proposals 21690: 21689: 21687: 21686: 21680: 21678: 21674: 21673: 21671: 21670: 21665: 21660: 21655: 21650: 21645: 21635: 21625: 21614: 21612: 21608: 21607: 21605: 21604: 21599: 21594: 21584: 21573: 21571: 21564: 21553: 21547: 21546: 21544: 21543: 21538: 21532: 21529: 21528: 21521: 21520: 21513: 21506: 21498: 21489: 21488: 21486: 21485: 21472: 21469: 21468: 21466: 21465: 21460: 21455: 21450: 21445: 21439: 21437: 21436:Related topics 21433: 21432: 21430: 21429: 21427:Strange matter 21424: 21419: 21414: 21409: 21404: 21399: 21397:Neutron matter 21393: 21391: 21385: 21384: 21382: 21381: 21376: 21371: 21366: 21361: 21356: 21351: 21350: 21349: 21347:Basic concepts 21344: 21333: 21331: 21329:Quantum theory 21325: 21324: 21322: 21321: 21314: 21309: 21304: 21299: 21294: 21288: 21287: 21286: 21285: 21280: 21275: 21265: 21264: 21263: 21258: 21253: 21248: 21237: 21235: 21229: 21228: 21226: 21225: 21220: 21215: 21210: 21205: 21204: 21203: 21193: 21188: 21183: 21182: 21181: 21176: 21171: 21166: 21155: 21153: 21151:exotic objects 21145: 21144: 21142: 21141: 21134: 21129: 21124: 21119: 21114: 21109: 21104: 21102:Type Ib and Ic 21099: 21093: 21091: 21085: 21084: 21082: 21081: 21076: 21071: 21065: 21063: 21059: 21058: 21056: 21055: 21050: 21045: 21040: 21031: 21026: 21016: 21015: 21014: 21009: 21004: 20994: 20992:Surface fusion 20989: 20987:Nuclear fusion 20983: 20981: 20977: 20976: 20969: 20967: 20965: 20964: 20963: 20962: 20957: 20947: 20942: 20937: 20932: 20930:Stellar plasma 20927: 20922: 20917: 20912: 20907: 20902: 20896: 20894: 20888: 20887: 20877: 20876: 20869: 20862: 20854: 20845: 20844: 20842: 20841: 20831: 20820: 20817: 20816: 20814: 20813: 20808: 20803: 20798: 20792: 20790: 20786: 20785: 20783: 20782: 20777: 20772: 20767: 20761: 20759: 20753: 20752: 20750: 20749: 20744: 20739: 20733: 20731: 20727: 20726: 20724: 20723: 20718: 20713: 20708: 20703: 20698: 20697: 20696: 20686: 20685: 20684: 20674: 20669: 20664: 20659: 20654: 20649: 20648: 20647: 20642: 20632: 20631: 20630: 20625: 20615: 20610: 20604: 20602: 20598: 20597: 20595: 20594: 20589: 20584: 20579: 20574: 20569: 20564: 20559: 20554: 20549: 20544: 20542:Neutron matter 20539: 20534: 20529: 20524: 20519: 20518: 20517: 20506: 20504: 20500: 20499: 20497: 20496: 20491: 20486: 20481: 20476: 20475: 20474: 20469: 20464: 20454: 20448: 20446: 20445:Binary pulsars 20442: 20441: 20439: 20438: 20433: 20432: 20431: 20428: 20423: 20412: 20410: 20409:Single pulsars 20406: 20405: 20403: 20402: 20397: 20391: 20389: 20385: 20384: 20377: 20376: 20369: 20362: 20354: 20345: 20344: 20342: 20341: 20331: 20320: 20317: 20316: 20314: 20313: 20311:Swift J1644+57 20308: 20303: 20298: 20293: 20288: 20283: 20278: 20273: 20268: 20263: 20261:MS 0735.6+7421 20258: 20253: 20248: 20243: 20238: 20233: 20228: 20226:Sagittarius A* 20223: 20218: 20213: 20208: 20203: 20197: 20195: 20191: 20190: 20188: 20187: 20182: 20177: 20172: 20167: 20162: 20157: 20152: 20147: 20142: 20137: 20132: 20127: 20122: 20117: 20112: 20107: 20102: 20101: 20100: 20095: 20085: 20080: 20075: 20070: 20065: 20060: 20055: 20049: 20047: 20043: 20042: 20040: 20039: 20034: 20029: 20024: 20019: 20013: 20011: 20005: 20004: 20002: 20001: 19996: 19990: 19988: 19984: 19983: 19981: 19980: 19975: 19970: 19965: 19960: 19955: 19950: 19945: 19940: 19935: 19929: 19927: 19923: 19922: 19920: 19919: 19914: 19909: 19904: 19899: 19888: 19886: 19882: 19881: 19879: 19878: 19873: 19868: 19863: 19858: 19853: 19848: 19843: 19837: 19835: 19831: 19830: 19828: 19827: 19822: 19817: 19816: 19815: 19805: 19800: 19798:Thermodynamics 19795: 19790: 19785: 19780: 19779: 19778: 19768: 19763: 19761:Accretion disk 19758: 19757: 19756: 19751: 19741: 19736: 19731: 19726: 19725: 19724: 19719: 19709: 19703: 19701: 19697: 19696: 19694: 19693: 19688: 19683: 19678: 19673: 19668: 19663: 19658: 19657: 19656: 19651: 19646: 19636: 19635: 19634: 19624: 19619: 19618: 19617: 19607: 19602: 19596: 19594: 19590: 19589: 19587: 19586: 19585: 19584: 19579: 19574: 19569: 19564: 19559: 19554: 19544: 19539: 19538: 19537: 19527: 19526: 19525: 19522: 19517: 19506: 19504: 19500: 19499: 19492: 19490: 19488: 19487: 19482: 19477: 19472: 19467: 19462: 19457: 19452: 19447: 19442: 19437: 19435:BTZ black hole 19431: 19429: 19425: 19424: 19422: 19421: 19415: 19412: 19411: 19404: 19403: 19396: 19389: 19381: 19372: 19371: 19353: 19350: 19349: 19347: 19346: 19341: 19336: 19331: 19325: 19323: 19317: 19316: 19313: 19312: 19310: 19309: 19304: 19299: 19293: 19291: 19287: 19286: 19284: 19283: 19278: 19272: 19270: 19266: 19265: 19263: 19262: 19256: 19254: 19247: 19243: 19242: 19240: 19239: 19238: 19237: 19230: 19227:Symbiotic nova 19218: 19213: 19212: 19211: 19199: 19198: 19197: 19185: 19180: 19175: 19170: 19164: 19162: 19156: 19155: 19152: 19151: 19149: 19148: 19143: 19141:Lambda Eridani 19138: 19133: 19127: 19125: 19121: 19120: 19118: 19117: 19112: 19107: 19101: 19099: 19095: 19094: 19092: 19091: 19086: 19074: 19068: 19066: 19060: 19059: 19057: 19056: 19055: 19054: 19047: 19035: 19029: 19027: 19014: 19010: 19009: 19006: 19005: 19003: 19002: 18997: 18992: 18986: 18984: 18980: 18979: 18977: 18976: 18974:Slow irregular 18971: 18966: 18960: 18958: 18952: 18951: 18949: 18948: 18943: 18938: 18933: 18928: 18922: 18920: 18914: 18913: 18911: 18910: 18905: 18900: 18895: 18875: 18858: 18856: 18844: 18838: 18837: 18834:Variable stars 18830: 18829: 18822: 18815: 18807: 18798: 18797: 18795: 18794: 18782: 18771: 18768: 18767: 18765: 18764: 18759: 18754: 18749: 18744: 18739: 18734: 18729: 18728: 18727: 18722: 18721: 18720: 18715: 18699: 18697: 18693: 18692: 18690: 18689: 18684: 18679: 18678: 18677: 18672: 18662: 18657: 18652: 18647: 18642: 18637: 18632: 18631: 18630: 18625: 18624: 18623: 18613: 18608: 18603: 18598: 18593: 18591:Largest volume 18588: 18583: 18578: 18568: 18567: 18566: 18561: 18550: 18548: 18542: 18541: 18539: 18538: 18533: 18528: 18523: 18518: 18517: 18516: 18511: 18506: 18496: 18491: 18486: 18481: 18476: 18475: 18474: 18469: 18464: 18459: 18448: 18446: 18440: 18439: 18437: 18436: 18431: 18430: 18429: 18424: 18419: 18409: 18404: 18403: 18402: 18397: 18392: 18387: 18376: 18374: 18368: 18367: 18365: 18364: 18359: 18354: 18349: 18344: 18339: 18334: 18329: 18324: 18319: 18314: 18309: 18304: 18302:Magnetic field 18299: 18294: 18289: 18284: 18279: 18273: 18271: 18267: 18266: 18264: 18263: 18258: 18253: 18248: 18243: 18238: 18237: 18236: 18226: 18225: 18224: 18219: 18212:Accretion disk 18209: 18208: 18207: 18202: 18192: 18191: 18190: 18188:Alfvén surface 18185: 18183:Stellar corona 18180: 18175: 18170: 18160: 18158:Radiation zone 18155: 18154: 18153: 18148: 18138: 18132: 18130: 18124: 18123: 18121: 18120: 18115: 18114: 18113: 18108: 18103: 18098: 18093: 18083: 18078: 18073: 18068: 18063: 18058: 18053: 18048: 18043: 18038: 18033: 18028: 18023: 18018: 18013: 18007: 18005: 17999: 17998: 17995: 17994: 17992: 17991: 17986: 17981: 17976: 17971: 17966: 17965: 17964: 17959: 17956: 17948: 17947: 17946: 17941: 17936: 17931: 17926: 17921: 17916: 17911: 17906: 17896: 17891: 17885: 17883: 17877: 17876: 17874: 17873: 17868: 17867: 17866: 17856: 17851: 17850: 17849: 17844: 17843: 17842: 17837: 17827: 17817: 17816: 17815: 17805: 17800: 17794: 17792: 17786: 17785: 17783: 17782: 17780:Blue straggler 17777: 17776: 17775: 17765: 17760: 17759: 17758: 17748: 17747: 17746: 17741: 17736: 17731: 17726: 17721: 17716: 17711: 17706: 17696: 17691: 17690: 17689: 17684: 17679: 17669: 17668: 17667: 17657: 17656: 17655: 17650: 17645: 17635: 17630: 17629: 17628: 17623: 17618: 17608: 17603: 17598: 17593: 17592: 17591: 17586: 17576: 17575: 17574: 17569: 17564: 17559: 17554: 17549: 17544: 17538:Main sequence 17536: 17531: 17525: 17519: 17517:Classification 17513: 17512: 17510: 17509: 17508: 17507: 17502: 17492: 17487: 17482: 17477: 17472: 17467: 17462: 17457: 17456: 17455: 17453:Protoplanetary 17445: 17440: 17439: 17438: 17433: 17423: 17422: 17421: 17411: 17406: 17400: 17398: 17392: 17391: 17389: 17388: 17383: 17378: 17373: 17372: 17371: 17366: 17361: 17356: 17346: 17341: 17336: 17330: 17328: 17322: 17321: 17319: 17318: 17312: 17309: 17308: 17301: 17300: 17293: 17286: 17278: 17269: 17268: 17266: 17265: 17255: 17244: 17241: 17240: 17238: 17237: 17232: 17227: 17222: 17217: 17212: 17207: 17202: 17197: 17192: 17187: 17182: 17176: 17174: 17170: 17169: 17167: 17166: 17161: 17156: 17151: 17146: 17144:SN 2006gy 17141: 17136: 17131: 17126: 17124:SN 2011fe 17121: 17119:SN 2007bi 17116: 17111: 17109:SN 2003fg 17106: 17101: 17096: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17066: 17061: 17060: 17059: 17049: 17044: 17042:Barnard's Loop 17038: 17036: 17032: 17031: 17029: 17028: 17023: 17018: 17013: 17008: 17003: 16997: 16995: 16991: 16990: 16988: 16987: 16982: 16977: 16971: 16969: 16965: 16964: 16962: 16961: 16960: 16959: 16957:Orion–Eridanus 16949: 16944: 16939: 16938: 16937: 16932: 16927: 16917: 16912: 16911: 16910: 16905: 16895: 16894: 16893: 16882: 16880: 16876: 16875: 16873: 16872: 16867: 16865:Super-AGB star 16862: 16857: 16852: 16851: 16850: 16845: 16840: 16830: 16825: 16824: 16823: 16818: 16807: 16805: 16801: 16800: 16798: 16797: 16795:Symbiotic nova 16792: 16791: 16790: 16780: 16775: 16770: 16765: 16760: 16755: 16750: 16745: 16740: 16735: 16730: 16725: 16719: 16717: 16713: 16712: 16710: 16709: 16704: 16703: 16702: 16697: 16692: 16682: 16677: 16672: 16667: 16661: 16659: 16655: 16654: 16647: 16645: 16643: 16642: 16637: 16632: 16627: 16622: 16617: 16612: 16607: 16602: 16596: 16594: 16590: 16589: 16582: 16581: 16574: 16567: 16559: 16553: 16552: 16533: 16518: 16491: 16490:External links 16488: 16487: 16486: 16440:(3): 147–154. 16433:Nature Physics 16427: 16398:hep-ph/0306056 16378: 16372: 16359: 16353: 16320: 16317: 16314: 16313: 16276: 16263:10.1086/527286 16239:(1): 698–710. 16223: 16198: 16173: 16148: 16133: 16089: 16035: 15998: 15936: 15911: 15904: 15878: 15831: 15784:De Mink, S. E. 15774: 15727:De Mink, S. E. 15717: 15666: 15613: 15600:10.1086/346127 15558: 15523:(2): 287–302. 15503: 15497:10.1086/133242 15460: 15431: 15371: 15359:Universe Today 15345: 15310: 15273:(6): 419–430. 15255: 15202: 15189:10.1086/427797 15165:(2): 902–907. 15149: 15083: 15024: 14969: 14906: 14841: 14811: 14738: 14677: 14642: 14615: 14578: 14525: 14511:10.1086/428383 14476: 14399: 14342: 14274: 14268:10.1086/151775 14233: 14191: 14138: 14077: 14064:10.1086/305198 14040:(1): 285–296. 14022: 13968: 13915: 13878:(1): 624–638. 13862: 13809: 13802: 13761: 13724:(2): 613–621. 13706: 13644: 13591: 13535: 13482: 13423: 13359: 13290: 13236: 13176: 13117: 13058: 12999: 12985:10.1086/427712 12950: 12936:10.1086/501160 12911:(2): 989–994. 12890: 12831: 12786:(10): 103008. 12766: 12735:(1): 944–958. 12715: 12642: 12577: 12563:10.1086/527519 12538:(1): L43–L46. 12518: 12463: 12424:(1): 407–451. 12402: 12365:(1): 350–366. 12348: 12313: 12252: 12209: 12195:10.1086/318428 12145: 12132:10.1086/375444 12091: 12078:10.1086/312305 12038: 11985: 11972:10.1086/382044 11930: 11868: 11859:|journal= 11808: 11795:10.1086/310103 11753: 11740:10.1086/338318 11716:(2): 745–752. 11700: 11641: 11581: 11522: 11463: 11426: 11386: 11357: 11318:(1): 531–535. 11298: 11236: 11187: 11148:(1): L10–L14. 11128: 11075: 11022: 10976: 10925: 10874: 10818: 10781:(8): 717–724. 10762: 10755: 10734: 10676: 10617: 10558: 10515: 10478: 10429:(9): 903–910. 10406: 10380: 10318: 10240: 10172: 10118: 10051: 9998: 9934: 9880: 9819: 9768: 9702: 9675: 9620: 9564: 9513: 9482:(1): 554–569. 9462: 9408: 9401: 9375: 9330: 9317:10.1086/520872 9293:(1): 614–625. 9272: 9214: 9152: 9146:10.1086/169405 9109: 9084: 9077: 9047: 9000:(3): 147–154. 8993:Nature Physics 8975: 8936:(3): 543–569. 8913: 8842: 8805:(1–6): 38–74. 8782: 8726: 8671: 8636: 8578: 8565:10.1086/375341 8541:(1): 288–300. 8508: 8471:(6): 681–688. 