20:
28:
1038:
1312:, thus causing a Type Ib, Type Ic, or Type II supernova. Current understanding of this energy transfer is still not satisfactory; although current computer models of Type Ib, Type Ic, and Type II supernovae account for part of the energy transfer, they are not able to account for enough energy transfer to produce the observed ejection of material. However, neutrino oscillations may play an important role in the energy transfer problem as they not only affect the energy available in a particular flavour of neutrinos but also through other general-relativistic effects on neutrinos.
36:
1402:(see below), and provided that the ignition of carbon is not so violent as to blow the star apart in a supernova. A star of mass on the order of magnitude of the Sun will be unable to ignite carbon fusion, and will produce a white dwarf composed chiefly of carbon and oxygen, and of mass too low to collapse unless matter is added to it later (see below). A star of less than about half the mass of the Sun will be unable to ignite helium fusion (as noted earlier), and will produce a white dwarf composed chiefly of helium.
1340:
243:. Filamentary structures are truly ubiquitous in the molecular cloud. Dense molecular filaments will fragment into gravitationally bound cores, which are the precursors of stars. Continuous accretion of gas, geometrical bending, and magnetic fields may control the detailed fragmentation manner of the filaments. In supercritical filaments, observations have revealed quasi-periodic chains of dense cores with spacing comparable to the filament inner width, and embedded two protostars with gas outflows.
1093:
204:
731:
5111:
56:
4746:
449:
386:
5075:
179:
822:, with the material being mixed by turbulence from near the fusing regions up to the surface of the star. For all but the lowest-mass stars, the fused material has remained deep in the stellar interior prior to this point, so the convecting envelope makes fusion products visible at the star's surface for the first time. At this stage of evolution, the results are subtle, with the largest effects, alterations to the
5099:
609:
5063:
1225:
5087:
948:, which pulsate with well-defined periods of tens to hundreds of days and large amplitudes up to about 10 magnitudes (in the visual, total luminosity changes by a much smaller amount). In more-massive stars the stars become more luminous and the pulsation period is longer, leading to enhanced mass loss, and the stars become heavily obscured at visual wavelengths. These stars can be observed as
582:
4757:
971:
879:) for a few seconds. However, the energy is consumed by the thermal expansion of the initially degenerate core and thus cannot be seen from outside the star. Due to the expansion of the core, the hydrogen fusion in the overlying layers slows and total energy generation decreases. The star contracts, although not all the way to the main sequence, and it migrates to the
800:
with the star expanding and cooling at a similar or slightly lower luminosity to its main sequence state. Eventually either the core becomes degenerate, in stars around the mass of the sun, or the outer layers cool sufficiently to become opaque, in more massive stars. Either of these changes cause the hydrogen shell to increase in temperature and the
1179:. Surrounding the core are shells of lighter elements still undergoing fusion. The timescale for complete fusion of a carbon core to an iron core is so short, just a few hundred years, that the outer layers of the star are unable to react and the appearance of the star is largely unchanged. The iron core grows until it reaches an
875:. In the nondegenerate cores of more massive stars, the ignition of helium fusion occurs relatively slowly with no flash. The nuclear power released during the helium flash is very large, on the order of 10 times the luminosity of the Sun for a few days and 10 times the luminosity of the Sun (roughly the luminosity of the
1545:
Because the core-collapse mechanism of a supernova is, at present, only partially understood, it is still not known whether it is possible for a star to collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova, or whether some supernovae initially form unstable neutron stars which then
1284:
started by rebound of some of the infalling material from the collapse of the core. Electron capture in very dense parts of the infalling matter may produce additional neutrons. Because some of the rebounding matter is bombarded by the neutrons, some of its nuclei capture them, creating a spectrum of
799:
When a star exhausts the hydrogen in its core, it leaves the main sequence and begins to fuse hydrogen in a shell outside the core. The core increases in mass as the shell produces more helium. Depending on the mass of the helium core, this continues for several million to one or two billion years,
125:
phase. Stars with at least half the mass of the Sun can also begin to generate energy through the fusion of helium at their core, whereas more massive stars can fuse heavier elements along a series of concentric shells. Once a star like the Sun has exhausted its nuclear fuel, its core collapses into
940:
is formed, very cool and strongly reddened stars showing strong carbon lines in their spectra. A process known as hot bottom burning may convert carbon into oxygen and nitrogen before it can be dredged to the surface, and the interaction between these processes determines the observed luminosities
161:
Stellar evolution is not studied by observing the life of a single star, as most stellar changes occur too slowly to be detected, even over many centuries. Instead, astrophysicists come to understand how stars evolve by observing numerous stars at various points in their lifetime, and by simulating
1431:
or runaway ignition of carbon and oxygen. Heavier elements favor continued core collapse, because they require a higher temperature to ignite, because electron capture onto these elements and their fusion products is easier; higher core temperatures favor runaway nuclear reaction, which halts core
1088:
because the outer layers would be expelled by the extreme radiation. Although lower-mass stars normally do not burn off their outer layers so rapidly, they can likewise avoid becoming red giants or red supergiants if they are in binary systems close enough so that the companion star strips off the