8454: 8427: 8371: 8307: 8251: 8196: 8142: 8086: 8022: 7977:(1): 107–170. 7957: 7896: 7869: 7864:10.1086/157300 7850:(1): 404–408. 7832: 7819:10.1086/508530 7777: 7700: 7673: 7636:(1): 191–230. 7611: 7556: 7527: 7516: 7510:. p. 96. 7492: 7477: 7445:. p. 49. 7426: 7409:10.1086/165813 7395:(1): 140–144. 7373: 7307: 7294:10.1086/522030 7270:(1): L37–L40. 7252: 7215:(1): 686–691. 7197: 7136: 7106: 7076:(1): 309–355. 7056: 7029: 7023:10.1086/147779 6986: 6981:10.1086/114940 6951: 6921: 6856: 6793: 6742: 6688: 6634: 6628:10.1086/113934 6578: 6563: 6498: 6491: 6440: 6427: 6401: 6386: 6366: 6336: 6306: 6237: 6212: 6151: 6090: 6012: 5999:10.1086/304265 5952: 5893: 5853: 5841: 5804:(1): 338–347. 5786: 5772:hep-ph/9901300 5749: 5681: 5619: 5612: 5578: 5567: 5561:. p. 68. 5543: 5538:10.1086/150102 5506: 5493:10.1086/589570 5469:(1): L41–L44. 5451: 5426: 5401: 5337: 5299: 5262:(5): 510–517. 5256:Nature Physics 5245: 5214: 5161: 5099: 5074: 5028: 4983: 4938: 4917:(4): 121–125. 4897: 4891:10.1086/110763 4854: 4827:(2): 215–236. 4809: 4802: 4774: 4735:(5): 254–259. 4713: 4684: 4677: 4657: 4643:10.1086/309549 4608: 4538: 4526:10.1086/345985 4502:(1): 324–335, 4484: 4430: 4423: 4403: 4374:(5): 635–640. 4354: 4292: 4270: 4227: 4164: 4101: 4094: 4088:. p. 76. 4070: 4043: 4016: 4009: 3986: 3973:10.1086/345985 3949:(1): 324–335. 3931: 3907: 3901:978-0521300384 3900: 3870: 3833: 3827:978-0521300384 3826: 3802: 3768: 3734: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3655: 3649: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3625: 3622: 3523:Main article: 3520: 3517: 3462:Main article: 3459: 3456: 3447: 3444: 3423: 3420: 3376:and traces of 3339:Main article: 3336: 3333: 3305:alpha elements 3281: 3278: 3272: 3269: 3219: 3202: 3199: 3187: 3184: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3155: 3154:about 18 3133: 3132: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3119: 3116: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3092: 3088: 3087: 3084: 3078: 3074: 3073: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3051: 3047: 3046: 3043: 3033: 3029: 3028: 3025: 3022: 2968: 2965: 2946: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2906: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2886: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2857:Kinetic energy 2855: 2850: 2849:(solar masses) 2845: 2836: 2785:kinetic energy 2760: 2757: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2697: 2690: 2680: 2673: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2642: 2641: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2625: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2591: 2590: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2578: 2574: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2527: 2523: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2496: 2493: 2489: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2468: 2465: 2458: 2452: 2399:1,238 keV 2363:1,238 keV 2326: 2323: 2302:Main article: 2299: 2296: 2264: 2261: 2249: 2246: 2188:Main article: 2185: 2184:Type Ib and Ic 2182: 2176: 2173: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2110:Main article: 2107: 2104: 2099: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2058: 2055: 2049:neutrino pulse 2020:, and neutron 2018:atomic nucleus 1975: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1955: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1941: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1930: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1918: 1915: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1837: 1836: 1833: 1832:Supernova type 1830: 1823: 1790: 1789: 1782: 1779: 1768: 1724: 1721: 1660: 1657: 1630:nuclear fusion 1558:of about 1.44 1543: 1542:Normal type Ia 1540: 1503:Main article: 1500: 1497: 1481:In the galaxy 1474: 1473:Current models 1471: 1422: 1419: 1389:emission lines 1372: 1369: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1303: 1302: 1294: 1293: 1285: 1284: 1277: 1270: 1266:Type II-P/-L/n 1263: 1255: 1254: 1248: 1247: 1242: 1233: 1225: 1224: 1219: 1201: 1177:(known as the 1154: 1153:Classification 1151: 1068: 1065: 959: 956: 931:The supernova 902: 899: 803: 800: 797: 796: 793: 788: 783: 777: 776: 773: 768: 763: 757: 756: 753: 748: 742: 736: 735: 732: 727: 721: 714: 713: 710: 705: 699: 693: 692: 689: 684: 678: 672: 671: 668: 663: 657: 651: 650: 647: 642: 636: 630: 629: 622: 613: 607: 601: 600: 597: 592: 586: 580: 579: 576: 571: 565: 559: 558: 555: 550: 544: 538: 537: 531: 528: 525: 510: 503: 502: 501: 495:1054 supernova 484: 477: 476: 475: 474: 473: 370: 367: 342:Main article: 339: 336: 322:was coined by 260: 257: 221:speed of light 213: 212: 197: 194:stellar merger 111:diffuse nebula 95:nuclear fusion 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 23872: 23861: 23858: 23856: 23853: 23851: 23848: 23846: 23843: 23841: 23840:Light sources 23838: 23836: 23833: 23831: 23828: 23827: 23825: 23815: 23810: 23805: 23803: 23793: 23791: 23781: 23779: 23769: 23767: 23762: 23757: 23755: 23745: 23744: 23741: 23720: 23717: 23715: 23712: 23710: 23707: 23705: 23702: 23701: 23699: 23695: 23689: 23686: 23684: 23681: 23679: 23676: 23674: 23671: 23670: 23668: 23664: 23655: 23651: 23648: 23644: 23641: 23637: 23636: 23635: 23634:Observatories 23632: 23630: 23627: 23625: 23622: 23620: 23617: 23615: 23612: 23611: 23609: 23605: 23599: 23596: 23594: 23591: 23589: 23588:Triangulation 23586: 23584: 23581: 23579: 23576: 23574: 23571: 23569: 23566: 23564: 23561: 23559: 23556: 23554: 23551: 23549: 23546: 23544: 23541: 23539: 23536: 23534: 23531: 23529: 23526: 23524: 23521: 23519: 23516: 23514: 23511: 23509: 23506: 23504: 23501: 23499: 23498:Heliocentrism 23496: 23494: 23491: 23489: 23486: 23484: 23481: 23479: 23476: 23474: 23471: 23469: 23466: 23464: 23461: 23459: 23456: 23454: 23451: 23449: 23446: 23444: 23441: 23439: 23436: 23434: 23431: 23429: 23426: 23424: 23421: 23419: 23416: 23414: 23411: 23409: 23406: 23404: 23401: 23400: 23398: 23394: 23388: 23385: 23383: 23380: 23378: 23375: 23373: 23372:Shadow square 23370: 23368: 23365: 23363: 23360: 23358: 23355: 23353: 23350: 23348: 23345: 23343: 23340: 23338: 23335: 23333: 23330: 23328: 23325: 23323: 23320: 23318: 23315: 23313: 23310: 23308: 23305: 23303: 23300: 23298: 23295: 23293: 23290: 23288: 23285: 23283: 23280: 23278: 23275: 23273: 23270: 23269: 23267: 23265: 23261: 23251: 23250: 23246: 23244: 23243: 23242:Zij-i Sultani 23239: 23237: 23236: 23235:Zij-i Ilkhani 23232: 23230: 23227: 23225: 23224: 23220: 23218: 23217: 23213: 23211: 23208: 23207: 23205: 23203: 23202: 23197: 23191: 23190: 23186: 23184: 23183: 23179: 23177: 23176: 23172: 23170: 23169: 23165: 23163: 23162: 23158: 23156: 23153: 23151: 23148: 23147: 23144: 23141: 23137: 23133: 23126: 23122: 23108: 23105: 23103: 23100: 23098: 23095: 23093: 23090: 23089: 23087: 23083: 23077: 23074: 23072: 23069: 23067: 23064: 23062: 23059: 23057: 23054: 23053: 23051: 23047: 23041: 23038: 23036: 23033: 23031: 23028: 23026: 23023: 23021: 23018: 23016: 23013: 23011: 23010:Kadızade Rumi 23008: 23006: 23003: 23001: 22998: 22996: 22993: 22992: 22990: 22986: 22980: 22977: 22975: 22972: 22970: 22967: 22965: 22962: 22960: 22957: 22955: 22952: 22950: 22947: 22945: 22942: 22940: 22937: 22935: 22934:Ibn al-Shatir 22932: 22931: 22929: 22925: 22919: 22916: 22914: 22911: 22909: 22908:Ibn al‐Raqqam 22906: 22904: 22901: 22899: 22896: 22894: 22891: 22889: 22886: 22884: 22881: 22879: 22876: 22874: 22871: 22869: 22866: 22864: 22861: 22859: 22856: 22854: 22851: 22849: 22846: 22844: 22841: 22839: 22836: 22834: 22831: 22830: 22828: 22824: 22818: 22815: 22813: 22810: 22808: 22805: 22803: 22802:Ibn al-Kammad 22800: 22798: 22795: 22793: 22790: 22788: 22785: 22783: 22780: 22778: 22775: 22773: 22770: 22768: 22765: 22763: 22760: 22759: 22757: 22753: 22747: 22744: 22742: 22739: 22737: 22734: 22732: 22729: 22727: 22724: 22722: 22719: 22717: 22716:Ibn al-Saffar 22714: 22712: 22709: 22707: 22704: 22702: 22699: 22697: 22694: 22692: 22689: 22687: 22684: 22682: 22679: 22678: 22676: 22672: 22666: 22663: 22661: 22658: 22656: 22653: 22651: 22648: 22646: 22643: 22641: 22638: 22636: 22633: 22631: 22628: 22626: 22623: 22621: 22618: 22616: 22613: 22611: 22608: 22606: 22603: 22601: 22598: 22596: 22593: 22591: 22588: 22586: 22583: 22581: 22578: 22576: 22573: 22571: 22568: 22566: 22563: 22561: 22558: 22556: 22553: 22551: 22548: 22547: 22545: 22541: 22535: 22532: 22530: 22527: 22525: 22522: 22520: 22517: 22515: 22512: 22510: 22507: 22505: 22502: 22500: 22497: 22495: 22492: 22490: 22487: 22485: 22482: 22480: 22477: 22475: 22472: 22470: 22467: 22465: 22462: 22460: 22457: 22455: 22452: 22451: 22449: 22445: 22439: 22436: 22434: 22431: 22429: 22426: 22424: 22421: 22419: 22416: 22414: 22411: 22410: 22408: 22404: 22397: 22396: 22393: 22389: 22385: 22380: 22376: 22372: 22365: 22360: 22358: 22353: 22351: 22346: 22345: 22342: 22327: 22326:other unknown 22323: 22322:cosmic string 22319: 22318: 22316: 22311: 22307: 22304: 22303: 22301: 22296: 22295: 22293: 22289: 22286: 22284: 22283:Neutron stars 22281: 22279: 22276: 22274: 22271: 22270: 22268: 22264: 22261: 22259: 22255: 22252: 22251: 22250: 22247: 22246: 22244: 22240: 22234: 22231: 22229: 22225: 22222: 22218: 22215: 22213: 22209: 22207: 22204: 22202: 22199: 22197: 22194: 22193: 22191: 22187: 22181: 22178: 22176: 22173: 22171: 22168: 22166: 22163: 22162: 22160: 22156: 22144: 22143:Binary pulsar 22141: 22139: 22136: 22134: 22130: 22127: 22126: 22124: 22120: 22119: 22114: 22111: 22109: 22106: 22105: 22103: 22102: 22100: 22096: 22089: 22086: 22083: 22080: 22077: 22074: 22072: 22069: 22066: 22062: 22059: 22057: 22054: 22052: 22049: 22047: 22044: 22042: 22039: 22037: 22034: 22032: 22029: 22028: 22026: 22022: 22019: 22015: 22009:: Gravity Spy 22008: 22005: 22003: 22000: 21998: 21997:Einstein@Home 21995: 21994: 21992: 21990:Data analysis 21988: 21982: 21979: 21977: 21974: 21972: 21969: 21967: 21964: 21963: 21961: 21959: 21955: 21941: 21938: 21936: 21933: 21931: 21928: 21927: 21925: 21921: 21915: 21912: 21911: 21909: 21905: 21902: 21896: 21886: 21883: 21882: 21880: 21876: 21870: 21867: 21865: 21862: 21861: 21859: 21855: 21849: 21846: 21845: 21843: 21839: 21833: 21830: 21828: 21825: 21823: 21820: 21818: 21815: 21814: 21812: 21808: 21801: 21797: 21794: 21792: 21789: 21786: 21782: 21781:Advanced LIGO 21779: 21777: 21774: 21772: 21769: 21767: 21764: 21761: 21757: 21754: 21753: 21751: 21747: 21744: 21742: 21736: 21725: 21721: 21718: 21716: 21713: 21711: 21708: 21705: 21701: 21698: 21697: 21695: 21691: 21685: 21682: 21681: 21679: 21675: 21669: 21666: 21664: 21661: 21659: 21656: 21654: 21651: 21649: 21646: 21643: 21639: 21636: 21633: 21629: 21626: 21623: 21619: 21616: 21615: 21613: 21609: 21603: 21600: 21598: 21595: 21592: 21588: 21585: 21582: 21578: 21575: 21574: 21572: 21568: 21565: 21563: 21560:Resonant mass 21557: 21554: 21552: 21548: 21542: 21539: 21537: 21534: 21533: 21530: 21526: 21519: 21514: 21512: 21507: 21505: 21500: 21499: 21496: 21484: 21479: 21474: 21473: 21470: 21464: 21461: 21459: 21456: 21454: 21451: 21449: 21446: 21444: 21441: 21440: 21438: 21434: 21428: 21425: 21423: 21420: 21418: 21415: 21413: 21410: 21408: 21405: 21403: 21400: 21398: 21395: 21394: 21392: 21390: 21386: 21380: 21379:Deconfinement 21377: 21375: 21372: 21370: 21367: 21365: 21362: 21360: 21357: 21355: 21352: 21348: 21345: 21343: 21340: 21339: 21338: 21335: 21334: 21332: 21330: 21326: 21320: 21319: 21315: 21313: 21310: 21308: 21305: 21303: 21300: 21298: 21295: 21293: 21290: 21289: 21284: 21281: 21279: 21276: 21274: 21271: 21270: 21269: 21266: 21262: 21259: 21257: 21254: 21252: 21249: 21247: 21244: 21243: 21242: 21239: 21238: 21236: 21230: 21224: 21221: 21219: 21216: 21214: 21211: 21209: 21206: 21202: 21199: 21198: 21197: 21194: 21192: 21189: 21187: 21184: 21180: 21177: 21175: 21172: 21170: 21167: 21165: 21162: 21161: 21160: 21157: 21156: 21154: 21152: 21146: 21140: 21139: 21135: 21133: 21130: 21128: 21125: 21123: 21120: 21118: 21115: 21113: 21110: 21108: 21105: 21103: 21100: 21098: 21095: 21094: 21092: 21090: 21086: 21080: 21077: 21075: 21072: 21070: 21067: 21066: 21064: 21060: 21054: 21053:Orbital decay 21051: 21049: 21046: 21044: 21041: 21039: 21035: 21032: 21030: 21027: 21024: 21020: 21017: 21013: 21010: 21008: 21005: 21003: 21000: 20999: 20998: 20995: 20993: 20990: 20988: 20985: 20984: 20982: 20978: 20973: 20961: 20958: 20956: 20953: 20952: 20951: 20948: 20946: 20943: 20941: 20940:Variable star 20938: 20936: 20933: 20931: 20928: 20926: 20923: 20921: 20918: 20916: 20913: 20911: 20908: 20906: 20903: 20901: 20898: 20897: 20895: 20893: 20889: 20885: 20882: 20875: 20870: 20868: 20863: 20861: 20856: 20855: 20852: 20840: 20832: 20830: 20822: 20821: 20818: 20812: 20809: 20807: 20804: 20802: 20799: 20797: 20794: 20793: 20791: 20787: 20781: 20778: 20776: 20773: 20771: 20768: 20766: 20763: 20762: 20760: 20758:investigation 20754: 20748: 20745: 20743: 20742:Centaurus X-3 20740: 20738: 20735: 20734: 20732: 20728: 20722: 20719: 20717: 20714: 20712: 20709: 20707: 20706:Pulsar planet 20704: 20702: 20699: 20695: 20694:Related links 20692: 20691: 20690: 20687: 20683: 20682:Related links 20680: 20679: 20678: 20675: 20673: 20670: 20668: 20665: 20663: 20660: 20658: 20655: 20653: 20650: 20646: 20645:Related links 20643: 20641: 20638: 20637: 20636: 20633: 20629: 20626: 20624: 20621: 20620: 20619: 20616: 20614: 20611: 20609: 20606: 20605: 20603: 20599: 20593: 20590: 20588: 20585: 20583: 20580: 20578: 20575: 20573: 20570: 20568: 20565: 20563: 20560: 20558: 20555: 20553: 20550: 20548: 20545: 20543: 20540: 20538: 20535: 20533: 20530: 20528: 20525: 20523: 20520: 20516: 20513: 20512: 20511: 20508: 20507: 20505: 20501: 20495: 20492: 20490: 20487: 20485: 20482: 20480: 20477: 20473: 20470: 20468: 20467:X-ray burster 20465: 20463: 20460: 20459: 20458: 20455: 20453: 20450: 20449: 20447: 20443: 20437: 20434: 20429: 20427: 20424: 20422: 20419: 20418: 20417: 20414: 20413: 20411: 20407: 20401: 20398: 20396: 20393: 20392: 20390: 20386: 20382: 20375: 20370: 20368: 20363: 20361: 20356: 20355: 20352: 20340: 20332: 20330: 20322: 20321: 20318: 20312: 20309: 20307: 20304: 20302: 20299: 20297: 20294: 20292: 20289: 20287: 20286:Markarian 501 20284: 20282: 20279: 20277: 20274: 20272: 20269: 20267: 20264: 20262: 20259: 20257: 20254: 20252: 20249: 20247: 20244: 20242: 20239: 20237: 20234: 20232: 20229: 20227: 20224: 20222: 20219: 20217: 20214: 20212: 20211:XTE J1118+480 20209: 20207: 20206:XTE J1650-500 20204: 20202: 20199: 20198: 20196: 20192: 20186: 20183: 20181: 20178: 20176: 20173: 20171: 20168: 20166: 20163: 20161: 20158: 20156: 20153: 20151: 20148: 20146: 20143: 20141: 20138: 20136: 20133: 20131: 20128: 20126: 20123: 20121: 20118: 20116: 20113: 20111: 20108: 20106: 20103: 20099: 20096: 20094: 20091: 20090: 20089: 20086: 20084: 20081: 20079: 20076: 20074: 20071: 20069: 20066: 20064: 20061: 20059: 20056: 20054: 20051: 20050: 20048: 20044: 20038: 20035: 20033: 20030: 20028: 20025: 20023: 20020: 20018: 20015: 20014: 20012: 20010: 20006: 20000: 19997: 19995: 19992: 19991: 19989: 19985: 19979: 19976: 19974: 19971: 19969: 19966: 19964: 19961: 19959: 19956: 19954: 19951: 19949: 19946: 19944: 19941: 19939: 19936: 19934: 19931: 19930: 19928: 19924: 19918: 19915: 19913: 19910: 19908: 19905: 19903: 19900: 19897: 19893: 19892:Schwarzschild 19890: 19889: 19887: 19883: 19877: 19874: 19872: 19869: 19867: 19864: 19862: 19859: 19857: 19854: 19852: 19849: 19847: 19844: 19842: 19839: 19838: 19836: 19832: 19826: 19823: 19821: 19818: 19814: 19811: 19810: 19809: 19806: 19804: 19801: 19799: 19796: 19794: 19791: 19789: 19786: 19784: 19781: 19777: 19774: 19773: 19772: 19769: 19767: 19764: 19762: 19759: 19755: 19752: 19750: 19747: 19746: 19745: 19742: 19740: 19737: 19735: 19734:Photon sphere 19732: 19730: 19729:Event horizon 19727: 19723: 19720: 19718: 19715: 19714: 19713: 19710: 19708: 19705: 19704: 19702: 19698: 19692: 19689: 19687: 19684: 19682: 19679: 19677: 19674: 19672: 19669: 19667: 19664: 19662: 19659: 19655: 19654:Related links 19652: 19650: 19647: 19645: 19642: 19641: 19640: 19637: 19633: 19632:Related links 19630: 19629: 19628: 19625: 19623: 19620: 19616: 19615:Related links 19613: 19612: 19611: 19608: 19606: 19603: 19601: 19598: 19597: 19595: 19591: 19583: 19580: 19578: 19575: 19573: 19570: 19568: 19565: 19563: 19560: 19558: 19555: 19553: 19550: 19549: 19548: 19545: 19543: 19540: 19536: 19533: 19532: 19531: 19528: 19523: 19521: 19518: 19516: 19513: 19512: 19511: 19508: 19507: 19505: 19501: 19496: 19486: 19483: 19481: 19478: 19476: 19473: 19471: 19468: 19466: 19463: 19461: 19458: 19456: 19453: 19451: 19448: 19446: 19443: 19441: 19440:Schwarzschild 19438: 19436: 19433: 19432: 19430: 19426: 19420: 19417: 19416: 19413: 19409: 19402: 19397: 19395: 19390: 19388: 19383: 19382: 19379: 19369: 19365: 19364: 19359: 19351: 19345: 19342: 19340: 19337: 19335: 19332: 19330: 19327: 19326: 19324: 19322: 19318: 19308: 19305: 19303: 19300: 19298: 19295: 19294: 19292: 19288: 19282: 19279: 19277: 19274: 19273: 19271: 19269:Stellar spots 19267: 19261: 19258: 19257: 19255: 19253:Non-spherical 19251: 19248: 19244: 19235: 19231: 19228: 19224: 19223: 19222: 19219: 19217: 19214: 19209: 19205: 19204: 19203: 19200: 19195: 19191: 19190: 19189: 19186: 19184: 19181: 19179: 19176: 19174: 19171: 19169: 19166: 19165: 19163: 19161: 19157: 19147: 19144: 19142: 19139: 19137: 19134: 19132: 19129: 19128: 19126: 19122: 19116: 19113: 19111: 19108: 19106: 19103: 19102: 19100: 19096: 19090: 19087: 19083: 19078: 19075: 19073: 19070: 19069: 19067: 19061: 19052: 19048: 19045: 19041: 19040: 19039: 19036: 19034: 19031: 19030: 19028: 19026: 19022: 19018: 19015: 19011: 19001: 18998: 18996: 18993: 18991: 18990:Gamma Doradus 18988: 18987: 18985: 18981: 18975: 18972: 18970: 18967: 18965: 18962: 18961: 18959: 18957: 18953: 18947: 18944: 18942: 18941:PV Telescopii 18939: 18937: 18934: 18932: 18929: 18927: 18924: 18923: 18921: 18919:early spectra 18915: 18909: 18906: 18904: 18901: 18899: 18896: 18892: 18888: 18884: 18879: 18876: 18872: 18868: 18863: 18860: 18859: 18857: 18852: 18848: 18845: 18843: 18839: 18835: 18828: 18823: 18821: 18816: 18814: 18809: 18808: 18805: 18793: 18788: 18783: 18781: 18773: 18772: 18769: 18763: 18760: 18758: 18755: 18753: 18752:Intergalactic 18750: 18748: 18745: 18743: 18740: 18738: 18735: 18733: 18732:Galactic year 18730: 18726: 18723: 18719: 18716: 18714: 18711: 18710: 18709: 18706: 18705: 18704: 18701: 18700: 18698: 18694: 18688: 18685: 18683: 18680: 18676: 18673: 18671: 18668: 18667: 18666: 18663: 18661: 18658: 18656: 18653: 18651: 18648: 18646: 18643: 18641: 18638: 18636: 18633: 18629: 18626: 18622: 18619: 18618: 18617: 18614: 18612: 18611:Most luminous 18609: 18607: 18604: 18602: 18599: 18597: 18594: 18592: 18589: 18587: 18584: 18582: 18579: 18577: 18574: 18573: 18572: 18569: 18565: 18562: 18560: 18557: 18556: 18555: 18552: 18551: 18549: 18547: 18543: 18537: 18534: 18532: 18529: 18527: 18526:Proper motion 18524: 18522: 18519: 18515: 18512: 18510: 18507: 18505: 18502: 18501: 18500: 18497: 18495: 18492: 18490: 18489:Constellation 18487: 18485: 18482: 18480: 18477: 18473: 18470: 18468: 18465: 18463: 18460: 18458: 18457:Solar eclipse 18455: 18454: 18453: 18450: 18449: 18447: 18443:Earth-centric 18441: 18435: 18432: 18428: 18425: 18423: 18420: 18418: 18415: 18414: 18413: 18410: 18408: 18405: 18401: 18398: 18396: 18393: 18391: 18388: 18386: 18383: 18382: 18381: 18378: 18377: 18375: 18373: 18369: 18363: 18360: 18358: 18355: 18353: 18350: 18348: 18345: 18343: 18340: 18338: 18335: 18333: 18330: 18328: 18325: 18323: 18320: 18318: 18315: 18313: 18310: 18308: 18305: 18303: 18300: 18298: 18295: 18293: 18290: 18288: 18285: 18283: 18280: 18278: 18275: 18274: 18272: 18268: 18262: 18259: 18257: 18254: 18252: 18249: 18247: 18244: 18242: 18239: 18235: 18232: 18231: 18230: 18227: 18223: 18220: 18218: 18215: 18214: 18213: 18210: 18206: 18203: 18201: 18198: 18197: 18196: 18193: 18189: 18186: 18184: 18181: 18179: 18176: 18174: 18171: 18169: 18166: 18165: 18164: 18161: 18159: 18156: 18152: 18149: 18147: 18144: 18143: 18142: 18139: 18137: 18134: 18133: 18131: 18129: 18125: 18119: 18116: 18112: 18109: 18107: 18104: 18102: 18099: 18097: 18094: 18092: 18089: 18088: 18087: 18084: 18082: 18079: 18077: 18074: 18072: 18069: 18067: 18064: 18062: 18059: 18057: 18054: 18052: 18049: 18047: 18044: 18042: 18041:Alpha process 18039: 18037: 18034: 18032: 18029: 18027: 18024: 18022: 18019: 18017: 18014: 18012: 18009: 18008: 18006: 18004: 18000: 17990: 17987: 17985: 17982: 17980: 17977: 17975: 17972: 17970: 17967: 17963: 17960: 17957: 17955: 17952: 17951: 17949: 17945: 17942: 17940: 17937: 17935: 17932: 17930: 17927: 17925: 17922: 17920: 17917: 17915: 17912: 17910: 17907: 17905: 17902: 17901: 17900: 17897: 17895: 17892: 17890: 17887: 17886: 17884: 17882: 17878: 17872: 17869: 17865: 17862: 17861: 17860: 17857: 17855: 17852: 17848: 17845: 17841: 17838: 17836: 17833: 17832: 17831: 17828: 17826: 17823: 17822: 17821: 17818: 17814: 17813:Helium planet 17811: 17810: 17809: 17806: 17804: 17803:Parker's star 17801: 17799: 17796: 17795: 17793: 17791: 17787: 17781: 17778: 17774: 17771: 17770: 17769: 17766: 17764: 17761: 17757: 17754: 17753: 17752: 17749: 17745: 17742: 17740: 17737: 17735: 17734:Lambda Boötis 17732: 17730: 17727: 17725: 17722: 17720: 17717: 17715: 17712: 17710: 17707: 17705: 17702: 17701: 17700: 17697: 17695: 17692: 17688: 17685: 17683: 17680: 17678: 17675: 17674: 17673: 17670: 17666: 17663: 17662: 17661: 17658: 17654: 17651: 17649: 17646: 17644: 17641: 17640: 17639: 17636: 17634: 17631: 17627: 17624: 17622: 17619: 17617: 17614: 17613: 17612: 17609: 17607: 17604: 17602: 17599: 17597: 17594: 17590: 17587: 17585: 17582: 17581: 17580: 17577: 17573: 17570: 17568: 17565: 17563: 17560: 17558: 17555: 17553: 17550: 17548: 17545: 17543: 17540: 17539: 17537: 17535: 17532: 17530: 17527: 17526: 17523: 17520: 17518: 17514: 17506: 17503: 17501: 17500:Superluminous 17498: 17497: 17496: 17493: 17491: 17488: 17486: 17483: 17481: 17478: 17476: 17473: 17471: 17468: 17466: 17463: 17461: 17458: 17454: 17451: 17450: 17449: 17446: 17444: 17441: 17437: 17434: 17432: 17429: 17428: 17427: 17424: 17420: 17417: 17416: 17415: 17412: 17410: 17407: 17405: 17404:Main sequence 17402: 17401: 17399: 17397: 17393: 17387: 17384: 17382: 17381:Hayashi track 17379: 17377: 17374: 17370: 17367: 17365: 17362: 17360: 17357: 17355: 17352: 17351: 17350: 17347: 17345: 17342: 17340: 17337: 17335: 17332: 17331: 17329: 17327: 17323: 17317: 17314: 17313: 17310: 17306: 17299: 17294: 17292: 17287: 17285: 17280: 17279: 17276: 17264: 17256: 17254: 17246: 17245: 17242: 17236: 17233: 17231: 17228: 17226: 17223: 17221: 17218: 17216: 17213: 17211: 17208: 17206: 17203: 17201: 17198: 17196: 17193: 17191: 17188: 17186: 17183: 17181: 17178: 17177: 17175: 17171: 17165: 17162: 17160: 17157: 17155: 17152: 17150: 17147: 17145: 17142: 17140: 17137: 17135: 17132: 17130: 17129:SN 2014J 17127: 17125: 17122: 17120: 17117: 17115: 17112: 17110: 17107: 17105: 17102: 17100: 17097: 17095: 17094:SN 1994D 17092: 17090: 17089:SN 1987A 17087: 17085: 17084:SN 1885A 17082: 17080: 17077: 17075: 17072: 17070: 17067: 17065: 17062: 17058: 17055: 17054: 17053: 17050: 17048: 17045: 17043: 17040: 17039: 17037: 17033: 17027: 17024: 17022: 17019: 17017: 17014: 17012: 17011:Massive stars 17009: 17007: 17004: 17002: 16999: 16998: 16996: 16992: 16986: 16983: 16981: 16978: 16976: 16973: 16972: 16970: 16966: 16958: 16955: 16954: 16953: 16950: 16948: 16945: 16943: 16940: 16936: 16933: 16931: 16928: 16926: 16923: 16922: 16921: 16918: 16916: 16913: 16909: 16906: 16904: 16901: 16900: 16899: 16896: 16892: 16889: 16888: 16887: 16884: 16883: 16881: 16877: 16871: 16868: 16866: 16863: 16861: 16858: 16856: 16853: 16849: 16846: 16844: 16841: 16839: 16836: 16835: 16834: 16831: 16829: 16826: 16822: 16819: 16817: 16814: 16813: 16812: 16809: 16808: 16806: 16802: 16796: 16793: 16789: 16786: 16785: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16774: 16771: 16769: 16766: 16764: 16761: 16759: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16749: 16746: 16744: 16741: 16739: 16736: 16734: 16731: 16729: 16726: 16724: 16721: 16720: 16718: 16714: 16708: 16705: 16701: 16698: 16696: 16693: 16691: 16688: 16687: 16686: 16683: 16681: 16678: 16676: 16673: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16662: 16660: 16656: 16651: 16641: 16638: 16636: 16633: 16631: 16628: 16626: 16625:Superluminous 16623: 16621: 16618: 16616: 16613: 16611: 16608: 16606: 16605:Type Iax 16603: 16601: 16598: 16597: 16595: 16591: 16587: 16580: 16575: 16573: 16568: 16566: 16561: 16560: 16557: 16542: 16538: 16534: 16529: 16528: 16523: 16519: 16507: 16503: 16499: 16494: 16493: 16483: 16479: 16475: 16471: 16466: 16461: 16457: 16453: 16448: 16443: 16439: 16435: 16434: 16428: 16424: 16420: 16416: 16412: 16408: 16404: 16399: 16394: 16391:(11): 77–81. 16390: 16386: 16385: 16379: 16375: 16369: 16365: 16360: 16356: 16350: 16346: 16342: 16338: 16334: 16330: 16329: 16323: 16322: 16309: 16305: 16300: 16295: 16291: 16287: 16280: 16272: 16268: 16264: 16260: 16256: 16252: 16247: 16242: 16238: 16234: 16227: 16212: 16208: 16202: 16187: 16183: 16177: 16162: 16158: 16152: 16144: 16140: 16136: 16130: 16126: 16122: 16118: 16114: 16109: 16104: 16100: 16093: 16085: 16081: 16077: 16073: 16069: 16065: 16060: 16055: 16051: 16047: 16039: 16031: 16027: 16022: 16017: 16013: 16009: 16002: 15994: 15990: 15985: 15980: 15976: 15972: 15967: 15962: 15958: 15954: 15950: 15943: 15941: 15925: 15921: 15915: 15907: 15901: 15897: 15893: 15889: 15882: 15874: 15870: 15866: 15862: 15858: 15854: 15850: 15846: 15842: 15835: 15827: 15823: 15819: 15815: 15811: 15807: 15802: 15797: 15793: 15789: 15785: 15778: 15770: 15766: 15762: 15758: 15754: 15750: 15745: 15740: 15736: 15732: 15728: 15721: 15713: 15709: 15704: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15685: 15681: 15677: 15670: 15662: 15658: 15654: 15650: 15646: 15642: 15637: 15632: 15628: 15624: 15617: 15609: 15605: 15601: 15597: 15593: 15589: 15584: 15579: 15575: 15571: 15570: 15562: 15554: 15550: 15546: 15542: 15538: 15534: 15530: 15526: 15522: 15518: 15514: 15507: 15498: 15493: 15489: 15485: 15481: 15477: 15476: 15471: 15464: 15456: 15452: 15448: 15444: 15443: 15435: 15427: 15423: 15418: 15413: 15409: 15405: 15401: 15397: 15393: 15389: 15385: 15381: 15375: 15360: 15356: 15349: 15341: 15337: 15333: 15329: 15325: 15321: 15314: 15306: 15302: 15298: 15294: 15290: 15286: 15281: 15276: 15272: 15268: 15267: 15266:New Astronomy 15259: 15251: 15247: 15243: 15239: 15235: 15231: 15227: 15223: 15219: 15215: 15214: 15206: 15198: 15194: 15190: 15186: 15182: 15178: 15173: 15168: 15164: 15160: 15153: 15145: 15141: 15137: 15133: 15129: 15125: 15121: 15117: 15112: 15107: 15104:(3): 031201. 15103: 15099: 15095: 15087: 15079: 15075: 15070: 15065: 15061: 15057: 15052: 15047: 15043: 15039: 15035: 15028: 15020: 15016: 15012: 15008: 15004: 15000: 14995: 14990: 14986: 14982: 14981: 14973: 14965: 14961: 14957: 14953: 14949: 14945: 14941: 14937: 14932: 14927: 14923: 14919: 14918: 14910: 14902: 14898: 14894: 14890: 14886: 14882: 14878: 14874: 14869: 14864: 14860: 14856: 14852: 14845: 14830: 14826: 14822: 14815: 14807: 14803: 14799: 14795: 14791: 14787: 14783: 14779: 14775: 14771: 14766: 14761: 14757: 14753: 14749: 14742: 14734: 14730: 14725: 14720: 14716: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14698: 14694: 14693: 14688: 14681: 14673: 14669: 14665: 14661: 14657: 14653: 14646: 14638: 14634: 14630: 14626: 14619: 14611: 14607: 14602: 14597: 14593: 14589: 14582: 14574: 14570: 14566: 14562: 14558: 14554: 14549: 14544: 14540: 14536: 14529: 14521: 14517: 14512: 14507: 14503: 14499: 14495: 14491: 14487: 14480: 14472: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14454: 14450: 14445: 14440: 14436: 14432: 14427: 14422: 14419:(8): 170192. 14418: 14414: 14410: 14403: 14395: 14391: 14387: 14383: 14379: 14375: 14370: 14365: 14361: 14357: 14353: 14346: 14338: 14334: 14330: 14326: 14322: 14318: 14313: 14308: 14304: 14300: 14296: 14292: 14288: 14281: 14279: 14269: 14264: 14260: 14256: 14252: 14248: 14244: 14237: 14229: 14225: 14220: 14215: 14211: 14207: 14203: 14195: 14187: 14183: 14179: 14175: 14171: 14167: 14162: 14157: 14153: 14149: 14142: 14134: 14130: 14126: 14122: 14118: 14114: 14110: 14106: 14101: 14096: 14092: 14088: 14081: 14073: 14069: 14065: 14061: 14057: 14053: 14048: 14043: 14039: 14035: 14034: 14026: 14018: 14014: 14010: 14006: 14002: 13998: 13993: 13988: 13985:(1): 014001. 13984: 13980: 13972: 13964: 13960: 13956: 13952: 13948: 13944: 13939: 13934: 13930: 13926: 13919: 13911: 13907: 13903: 13899: 13895: 13891: 13886: 13881: 13877: 13873: 13866: 13858: 13854: 13850: 13846: 13842: 13838: 13833: 13828: 13824: 13820: 13813: 13805: 13799: 13795: 13791: 13787: 13783: 13779: 13775: 13768: 13766: 13757: 13753: 13749: 13745: 13741: 13737: 13732: 13727: 13723: 13719: 13718: 13710: 13702: 13698: 13694: 13690: 13685: 13680: 13676: 13672: 13668: 13664: 13660: 13653: 13651: 13649: 13640: 13636: 13632: 13628: 13624: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13606: 13602: 13595: 13587: 13583: 13579: 13575: 13571: 13567: 13562: 13557: 13553: 13549: 13542: 13540: 13531: 13527: 13523: 13519: 13515: 13511: 13506: 13501: 13497: 13493: 13486: 13478: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13460: 13456: 13451: 13446: 13442: 13438: 13434: 13427: 13419: 13415: 13411: 13407: 13403: 13399: 13394: 13389: 13386:(1): 63–106. 13385: 13381: 13380: 13372: 13370: 13368: 13366: 13364: 13355: 13351: 13347: 13343: 13338: 13333: 13329: 13325: 13320: 13315: 13311: 13307: 13306: 13301: 13294: 13285: 13280: 13276: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13258: 13254: 13250: 13243: 13241: 13232: 13228: 13223: 13218: 13214: 13210: 13205: 13200: 13196: 13192: 13188: 13180: 13172: 13168: 13163: 13158: 13154: 13150: 13145: 13140: 13136: 13132: 13128: 13121: 13113: 13109: 13104: 13099: 13095: 13091: 13086: 13081: 13077: 13073: 13069: 13062: 13054: 13050: 13045: 13040: 13036: 13032: 13027: 13022: 13018: 13014: 13010: 13003: 12995: 12991: 12986: 12981: 12977: 12973: 12969: 12965: 12961: 12954: 12946: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12928: 12924: 12919: 12914: 12910: 12906: 12902: 12894: 12886: 12882: 12877: 12872: 12868: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12850: 12846: 12842: 12835: 12827: 12823: 12819: 12815: 12811: 12807: 12803: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12785: 12781: 12777: 12770: 12761: 12756: 12752: 12748: 12743: 12738: 12734: 12730: 12726: 12719: 12711: 12707: 12703: 12699: 12695: 12691: 12687: 12683: 12679: 12675: 12670: 12665: 12661: 12657: 12653: 12646: 12638: 12634: 12630: 12626: 12622: 12618: 12614: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12597:(8): 083003. 12596: 12592: 12588: 12581: 12573: 12569: 12564: 12559: 12555: 12551: 12546: 12541: 12537: 12533: 12529: 12522: 12514: 12510: 12506: 12502: 12498: 12494: 12489: 12484: 12481:(1): 63–106. 12480: 12476: 12475: 12467: 12459: 12455: 12450: 12445: 12441: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12418: 12413: 12406: 12398: 12394: 12390: 12386: 12382: 12378: 12373: 12368: 12364: 12360: 12352: 12344: 12340: 12336: 12332: 12328: 12324: 12317: 12309: 12305: 12301: 12297: 12293: 12289: 12285: 12281: 12276: 12271: 12267: 12263: 12256: 12248: 12244: 12240: 12236: 12232: 12228: 12224: 12220: 12213: 12205: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12187: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12169: 12165: 12161: 12154: 12152: 12150: 12141: 12137: 12133: 12129: 12125: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12107: 12103: 12095: 12087: 12083: 12079: 12075: 12071: 12067: 12062: 12057: 12053: 12049: 12042: 12034: 12030: 12026: 12022: 12018: 12014: 12009: 12004: 12000: 11996: 11989: 11981: 11977: 11973: 11969: 11965: 11961: 11956: 11951: 11947: 11943: 11942: 11934: 11926: 11922: 11917: 11912: 11908: 11904: 11899: 11894: 11890: 11886: 11882: 11875: 11873: 11864: 11852: 11844: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11826: 11822: 11815: 11813: 11804: 11800: 11796: 11792: 11788: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11770: 11766: 11765: 11757: 11749: 11745: 11741: 11737: 11733: 11729: 11724: 11719: 11715: 11711: 11704: 11696: 11692: 11687: 11682: 11678: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11660: 11656: 11652: 11645: 11637: 11633: 11628: 11623: 11619: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11601: 11597: 11593: 11585: 11577: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11559: 11555: 11550: 11545: 11541: 11537: 11533: 11526: 11518: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11500: 11496: 11491: 11486: 11482: 11478: 11474: 11467: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11443: 11439: 11438: 11430: 11422: 11418: 11413: 11408: 11404: 11400: 11393: 11391: 11382: 11378: 11374: 11370: 11369: 11361: 11353: 11349: 11344: 11339: 11335: 11331: 11326: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11309: 11302: 11294: 11290: 11286: 11282: 11278: 11274: 11270: 11266: 11261: 11256: 11252: 11248: 11240: 11232: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11214: 11210: 11206: 11202: 11198: 11191: 11183: 11179: 11174: 11169: 11165: 11161: 11156: 11151: 11147: 11143: 11139: 11132: 11124: 11120: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11104: 11099: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11079: 11071: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11051: 11046: 11041: 11037: 11033: 11026: 11018: 11014: 11010: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10995:(6155): 416. 10994: 10990: 10983: 10981: 10964: 10960: 10956: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10929: 10921: 10917: 10913: 10909: 10905: 10901: 10897: 10893: 10889: 10885: 10878: 10870: 10866: 10862: 10858: 10854: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10836: 10832: 10825: 10823: 10814: 10810: 10806: 10802: 10798: 10794: 10789: 10784: 10780: 10776: 10769: 10767: 10758: 10752: 10748: 10741: 10739: 10730: 10726: 10722: 10718: 10714: 10710: 10705: 10700: 10696: 10692: 10691: 10683: 10681: 10672: 10668: 10663: 10658: 10654: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10636: 10632: 10628: 10621: 10613: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10586: 10581: 10577: 10573: 10569: 10562: 10555: 10542: 10538: 10534: 10530: 10524: 10522: 10520: 10503: 10499: 10498: 10493: 10487: 10485: 10483: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10454: 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9723: 9718: 9711: 9709: 9707: 9698: 9694: 9690: 9686: 9679: 9671: 9667: 9663: 9659: 9655: 9651: 9646: 9641: 9637: 9633: 9632: 9624: 9616: 9612: 9608: 9604: 9600: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9582: 9578: 9577: 9568: 9559: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9517: 9508: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9490: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9466: 9457: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9430: 9426: 9422: 9415: 9413: 9404: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9379: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9359: 9355: 9351: 9347: 9343: 9342: 9334: 9326: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9310: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9292: 9288: 9287: 9279: 9277: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9234: 9230: 9229: 9221: 9219: 9210: 9206: 9201: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9174: 9170: 9166: 9159: 9157: 9147: 9142: 9138: 9134: 9130: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9113: 9104: 9099: 9091: 9089: 9080: 9074: 9070: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9051: 9043: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8999: 8995: 8994: 8986: 8984: 8982: 8980: 8971: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8953: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8920: 8918: 8909: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8872: 8871:gr-qc/0206041 8867: 8863: 8859: 8858: 8853: 8846: 8838: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8804: 8800: 8799: 8791: 8789: 8787: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8739: 8730: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8710: 8706: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8683: 8675: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8651: 8647: 8640: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8598: 8594: 8587: 8585: 8583: 8574: 8570: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8535: 8527: 8525: 8523: 8521: 8519: 8517: 8515: 8513: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8458: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8437:The Messenger 8431: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8411: 8407: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8384: 8375: 8367: 8363: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8325: 8321: 8320: 8311: 8303: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8269: 8265: 8264: 8255: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8214:(S298): 442. 8213: 8209: 8208: 8200: 8192: 8188: 8184: 8180: 8176: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8146: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8104: 8100: 8099: 8090: 8082: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8035: 8026: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7961: 7953: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7912: 7907: 7900: 7892: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7873: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7844: 7836: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7789: 7781: 7774: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7704: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7677: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7630: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7616: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7568: 7560: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7539: 7531: 7523: 7519: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7504: 7496: 7488: 7484: 7480: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7433: 7431: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7389: 7384: 7377: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7322: 7314: 7312: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7264: 7256: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7209: 7201: 7193: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7147: 7140: 7124: 7120: 7116: 7110: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7060: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7033: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6990: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6955: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6928: 6926: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6863: 6861: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6797: 6789: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6746: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6692: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6638: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6607: 6602: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6517: 6515: 6513: 6511: 6509: 6507: 6505: 6503: 6494: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6445: 6437: 6431: 6415: 6411: 6405: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6387:0-19-850766-6 6383: 6379: 6378: 6370: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6340: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6310: 6291: 6286: 6285:2027.42/87614 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6256: 6248: 6241: 6226: 6222: 6216: 6208: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6167: 6162: 6155: 6147: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6106: 6101: 6094: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6024: 6016: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5969: 5964: 5956: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5915:(8): 081303. 5914: 5910: 5909: 5904: 5897: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5852: 5845: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5798: 5790: 5782: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5690:Scholberg, K. 5685: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5632:Scholberg, K. 5626: 5624: 5615: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5582: 5574: 5570: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5547: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5518: 5510: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5463: 5455: 5440: 5436: 5430: 5415: 5411: 5405: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5350: 5341: 5325: 5321: 5320: 5319:Astronomy Now 5315: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5218: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5165: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5103: 5088: 5084: 5078: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5061:10.1038/24106 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5041: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5015:10.1038/24103 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4995: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4950: 4942: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4901: 4892: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4876:: 1021–1024. 4875: 4871: 4870: 4865: 4858: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4821: 4813: 4805: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4696: 4688: 4680: 4678:9783030103804 4674: 4670: 4669: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4612: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4550:(in German), 4549: 4542: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4498:(in German), 4497: 4496: 4488: 4479: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4449:(in German). 4448: 4444: 4437: 4435: 4426: 4420: 4416: 4415: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4370:(in German). 4369: 4365: 4358: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4308:(in German). 4307: 4303: 4296: 4280: 4274: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4176: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4111:Soderberg, A. 4105: 4097: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4082: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4028:. Dordrecht: 4027: 4020: 4012: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3993: 3991: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3935: 3927: 3923: 3922: 3917: 3911: 3903: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3883: 3874: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3837: 3829: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3814: 3806: 3798: 3790: 3786: 3785: 3779: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3739: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3691: 3687: 3676: 3673: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3653: 3650: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3627: 3617: 3613: 3611: 3605: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3586:Gamma Velorum 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3552: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3516: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3492:transport of 3490: 3485: 3483: 3482:Pacific Ocean 3479: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3455: 3453: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3392: 3391:giant planets 3388: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3306: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3277: 3268: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3218: 3171: 3147: 3139: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3121: 3117: 3114: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3056: 3052: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3031: 3030: 3026: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3013: 3011: 3005: 3003: 3000:, especially 2999: 2995: 2990: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2953: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2904:0.001 – 0.01 2903: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2889:Core collapse 2888: 2887: 2883: 2880: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2868: 2867: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2843: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2774: 2765: 2759:Energy output 2756: 2752: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2656: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2637:12–30 or more 2636: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2602: 2599: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2575: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2524: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2459: 2457: 2454:Average peak 2453: 2450: 2449: 2443: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2421: 2415: 2413: 2408: 2404: 2390: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2372: 2368: 2359: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2331: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2305: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2260: 2258: 2253: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2214: 2210: 2209:stellar winds 2201: 2196: 2191: 2181: 2169: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2123: 2118: 2113: 2103: 2087: 2083: 2080:turning into 2079: 2075: 2070: 2068: 2064: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1995: 1986: 1980: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1928:Neutron star 1927: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1887:Neutron star 1886: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1865:Neutron star 1864: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1851:Neutron star 1850: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1814: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1798: 1795: 1787: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1766: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1729: 1723:Core collapse 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1669: 1667: 1656: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1622:main sequence 1619: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1570: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1539: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1522:carbon fusion 1520: 1511: 1506: 1496: 1494: 1493: 1484: 1479: 1470: 1468: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1377: 1368: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1335: 1328: 1323: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1281: 1278: 1274: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1249: 1246: 1245:Core collapse 1240: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1205: 1196: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1179:Balmer series 1176: 1172: 1168: 1165:of different 1164: 1160: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1143:Kepler's Star 1140: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1041:Doppler shift 1038: 1034: 1026: 1025:Carina Nebula 1021: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 990: 988: 984: 980: 972: 968: 964: 955: 953: 948: 946: 942: 938: 934: 929: 927: 923: 922:spiral galaxy 919: 915: 911: 909: 905: 896: 892: 882: 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 843: 841: 840:Knut Lundmark 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 778: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 758: 754: 752: 749: 747: 743: 741: 738: 737: 733: 731: 728: 726: 722: 719: 716: 715: 711: 709: 706: 704: 700: 698: 695: 694: 690: 688: 685: 683: 679: 677: 674: 673: 669: 667: 664: 662: 658: 656: 653: 652: 648: 646: 643: 641: 637: 635: 632: 631: 627: 623: 621: 614: 612: 608: 606: 603: 602: 598: 596: 593: 591: 587: 585: 582: 581: 577: 575: 572: 570: 566: 564: 561: 560: 556: 554: 551: 549: 545: 543: 540: 539: 536: 532: 529: 526: 523: 522: 507: 496: 492: 488: 481: 472: 470: 466: 462: 458: 453: 451: 447: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 421: 419: 416:produced the 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 384: 380: 376: 366: 364: 360: 356: 352: 345: 335: 333: 332:Knut Lundmark 329: 325: 321: 306: 305: 299: 295: 289: 274: 270: 266: 256: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 210: 206: 202: 198: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 178: 177: 175: 171: 167: 162: 160: 156: 152: 148: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 122: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 60: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 23607:Institutions 23572: 23458:Eccentricity 23418:Astrophysics 23312:Compass rose 23247: 23240: 23233: 23221: 23214: 23199: 23187: 23180: 23173: 23166: 23159: 23025:Ibn al-Majdi 23000:Abd al‐Wajid 22959:Al-Wabkanawi 22954:Abū al‐ʿUqūl 22843:Jamal ad-Din 22812:Omar Khayyam 22640:Al-ʻIjliyyah 22615:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī 22600:Ibn al-A'lam 22519:Al-Khwarizmi 22325: 22309: 22305: 22210:Travel with 22196:Polarization 22115: 22017:Observations 21739:Ground-based 21448:Astrophysics 21417:Preon matter 21407:Quark matter 21342:Introduction 21316: 21159:Neutron star 21149:Compact and 21136: 21088: 21048:Helium flash 21038:deflagration 20955:X-ray binary 20881:Stellar core 20634: 20618:Compact star 20592:Urca process 20582:Timing noise 20567:Relativistic 20462:X-ray binary 20457:X-ray pulsar 20381:Neutron star 20241:PKS 1302-102 20115:Gravity well 20083:Compact star 20037:Microquasars 20022:Most massive 19926:Alternatives 19691:X-ray binary 19638: 19610:Neutron star 19547:Supermassive 19524:Hawking star 19465:Supermassive 19354: 19234:Z Andromedae 19216:SW Sextantis 19201: 19194:Intermediate 19033:Herbig Ae/Be 18908:SX Phoenicis 18855:cepheid-like 18655:White dwarfs 18645:Brown dwarfs 18628:Most distant 18576:Most massive 18554:Proper names 18514:Photographic 18467:Solar System 18445:observations 18372:Star systems 18195:Stellar wind 18178:Chromosphere 18151:Oscillations 18031:Helium flash 17881:Hypothetical 17859:X-ray binary 17798:Compact star 17633:Bright giant 17494: 17386:Henyey track 17364:Herbig Ae/Be 17139:Vela Remnant 17104:SN 1006 17069:SN 1000+0216 17047:Cassiopeia A 17016:Most distant 16947:Local Bubble 16920:Compact star 16898:Neutron star 16635:Calcium-rich 16600:Type Ia 16585: 16544:. Retrieved 16525: 16509:. Retrieved 16437: 16431: 16388: 16382: 16363: 16327: 16285: 16279: 16236: 16232: 16226: 16214:. Retrieved 16210: 16201: 16189:. Retrieved 16185: 16176: 16164:. Retrieved 16160: 16151: 16098: 16092: 16049: 16045: 16038: 16011: 16007: 16001: 15956: 15952: 15927:. Retrieved 15923: 15914: 15887: 15881: 15848: 15844: 15834: 15791: 15787: 15777: 15734: 15730: 15720: 15683: 15679: 15669: 15626: 15622: 15616: 15573: 15567: 15561: 15520: 15516: 15506: 15479: 15473: 15463: 15446: 15440: 15434: 15391: 15387: 15374: 15362:. Retrieved 15358: 15348: 15323: 15319: 15318:"In Brief". 15313: 15270: 15264: 15258: 15217: 15211: 15205: 15162: 15158: 15152: 15101: 15097: 15086: 15041: 15037: 15027: 14984: 14978: 14972: 14921: 14915: 14909: 14858: 14854: 14844: 14832:. 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Retrieved 5086: 5077: 5044: 5038: 5031: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4914: 4910: 4900: 4873: 4867: 4857: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4784: 4777: 4732: 4726: 4716: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4667: 4660: 4625: 4621: 4611: 4588:10261/255617 4551: 4547: 4541: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4450: 4446: 4413: 4406: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4345:. Retrieved 4309: 4305: 4295: 4283:. Retrieved 4273: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4179: 4173: 4167: 4122: 4118: 4104: 4080: 4073: 4056: 4052: 4046: 4025: 4019: 4000:Astronomy 2e 3999: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3920: 3910: 3881: 3873: 3861:. Retrieved 3849: 3836: 3812: 3805: 3782: 3771: 3754: 3750: 3707:(1): 66–85. 3704: 3700: 3690: 3606: 3559: 3555: 3547: 3510: 3502: 3489:biodiversity 3486: 3467: 3449: 3425: 3410: 3406:Solar System 3399: 3395: 3367: 3344: 3322: 3301: 3274: 3253: 3237: 3225: 3216: 3169: 3152: 3006: 2994:galaxy types 2991: 2987: 2961: 2957: 2949: 2840:x10 joules ( 2825: 2793: 2778: 2770: 2753: 2740: 2721: 2693: 2683: 2676: 2669: 2662: 2645:IIn (bright) 2594:II-P (faint) 2555:roughly 100 2492:Ib/c (faint) 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2416: 2395:847 keV 2391: 2387: 2345: 2337: 2325:Light curves 2307: 2281: 2266: 2254: 2243: 2228: 2217: 2205: 2170: 2162: 2126: 2071: 2053: 2026: 1999: 1993: 1990: 1884:II-L or II-b 1827:solar masses 1799: 1791: 1786:stellar core 1742: 1734: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1682: 1673: 1670: 1662: 1653: 1643:-56 through 1634: 1615: 1585: 1569:neutron star 1560:solar masses 1545: 1516: 1490: 1488: 1463: 1424: 1416: 1412: 1401: 1382: 1355: 1351: 1339: 1331: 1200:No hydrogen 1186: 1182: 1159:light curves 1156: 1146: 1142: 1139:Tycho's Nova 1138: 1136: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1100: 1061: 1057:Hubble curve 1049: 1030: 991: 975: 949: 930: 912: 888: 851:Fritz Zwicky 844: 832:Walter Baade 805: 791: 771: 751: 730: 708: 687: 666: 645: 620: 599:possible SN 595: 574: 553: 534: 527:observed in 469:light echoes 461:Cassiopeia A 454: 437:Aristotelian 422: 372: 347: 328:Fritz Zwicky 324:Walter Baade 319: 293: 272: 264: 262: 217:solar masses 214: 201:massive star 163: 123: 103:neutron star 98: 89:, or when a 87:massive star 70: 66: 58: 56: 36: 23802:Outer space 23593:Tusi couple 23583:Trepidation 23548:Salah times 23483:Geocentrism 23357:Planisphere 23337:Graph paper 23264:Instruments 23216:Huihui Lifa 23097:Ehmedê Xanî 23056:Al-Birjandi 23035:al-Kubunani 22792:Abu al-Salt 22741:Al-Isfizari 22701:Ibn al-Samh 22580:Abu al-Wafa 22565:al-Khojandi 22469:Al-Farghani 22384:Astronomers 22317:Hypothesis 22294:Continuous 21898:Space-based 21369:Lattice QCD 21283:Gravitation 21208:Exotic star 21186:White dwarf 21179:Radio-quiet 20950:Binary star 20920:Metallicity 20677:White dwarf 20662:Microquasar 20628:Exotic star 20557:Pulsar kick 20479:Millisecond 20395:Radio-quiet 20231:Centaurus A 20185:Planet Nine 20088:Exotic star 20017:Black holes 19963:Planck star 19912:Kerr–Newman 19627:White dwarf 19577:Radio-Quiet 19535:Microquasar 19408:Black holes 19276:BY Draconis 19160:Cataclysmic 19065:supergiants 19000:White dwarf 18969:Semiregular 18956:Long-period 18931:Beta Cephei 18926:Alpha Cygni 18883:BL Herculis 18871:Delta Scuti 18708:Brown dwarf 18484:Circumpolar 18362:Kraft break 18342:Color index 18317:Metallicity 18277:Designation 18246:Cosmic dust 18168:Photosphere 17934:Dark-energy 17909:Electroweak 17894:Black dwarf 17825:Radio-quiet 17808:White dwarf 17694:White dwarf 17344:Bok globule 17149:ASASSN-15lh 17099:SN 185 17057:Crab Nebula 16952:Superbubble 16942:Zombie star 16925:electroweak 16855:White dwarf 16804:Progenitors 16768:Pulsar kick 16511:28 November 15920:"VV Cephei" 15629:: 181–194. 14987:: 381–387. 14541:: 291–336. 13443:(3): 2054. 12329:: 406–408. 12054:(2): L107. 11661:(3): 1441. 11444:: 309–355. 11375:: 376–378. 11038:(2): 2205. 9131:: 222–231. 8105:(2): 1209. 7918:(3): 2417. 7158:(4): 3456. 6813:(6): 0140. 5702:: 355–361. 5238:13 February 5177:(2): 0002. 4086:Basic Books 3890:. pp. 3778:"supernova" 3578:VV Cephei A 3543:light-years 3474:rock strata 3428:cosmic rays 3422:Cosmic rays 3041:helium star 2944:0.01 – 0.1 2805:radioactive 2738:emissions. 2716:Crab Nebula 2589:around 150 2572:around 100 2543:Ic (bright) 2403:photosphere 2047:) from the 1953:No remnant 1939:Black hole 1898:Black hole 1873:Normal II-P 1811:Eta Carinae 1807:hypergiants 1803:supergiants 1794:metallicity 1690:type Ia/IIn 1678:zombie star 1459:Eta Carinae 1273:Type II-P/L 891:ASASSN-15lh 885:supernovae. 875:titanium-44 746:Sagittarius 569:Sagittarius 487:Crab Nebula 446:Tycho Brahe 423:Supernovae 418:Crab Nebula 385:, dated to 363:white dwarf 249:cosmic rays 205:fusing iron 166:white dwarf 91:white dwarf 23830:Supernovae 23824:Categories 23697:Influenced 23666:Influences 23538:Precession 23518:Multiverse 23423:Axial tilt 23403:Almucantar 23387:Triquetrum 23327:Equatorium 23076:Takiyüddin 22949:al-Battiwi 22944:Ibn Shuayb 22939:Al-Khalili 22782:Al-Khazini 22777:Al-Kharaqī 22772:Ibn Tufail 22762:Al-Bitruji 22696:Al-Zarqālī 22660:al-Majriti 22610:Al-Saghani 22605:Al-Nayrizi 22590:al-Battani 22509:Iranshahri 22494:Al-Marwazi 22398:by century 22320:Colliding 22249:Stochastic 22221:chirp mass 22116:Proposed: 22007:Zooniverse 21422:Strangelet 21402:QCD matter 21213:Quark star 21191:Black hole 21122:Quark-nova 21089:Supernovae 21007:RP-process 20935:Supergiant 20806:Astropulse 20721:QCD matter 20701:Radio star 20672:Quark-nova 20623:Quark star 20572:Rp-process 20503:Properties 20281:Q0906+6930 20271:Hercules A 20201:Cygnus X-1 20170:White hole 20145:Quasi-star 20098:Preon star 20093:Quark star 20078:Big Bounce 19938:Black star 19896:Derivation 19744:Ergosphere 19700:Properties 19681:Quasi-star 19671:Quark star 19582:Radio-Loud 19470:Primordial 19460:Kugelblitz 19334:Beta Lyrae 19307:SX Arietis 19173:Dwarf nova 19146:Wolf–Rayet 19063:Giants and 19044:FU Orionis 18887:W Virginis 18670:Candidates 18665:Supernovae 18650:Red dwarfs 18509:Extinction 18297:Kinematics 18292:Luminosity 18270:Properties 18163:Atmosphere 18061:Si burning 18051:Ne burning 17989:White hole 17962:Quasi-star 17889:Blue dwarf 17744:Technetium 17660:Hypergiant 17638:Supergiant 17164:SN 2022jli 17159:SN 2018cow 17026:In fiction 17001:Candidates 16975:Guest star 16833:Supergiant 16811:Hypergiant 16773:Quark-nova 16675:Near-Earth 16658:Physics of 16586:Supernovae 16546:25 October 16052:(3): L37. 15966:2004.02045 15959:(2): 153. 15744:1507.00839 15693:2201.09583 15111:2011.00035 15051:1801.01914 14868:2107.10113 14765:2011.03500 14706:2005.13160 14699:(2): L37. 14658:(3): 447. 14631:(2): 411. 14548:2103.02127 14426:1707.07454 14219:1904.08485 14212:(3): 351. 14154:(1): 185. 14100:1810.00098 13992:1708.08393 13931:(2): L15. 13832:1805.10811 13774:Supernovae 13266:2005.13855 13204:1802.01589 13197:(2): 107. 13085:1911.09112 12858:2203.03308 12793:1706.08410 12604:1512.08513 12170:(2): 988. 11898:2104.07493 11609:1806.10900 11549:1806.10900 11098:1602.04001 10945:(4): 161. 10844:1906.05812 10788:1908.02476 10697:(2): 164. 10585:1507.05823 10436:2011.02176 10423:Nat Astron 10399:9 February 10342:2111.12435 10264:1810.05181 10200:1706.09438 10193:(2): 170. 10135:(58): 44. 10078:1505.00270 10014:(2): L23. 9795:1706.04716 9729:(1): 774. 9638:(1): L14. 9583:(2): L84. 9540:1910.12874 9235:(2): 102. 9182:1704.08298 9175:(2): L25. 8745:(1): L49. 8689:(1): L13. 8606:2002.05077 8478:2205.05045 8166:1807.10199 7727:1911.00050 6769:1602.08098 6651:(2): 376. 6420:5 February 6359:10 January 6329:25 October 6180:2112.03863 6173:(2): 113. 6119:1710.00845 6112:(2): 101. 6083:25 October 5975:(2): 565. 5363:1802.09360 5269:1701.02596 5184:1609.02927 5123:1507.03010 4792:. p. 4785:Supernovae 4561:2105.12384 4554:(2): L33, 4460:2007.01013 4347:8 November 4285:16 October 4132:1510.08851 3882:Supernovae 3813:Supernovae 3799:required.) 3682:References 3646:Quark-nova 3570:Betelgeuse 3113:Supergiant 3095:Supergiant 3081:Supergiant 3068:Supergiant 3055:Wolf–Rayet 3037:Wolf–Rayet 2967:Progenitor 2895:(0.01) – 1 2847:Ejected Ni 2743:convection 2657:above 100 2631:around −17 2614:around −16 2603:roughly 15 2597:around −14 2580:around −17 2563:around −17 2552:roughly 25 2529:around −16 2512:around −17 2495:around −15 2487:around 60 2484:approx. 19 2420:hypernovae 2382:Messier 61 2277:degenerate 2257:SN 2019hgp 2166:luminosity 2033:Sun's core 2002:beta decay 1862:Faint II-P 1848:Faint II-P 1772:degenerate 1738:black hole 1603:shock wave 1408:"type IIb" 933:SN 2016gkg 725:Cassiopeia 682:Cassiopeia 661:Cassiopeia 465:extinction 450:Cassiopeia 391:1000 381:region of 308:, meaning 294:supernovas 273:supernovae 225:shock wave 192:, or by a 115:luminosity 107:black hole 99:progenitor 71:supernovas 67:supernovae 23754:Astronomy 23573:Supernova 23528:Obliquity 23513:Moonlight 23413:Astrology 23292:Astrolabe 23071:Piri Reis 23061:al-Khafri 23030:al-Wafa'i 23015:Ulugh Beg 22995:Ali Kuşçu 22969:al-Jadiri 22888:al-Abhari 22686:al-Biruni 22620:Ibn Yunus 22595:Al-Qabisi 22570:al-Khazin 22479:Al-Mahani 22306:Supernova 22201:Spin-flip 21827:TENKO-100 21704:MiniGRAIL 21668:Weber bar 21597:MiniGRAIL 21551:Detectors 21443:Astronomy 21196:Collapsar 21117:Hypernova 21019:Accretion 21002:R-process 20910:Structure 20905:Evolution 20900:Formation 20756:Satellite 20730:Discovery 20652:Hypernova 20635:Supernova 20577:Starquake 20306:AT2018hyz 19953:Gravastar 19943:Dark star 19776:Microlens 19649:Hypernova 19644:Micronova 19639:Supernova 19593:Formation 19321:Eclipsing 19221:Symbiotic 19208:Hypernova 19202:Supernova 19082:DY Persei 19021:Protostar 18842:Pulsating 18601:Brightest 18499:Magnitude 18479:Pole star 18400:Symbiotic 18395:Eclipsing 18327:Starlight 18128:Structure 18118:Supernova 18111:Micronova 18106:Recurrent 18091:Symbiotic 18076:p-process 18071:r-process 18066:s-process 18056:O burning 18046:C burning 18026:CNO cycle 17969:Gravastar 17505:Hypernova 17495:Supernova 17470:Dredge-up 17443:Blue loop 17436:super-AGB 17419:Red clump 17396:Evolution 17354:Protostar 17334:Accretion 17326:Formation 17064:iPTF14hls 16968:Discovery 16758:Micronova 16707:Neutrinos 16700:γ-process 16695:r-process 16690:p-process 16670:Foe/Bethe 16620:Hypernova 16482:118974639 16460:CiteSeerX 16423:119390151 16271:119293391 16246:0712.2111 16216:15 August 16191:15 August 16166:18 August 16143:119254840 16108:1008.2144 15993:0004-637X 15873:0004-637X 15851:(1): 29. 15826:216079684 15801:1310.2849 15712:0035-8711 15553:119803426 15545:0004-640X 15449:(3): 26. 15144:226227393 15136:1367-2630 15078:118997362 15044:(1): 10. 14994:1212.4250 14931:1302.3307 14901:253690001 14893:1432-0754 14806:226259246 14790:0028-0836 14733:218900539 14573:232105177 14520:121872365 14453:2054-5703 14369:0810.2803 14321:0036-8075 14017:118936429 13963:119221889 13938:1009.1000 13910:119290875 13885:1002.2153 13857:118951927 13825:(4): 67. 13639:119227339 13614:1301.1519 13586:118596795 13561:1207.3683 13505:1111.7003 13498:: L8–L2. 13477:118445879 13450:1109.4637 13393:0908.0700 13346:0035-8711 13319:0809.0403 13231:1538-4357 13171:1365-2966 13144:1401.4893 13112:0035-8711 13053:0004-637X 13026:1407.0483 13019:(1): 57. 12994:0004-6256 12945:0004-637X 12885:0035-8711 12826:119487775 12818:2470-0010 12742:1012.4565 12694:0028-0836 12669:0710.3314 12629:2470-0010 12572:0004-637X 12545:0710.5789 12488:0908.0700 12458:118417333 12431:1206.2503 12397:118463541 12372:1001.3428 12033:119002386 12008:1412.4984 12001:(1): 28. 11925:0004-637X 11861:ignored ( 11851:cite book 11803:119392207 11668:1006.4612 11636:0035-8711 11576:0035-8711 11517:119347211 11325:0908.0247 11260:1405.3332 11231:1538-4357 11207:(1): 74. 11182:0004-637X 11155:0908.2162 11045:0910.1590 10869:189762490 10813:199472802 10729:119292900 10704:1306.0559 10671:119212331 10644:1411.1761 10612:119116538 10461:226246044 10375:244527654 10297:0036-8075 10289:1095-9203 10235:119471204 10227:1538-4357 10167:118690361 10142:1306.2337 10113:0035-8711 10105:1365-2966 10021:1310.6356 9960:1310.4446 9904:1304.3320 9897:(2): 28. 9763:118535155 9736:1301.1975 9670:118395580 9645:1403.3400 9590:0805.1188 9533:(1): 53. 9489:1409.1536 9438:1409.0006 9370:116987470 9300:0705.4643 9267:118508934 9242:1101.3336 9042:118974639 9020:CiteSeerX 8970:0035-8711 8752:0811.3929 8721:119209527 8696:1203.5799 8631:211082844 8503:248665714 8397:1304.0763 8333:1408.1089 8302:118603977 8277:1212.2209 8270:(1): 57. 8246:118612081 8221:1301.1047 8191:118965737 8112:0908.2057 8009:0066-4146 7984:1312.0628 7952:119159904 7925:1201.2406 7768:207817150 7752:0036-8075 7687:D. Reidel 7222:0907.0057 7165:1308.0334 7098:0066-4146 6883:0906.2003 6851:125998037 6835:2397-3366 6788:0035-8711 6737:119243970 6712:1405.1428 6705:(2): 19. 6658:0902.2794 6541:CiteSeerX 6262:: 33–37. 6207:246652657 6056:CiteSeerX 6007:118187050 5965:≥ 0.35". 5811:0708.2749 5765:(2): 36. 5722:CiteSeerX 5676:119431247 5476:0803.1487 4978:206513073 4849:122727067 4652:227285055 4604:235195784 4596:2041-8205 4398:1009-9271 4334:0028-0836 4243:(1): 77. 4189:0805.4557 4159:119246128 4125:(1): 37. 4030:D. Reidel 3926:1117–1122 3757:: 15.01. 3729:0034-6861 3675:Hypernova 3669:Collapsar 3610:U Scorpii 3506:IK Pegasi 3494:nutrients 3470:biosphere 3416:magnetars 3329:s-process 3310:r-process 3249:SN 2009ip 3245:SN 2010jl 3241:SN 2005gy 3027:Fraction 2909:Hypernova 2881:1.3 – 1.4 2875:0.4 – 0.8 2835:Supernova 2817:half life 2702:Asymmetry 2620:around 15 2586:around 13 2569:around 20 2356:847 2311:N6946-BH1 2288:SN 2018zd 2245:0.1 2154:magnesium 1908:hypernova 1702:type IIan 1626:red giant 1530:accretion 1492:taxonomic 1441:but weak 1397:SN 2005gl 1347:SN 2002cx 1343:SN 2008ha 1327:SN 2018gv 1289:Type II-L 1280:Type II-P 1229:Type Ib/c 1010:Neutrinos 914:SN 2013fs 871:gamma ray 808:telescope 740:1800–1900 703:Ophiuchus 624:certain: 548:Centaurus 396:. Later, 379:Burzahama 349:100 320:supernova 265:supernova 263:The word 259:Etymology 190:accretion 138:naked eye 126:Milky Way 75:explosion 59:supernova 23647:Maragheh 23598:Universe 23568:Sunlight 23533:Parallax 23523:Muwaqqit 23463:Ecliptic 23396:Concepts 23362:Quadrant 23282:Aperture 22797:Averroes 22767:Avempace 22711:Avicenna 22645:Nastulus 22635:al-Sijzi 22560:Al-Adami 22474:Al-Kindi 22308:or from 22226:Carried 22216:h strain 22206:Redshift 22180:Graviton 22088:GW200105 22082:GW190814 22076:GW190521 22071:GW190412 22061:GW170817 22056:GW170814 22051:GW170608 22046:GW170104 22041:GW151226 21976:NANOGrav 21923:Proposed 21857:Proposed 21817:TAMA 300 21720:Graviton 21677:Proposed 21618:EXPLORER 21577:NAUTILUS 21562:antennas 21261:Neutrino 21256:Electron 21174:Magnetar 21062:Collapse 20884:collapse 20829:Category 20657:Kilonova 20484:Be/X-ray 20416:Magnetar 20329:Category 20216:A0620-00 20175:Wormhole 20073:Big Bang 19973:Fuzzball 19856:ER = EPR 19722:Theorems 19520:Electron 19515:Extremal 19445:Rotating 19246:Rotating 19013:Eruptive 18898:RR Lyrae 18891:RV Tauri 18851:Cepheids 18780:Category 18675:Remnants 18571:Extremes 18531:Parallax 18504:Apparent 18494:Asterism 18472:Sunlight 18422:Globular 18407:Multiple 18332:Variable 18322:Rotation 18282:Dynamics 18173:Starspot 17847:Magnetar 17790:Remnants 17606:Subgiant 17579:Subdwarf 17431:post-AGB 17173:Research 17079:Kepler's 17021:Remnants 16908:magnetar 16879:Remnants 16783:Imposter 16748:Kilonova 16207:"Mimosa" 16084:18163131 15929:14 April 15769:56093231 15737:: A110. 15608:15078077 15428:. e9898. 15426:36937070 15417:10019915 15364:23 March 15250:23162505 15242:15525065 15197:17932224 15019:34040033 14964:29815601 14956:23413352 14861:(1): 2. 14834:19 March 14825:MIT News 14798:33149290 14471:28878972 14337:59565697 14329:30705182 14186:18179704 14133:73612090 14125:31068724 14072:15967473 13778:Springer 13756:16257700 13701:59565697 13693:30705182 13530:55001976 13418:55900386 12702:18004378 12637:16452722 12513:55900386 12247:34349443 12239:12183617 12086:37572204 11891:(1): 9. 11695:59467555 11352:10283901 11285:25164750 11123:53380594 11070:42058638 10963:Archived 10920:46408677 10912:17829358 10541:Archived 10533:RTE News 10502:Archived 10465:Archived 10367:35022591 10313:52961306 10305:30309948 10046:50835291 9985:24132291 9929:13122542 9875:18132819 9362:15218132 9325:18334243 9209:19266567 8908:28163639 8864:(1): 2. 8837:15819376 8777:17627678 8573:59065632 8422:51415846 8390:(1): 3. 8358:25100479 8159:: A124. 8137:13990681 8073:16988705 8017:55533680 7827:15728812 7760:31672866 7668:10210550 7522:Archived 7419:20 March 7413:Archived 7368:16408991 7360:17289993 7302:16667595 7247:14301164 7192:27316605 7123:Archived 6967:: 1941. 6908:20485429 6683:13855329 6613:: 2303. 6573:15171296 6414:Archived 6396:50403827 6353:Archived 6323:Archived 6299:20 March 6290:Archived 6146:54676349 6074:Archived 5836:53135988 5573:Archived 5501:67766657 5388:29469097 5324:Archived 5294:29600801 5232:Archived 5209:73645264 5156:31444274 5148:26816375 4970:18511676 4769:16587881 4702:: 1330. 4265:54914821 4222:40884513 4214:18511684 3918:(1978). 3854:Archived 3630:Kilonova 3624:See also 3588:system. 3370:Big Bang 3314:neutrons 3260:WO stars 3256:WC stars 3220:☉ 3203:☉ 3188:☉ 3166:☉ 3159:☉ 2935:0.5 – 50 2821:positron 2815:(with a 2803:. Ni is 2795:mass is 2789:neutrino 2783:and the 2736:neutrino 2654:above 50 2606:unknown 2504:unknown 2341:SN 1987A 2319:infrared 2315:NGC 6946 2292:NGC 2146 2250:☉ 2235:magnetar 2224:WO stars 2177:☉ 2146:☉ 2139:☉ 2132:☉ 2122:SN 1997D 2100:☉ 2093:☉ 2086:positron 2082:electron 2059:☉ 2037:flavours 1835:Remnant 1709:HD 74438 1698:type IIa 1694:type Ian 1674:type Iax 1620:off the 1592:10 1483:NGC 1365 1451:NGC 1058 1447:SN 1961V 1435:NGC 3003 1431:NGC 4303 1427:SN 1961i 1404:SN 1993J 1365:hydrogen 1307:Type IIb 1298:Type IIn 1175:hydrogen 1161:and the 1131:SN 2003C 1089:Kepler's 1081:infrared 1045:redshift 926:NGC 7610 903:☉ 824:NGC 5253 820:SN 1895B 812:SN 1885A 795:certain 775:certain 590:Scorpius 457:G1.9+0.3 267:has the 241:rubidium 233:elements 188:through 147:SN 1987A 142:remnants 52:NGC 4526 44:SN 1994D 23814:Science 23766:Physics 23740:Portals 23503:Inertia 23493:Gravity 23428:Azimuth 23377:Sundial 23367:Sextant 23317:Dioptra 23307:Compass 23272:Alidade 22883:al-Urdi 22706:Alhazen 22630:Ma Yize 22575:al-Qūhī 22550:al-Sufi 22328:sources 22312:sources 22310:unknown 22129:B-modes 22098:Methods 22063:(first 21940:TianQin 21907:Planned 21841:Planned 21658:GEOGRAV 21628:ALLEGRO 21318:More... 21251:Neutron 21138:More... 21132:Remnant 21107:Type II 21097:Type Ia 20839:Commons 20601:Related 20552:Optical 20510:Blitzar 20489:Spin-up 20339:Commons 20301:P172+18 20256:TON 618 20194:Notable 20046:Related 20032:Quasars 20027:Nearest 19987:Analogs 19917:Hayward 19885:Metrics 19530:Stellar 19455:Virtual 19450:Charged 19419:Outline 19051:T Tauri 18878:Type II 18747:Gravity 18696:Related 18616:Nearest 18564:Chinese 18412:Cluster 18385:Contact 18222:Proplyd 18096:Remnant 17984:Blitzar 17958:Hawking 17914:Strange 17864:Burster 17820:Neutron 17773:Extreme 17724:He-weak 17369:T Tauri 17180:ASAS-SN 17074:Tycho's 17052:SN 1054 17035:Notable 17006:Notable 16716:Related 16593:Classes 16452:Bibcode 16403:Bibcode 16333:Bibcode 16304:Bibcode 16251:Bibcode 16182:"Acrux" 16157:"Regor" 16113:Bibcode 16064:Bibcode 16026:Bibcode 16014:: 903. 15971:Bibcode 15853:Bibcode 15806:Bibcode 15794:: A72. 15749:Bibcode 15661:6142859 15641:Bibcode 15588:Bibcode 15525:Bibcode 15484:Bibcode 15451:Bibcode 15396:Bibcode 15328:Bibcode 15305:2786806 15285:Bibcode 15222:Bibcode 15177:Bibcode 15116:Bibcode 15056:Bibcode 14999:Bibcode 14936:Bibcode 14917:Science 14873:Bibcode 14770:Bibcode 14711:Bibcode 14660:Bibcode 14633:Bibcode 14606:Bibcode 14594:: 791. 14553:Bibcode 14498:Bibcode 14462:5579087 14431:Bibcode 14394:8703787 14374:Bibcode 14299:Bibcode 14291:Science 14255:Bibcode 14253:: 159. 14224:Bibcode 14166:Bibcode 14105:Bibcode 14052:Bibcode 13997:Bibcode 13943:Bibcode 13890:Bibcode 13837:Bibcode 13782:Bibcode 13736:Bibcode 13671:Bibcode 13663:Science 13619:Bibcode 13566:Bibcode 13554:: L11. 13510:Bibcode 13455:Bibcode 13398:Bibcode 13354:3228766 13324:Bibcode 13271:Bibcode 13209:Bibcode 13149:Bibcode 13090:Bibcode 13031:Bibcode 12972:Bibcode 12923:Bibcode 12863:Bibcode 12798:Bibcode 12747:Bibcode 12710:2925738 12674:Bibcode 12609:Bibcode 12550:Bibcode 12493:Bibcode 12436:Bibcode 12377:Bibcode 12331:Bibcode 12308:2502919 12300:9190677 12280:Bibcode 12262:Science 12219:Science 12204:9324294 12182:Bibcode 12140:2923640 12120:Bibcode 12066:Bibcode 12013:Bibcode 11980:1473584 11960:Bibcode 11903:Bibcode 11839:Bibcode 11783:Bibcode 11748:5697964 11728:Bibcode 11673:Bibcode 11614:Bibcode 11554:Bibcode 11495:Bibcode 11446:Bibcode 11417:Bibcode 11377:Bibcode 11330:Bibcode 11265:Bibcode 11209:Bibcode 11160:Bibcode 11103:Bibcode 11091:: A53. 11050:Bibcode 11017:4313713 10997:Bibcode 10969:16 June 10947:Bibcode 10892:Bibcode 10884:Science 10849:Bibcode 10837:: A73. 10793:Bibcode 10709:Bibcode 10649:Bibcode 10590:Bibcode 10554:itself. 10441:Bibcode 10347:Bibcode 10269:Bibcode 10251:Science 10205:Bibcode 10147:Bibcode 10083:Bibcode 10026:Bibcode 9993:4472977 9965:Bibcode 9909:Bibcode 9853:Bibcode 9800:Bibcode 9741:Bibcode 9693:Bibcode 9650:Bibcode 9615:1435322 9595:Bibcode 9545:Bibcode 9494:Bibcode 9443:Bibcode 9341:Science 9305:Bibcode 9247:Bibcode 9187:Bibcode 9133:Bibcode 9065:Bibcode 9012:Bibcode 8948:Bibcode 8899:5253977 8876:Bibcode 8817:Bibcode 8757:Bibcode 8701:Bibcode 8654:Bibcode 8611:Bibcode 8599:: A56. 8553:Bibcode 8483:Bibcode 8445:Bibcode 8402:Bibcode 8366:4464556 8338:Bibcode 8282:Bibcode 8226:Bibcode 8193:. A124. 8171:Bibcode 8117:Bibcode 8081:4419069 8053:Bibcode 7989:Bibcode 7930:Bibcode 7887:Bibcode 7885:: 435. 7852:Bibcode 7807:Bibcode 7732:Bibcode 7714:Science 7691:Bibcode 7648:Bibcode 7606:2849060 7586:Bibcode 7547:Bibcode 7487:9288287 7457:Bibcode 7397:Bibcode 7340:Bibcode 7321:Science 7282:Bibcode 7227:Bibcode 7170:Bibcode 7129:14 June 7078:Bibcode 7047:Bibcode 7010:Bibcode 7008:: 514. 6969:Bibcode 6942:Bibcode 6940:: 287. 6916:4368207 6888:Bibcode 6843:1456969 6815:Bibcode 6717:Bibcode 6663:Bibcode 6615:Bibcode 6471:Bibcode 6264:Bibcode 6230:8 March 6185:Bibcode 6124:Bibcode 6048:Bibcode 5987:Bibcode 5947:8894913 5927:Bibcode 5876:Bibcode 5816:Bibcode 5777:Bibcode 5744:5803494 5714:Bibcode 5656:Bibcode 5644:: 114. 5600:Bibcode 5526:Bibcode 5524:: 623. 5481:Bibcode 5444:11 June 5419:11 June 5396:4383303 5368:Bibcode 5274:Bibcode 5189:Bibcode 5128:Bibcode 5110:Science 5092:11 June 5069:4430526 5049:Bibcode 5023:4426317 5003:Bibcode 4949:Science 4919:Bibcode 4878:Bibcode 4829:Bibcode 4760:1076395 4737:Bibcode 4704:Bibcode 4630:Bibcode 4628:: L13. 4566:Bibcode 4534:1626564 4514:Bibcode 4465:Bibcode 4376:Bibcode 4342:4240119 4314:Bibcode 4245:Bibcode 4194:Bibcode 4175:Science 4137:Bibcode 4061:Bibcode 4059:: 1–9. 4034:Bibcode 3981:1626564 3961:Bibcode 3759:Bibcode 3709:Bibcode 3574:Antares 3537:around 3513:parsecs 3478:Iron-60 3440:protons 3387:planets 3378:lithium 2869:Type Ia 2724:pulsars 2714:in the 2663:Notes: 2651:above 5 2640:50–150 2549:above 5 2538:40–100 2521:40–100 2352:photons 2271:of the 2220:type WC 2106:Type II 2078:photons 1713:IC 2391 1647:-56 to 1526:runaway 1385:type II 1371:Type II 1259:Type II 1251:Type Ic 1235:Type Ib 1212:silicon 1209:ionised 1204:Type Ia 1183:Type II 1171:spectra 1096:SN 1604 1085:optical 937:Rosario 863:nebulae 836:Caltech 814:in the 429:SN 1604 425:SN 1572 414:SN 1054 406:SN 1006 383:Kashmir 351:billion 211:fusion. 182:runaway 153:in the 23478:Galaxy 23473:Equant 23408:Apogee 23352:Octant 23129:Topics 22302:Burst 22228:energy 22158:Theory 22024:Events 21935:DECIGO 21776:GEO600 21749:Active 21653:ALTAIR 21587:AURIGA 21570:Active 21246:Proton 21169:Quasar 21164:Pulsar 21127:Nebula 20537:Glitch 20452:Binary 20400:Pulsar 20276:3C 273 20266:NeVe 1 20246:OJ 287 19968:Q star 19834:Issues 19567:Blazar 19557:Quasar 19302:Pulsar 18862:Type I 18737:Galaxy 18725:Planet 18713:Desert 18621:bright 18559:Arabic 18380:Binary 18200:Bubble 17924:Planck 17899:Exotic 17835:Binary 17830:Pulsar 17768:Helium 17729:Barium 17672:Carbon 17665:Yellow 17653:Yellow 17626:Yellow 17465:PG1159 16930:exotic 16903:pulsar 16848:yellow 16816:yellow 16723:Failed 16527:GitHub 16480: 16462: 16421: 16370: 16351: 16269: 16141: 16131: 16082: 15991: 15902: 15871: 15824: 15767: 15710: 15659: 15606: 15551: 15543: 15424: 15414: 15303: 15248: 15240: 15195: 15142: 15134: 15076: 15017: 14962: 14954: 14899: 14891: 14804: 14796: 14788: 14752:Nature 14731: 14652:Icarus 14571: 14518: 14469: 14459: 14451: 14392: 14335: 14327: 14319: 14184: 14148:Icarus 14131: 14123: 14087:Nature 14070: 14015: 13961: 13908: 13855: 13800: 13754: 13699: 13691: 13637: 13607:: L7. 13584: 13528: 13475: 13416: 13352: 13344: 13229: 13169: 13110: 13051: 12992: 12943: 12883: 12824: 12816: 12708: 12700: 12692: 12656:Nature 12635: 12627: 12570: 12511: 12456: 12395: 12306: 12298: 12245: 12237: 12202: 12138: 12084: 12031: 11978: 11923: 11801: 11746: 11693: 11634: 11574: 11515: 11405:: 34. 11350: 11293:917374 11291: 11283: 11247:Nature 11229: 11180: 11121: 11068: 11015: 10989:Nature 10918: 10910: 10867: 10811: 10753: 10727: 10669: 10610: 10547:1 July 10508:1 July 10471:1 July 10459: 10373: 10365: 10329:Nature 10311: 10303: 10295: 10287: 10233: 10225: 10165: 10111: 10103: 10044: 9991: 9983: 9946:Nature 9927: 9873: 9761: 9668: 9613: 9399: 9368: 9360: 9323: 9265: 9207: 9075: 9040: 9022: 8968: 8906: 8896: 8835: 8775: 8719: 8629: 8571: 8501: 8420: 8364: 8356: 8319:Nature 8300: 8244: 8189: 8135: 8079: 8071: 8034:Nature 8015: 8007: 7950: 7825: 7766: 7758: 7750: 7666: 7604: 7514: 7485: 7475: 7366: 7358: 7300: 7245: 7190: 7096: 6914: 6906: 6870:Nature 6849: 6841: 6833: 6786: 6735: 6681: 6571: 6561: 6543: 6489: 6394: 6384: 6205: 6144: 6058: 6005: 5945: 5834: 5742: 5724: 5674: 5610: 5565: 5499: 5394: 5386: 5349:Nature 5330:15 May 5292: 5207: 5154: 5146: 5067: 5040:Nature 5021: 4994:Nature 4976: 4968: 4847: 4800: 4767: 4757: 4675: 4650: 4602: 4594: 4532: 4421: 4396: 4340: 4332: 4306:Nature 4263: 4220: 4212: 4157: 4092: 4007: 3979: 3898: 3863:29 May 3824: 3727: 3602:WR 104 3590:Mimosa 3576:, and 3535:nebula 3436:IC 443 3374:helium 3215: 3198: 3183: 3118:12.1% 3072:55.5% 3059:17.0% 2884:~0.01 2864:(foe) 2712:pulsar 2648:to −22 2546:to −22 2407:B band 2029:kelvin 1645:cobalt 1641:nickel 1618:evolve 1599:unbind 1552:oxygen 1548:carbon 1519:ignite 1361:helium 1317:Type I 1239:helium 1198:Type I 1187:Type I 1083:, and 1000:. The 924:named 640:Taurus 628:known 433:Europe 398:SN 185 355:galaxy 269:plural 237:oxygen 140:. The 119:galaxy 23790:China 23543:Qibla 23332:Globe 23139:Works 22002:PyCBC 21791:KAGRA 21760:ACIGA 21715:SFERA 21700:GRAIL 21663:AGATA 21638:NIOBE 20892:Stars 20789:Other 20737:LGM-1 20388:Types 20009:Lists 19510:Micro 19480:Rogue 19428:Types 19329:Algol 19188:Polar 19131:Flare 19124:Other 19038:Orion 18983:Other 18742:Guest 18546:Lists 18427:Super 18081:Fusor 17954:Black 17939:Quark 17919:Preon 17904:Boson 17840:X-ray 17756:Shell 17709:Ap/Bp 17611:Giant 17529:Early 17475:OH/IR 17305:Stars 16994:Lists 16935:quark 16478:S2CID 16442:arXiv 16419:S2CID 16393:arXiv 16294:arXiv 16267:S2CID 16241:arXiv 16139:S2CID 16103:arXiv 16080:S2CID 16054:arXiv 16016:arXiv 15961:arXiv 15822:S2CID 15796:arXiv 15765:S2CID 15739:arXiv 15688:arXiv 15657:S2CID 15631:arXiv 15604:S2CID 15578:arXiv 15549:S2CID 15301:S2CID 15275:arXiv 15246:S2CID 15193:S2CID 15167:arXiv 15140:S2CID 15106:arXiv 15074:S2CID 15046:arXiv 15015:S2CID 14989:arXiv 14960:S2CID 14926:arXiv 14897:S2CID 14863:arXiv 14802:S2CID 14760:arXiv 14729:S2CID 14701:arXiv 14596:arXiv 14569:S2CID 14543:arXiv 14516:S2CID 14421:arXiv 14390:S2CID 14364:arXiv 14333:S2CID 14214:arXiv 14182:S2CID 14156:arXiv 14129:S2CID 14095:arXiv 14068:S2CID 14042:arXiv 14013:S2CID 13987:arXiv 13959:S2CID 13933:arXiv 13906:S2CID 13880:arXiv 13853:S2CID 13827:arXiv 13752:S2CID 13726:arXiv 13697:S2CID 13635:S2CID 13609:arXiv 13582:S2CID 13556:arXiv 13526:S2CID 13500:arXiv 13473:S2CID 13445:arXiv 13414:S2CID 13388:arXiv 13350:S2CID 13314:arXiv 13261:arXiv 13199:arXiv 13139:arXiv 13080:arXiv 13021:arXiv 12913:arXiv 12853:arXiv 12822:S2CID 12788:arXiv 12737:arXiv 12706:S2CID 12664:arXiv 12633:S2CID 12599:arXiv 12540:arXiv 12509:S2CID 12483:arXiv 12454:S2CID 12426:arXiv 12393:S2CID 12367:arXiv 12304:S2CID 12270:arXiv 12243:S2CID 12200:S2CID 12172:arXiv 12136:S2CID 12110:arXiv 12082:S2CID 12056:arXiv 12029:S2CID 12003:arXiv 11976:S2CID 11950:arXiv 11893:arXiv 11829:arXiv 11799:S2CID 11773:arXiv 11744:S2CID 11718:arXiv 11691:S2CID 11663:arXiv 11604:arXiv 11544:arXiv 11513:S2CID 11485:arXiv 11407:arXiv 11348:S2CID 11320:arXiv 11289:S2CID 11255:arXiv 11150:arXiv 11119:S2CID 11093:arXiv 11066:S2CID 11040:arXiv 11013:S2CID 10916:S2CID 10865:S2CID 10839:arXiv 10809:S2CID 10783:arXiv 10725:S2CID 10699:arXiv 10667:S2CID 10639:arXiv 10608:S2CID 10580:arXiv 10457:S2CID 10431:arXiv 10371:S2CID 10337:arXiv 10309:S2CID 10285:eISSN 10259:arXiv 10231:S2CID 10223:eISSN 10195:arXiv 10163:S2CID 10137:arXiv 10101:eISSN 10073:arXiv 10042:S2CID 10016:arXiv 9989:S2CID 9955:arXiv 9925:S2CID 9899:arXiv 9871:S2CID 9843:arXiv 9790:arXiv 9759:S2CID 9731:arXiv 9666:S2CID 9640:arXiv 9611:S2CID 9585:arXiv 9535:arXiv 9484:arXiv 9433:arXiv 9366:S2CID 9321:S2CID 9295:arXiv 9263:S2CID 9237:arXiv 9205:S2CID 9177:arXiv 9098:arXiv 9038:S2CID 9002:arXiv 8938:arXiv 8866:arXiv 8833:S2CID 8807:arXiv 8773:S2CID 8747:arXiv 8717:S2CID 8691:arXiv 8627:S2CID 8601:arXiv 8569:S2CID 8543:arXiv 8499:S2CID 8473:arXiv 8418:S2CID 8392:arXiv 8362:S2CID 8328:arXiv 8298:S2CID 8272:arXiv 8242:S2CID 8216:arXiv 8187:S2CID 8161:arXiv 8133:S2CID 8107:arXiv 8077:S2CID 8043:arXiv 8013:S2CID 7979:arXiv 7948:S2CID 7920:arXiv 7823:S2CID 7797:arXiv 7764:S2CID 7722:arXiv 7664:S2CID 7638:arXiv 7602:S2CID 7576:arXiv 7483:S2CID 7447:arXiv 7364:S2CID 7330:arXiv 7298:S2CID 7272:arXiv 7243:S2CID 7217:arXiv 7188:S2CID 7160:arXiv 6912:S2CID 6878:arXiv 6847:S2CID 6764:arXiv 6733:S2CID 6707:arXiv 6679:S2CID 6653:arXiv 6569:S2CID 6531:arXiv 6461:arXiv 6293:(PDF) 6250:(PDF) 6203:S2CID 6175:arXiv 6142:S2CID 6114:arXiv 6077:(PDF) 6038:arXiv 6026:(PDF) 6003:S2CID 5977:arXiv 5943:S2CID 5917:arXiv 5866:arXiv 5832:S2CID 5806:arXiv 5767:arXiv 5740:S2CID 5704:arXiv 5672:S2CID 5646:arXiv 5497:S2CID 5471:arXiv 5392:S2CID 5358:arXiv 5290:S2CID 5264:arXiv 5205:S2CID 5179:arXiv 5152:S2CID 5118:arXiv 5065:S2CID 5019:S2CID 4974:S2CID 4845:S2CID 4648:S2CID 4600:S2CID 4556:arXiv 4530:S2CID 4504:arXiv 4455:arXiv 4338:S2CID 4261:S2CID 4218:S2CID 4184:arXiv 4155:S2CID 4127:arXiv 3977:S2CID 3951:arXiv 3894:–16. 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