1100:
The core of a massive star, defined as the region depleted of hydrogen, grows hotter and denser as it accretes material from the fusion of hydrogen outside the core. In sufficiently massive stars, the core reaches temperatures and densities high enough to fuse carbon and heavier elements via the
986:
These mid-range stars ultimately reach the tip of the asymptotic-giant-branch and run out of fuel for shell burning. They are not sufficiently massive to start full-scale carbon fusion, so they contract again, going through a period of post-asymptotic-giant-branch superwind to produce a planetary
926:
on the
HertzsprungâRussell diagram, paralleling the original red-giant evolution, but with even faster energy generation (which lasts for a shorter time). Although helium is being burnt in a shell, the majority of the energy is produced by hydrogen burning in a shell further from the core of the
1454:
If a white dwarf forms a close binary system with another star, hydrogen from the larger companion may accrete around and onto a white dwarf until it gets hot enough to fuse in a runaway reaction at its surface, although the white dwarf remains below the
Chandrasekhar limit. Such an explosion is
1558:
that can be used to compute the evolutionary phases of a star from its formation until it becomes a remnant. The mass and chemical composition of the star are used as the inputs, and the luminosity and surface temperature are the only constraints. The model formulae are based upon the physical
1390:
A white dwarf is very hot when it first forms, more than 100,000 K at the surface and even hotter in its interior. It is so hot that a lot of its energy is lost in the form of neutrinos for the first 10 million years of its existence and will have lost most of its energy after a billion years.
1315:
Some evidence gained from analysis of the mass and orbital parameters of binary neutron stars (which require two such supernovae) hints that the collapse of an oxygen-neon-magnesium core may produce a supernova that differs observably (in ways other than size) from a supernova produced by the
1049:
In massive stars, the core is already large enough at the onset of the hydrogen burning shell that helium ignition will occur before electron degeneracy pressure has a chance to become prevalent. Thus, when these stars expand and cool, they do not brighten as dramatically as lower-mass stars;
1474:
1502:); observed rotational periods of neutron stars range from about 1.5 milliseconds (over 600 revolutions per second) to several seconds. When these rapidly rotating stars' magnetic poles are aligned with the Earth, we detect a pulse of radiation each revolution. Such neutron stars are called
1481:
Ordinarily, atoms are mostly electron clouds by volume, with very compact nuclei at the center (proportionally, if atoms were the size of a football stadium, their nuclei would be the size of dust mites). When a stellar core collapses, the pressure causes electrons and protons to fuse by
776:
Mid-sized stars are red giants during two different phases of their post-main-sequence evolution: red-giant-branch stars, with inert cores made of helium and hydrogen-burning shells, and asymptotic-giant-branch stars, with inert cores made of carbon and helium-burning shells inside the
70:
changes over the course of its lifetime and how it can lead to the creation of a new star. Depending on the mass of the star, its lifetime can range from a few million years for the most massive to trillions of years for the least massive, which is considerably longer than the current
1387:. Electron degeneracy pressure provides a rather soft limit against further compression; therefore, for a given chemical composition, white dwarfs of higher mass have a smaller volume. With no fuel left to burn, the star radiates its remaining heat into space for billions of years.
1436:. These supernovae may be many times brighter than the Type II supernova marking the death of a massive star, even though the latter has the greater total energy release. This instability to collapse means that no white dwarf more massive than approximately 1.4
935:
There is a phase on the ascent of the asymptotic-giant-branch where a deep convective zone forms and can bring carbon from the core to the surface. This is known as the second dredge up, and in some stars there may even be a third dredge up. In this way a
711:, but their helium cores are not massive enough to reach the temperatures required for helium fusion so they never reach the tip of the red-giant branch. When hydrogen shell burning finishes, these stars move directly off the red-giant branch like a post-
900:), whereas some become even hotter and can form a blue tail or blue hook to the horizontal branch. The morphology of the horizontal branch depends on parameters such as metallicity, age, and helium content, but the exact details are still being modelled.
891:
of stars in the colour-magnitude diagram of a cluster, hotter and less luminous than the red giants. Higher-mass stars with larger helium cores move along the horizontal branch to higher temperatures, some becoming unstable pulsating stars in the yellow
1559:
understanding of the star, usually under the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium. Extensive computer calculations are then run to determine the changing state of the star over time, yielding a table of data that can be used to determine the
1010:
It is possible for thermal pulses to be produced once post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution has begun, producing a variety of unusual and poorly understood stars known as born-again asymptotic-giant-branch stars. These may result in extreme
849:. Red-giant-branch stars with a degenerate helium core all reach the tip with very similar core masses and very similar luminosities, although the more massive of the red giants become hot enough to ignite helium fusion before that point.
1546:
collapse into black holes; the exact relation between the initial mass of the star and the final remnant is also not completely certain. Resolution of these uncertainties requires the analysis of more supernovae and supernova remnants.
1497:
These stars, known as neutron stars, are extremely smallâon the order of radius 10 km, no bigger than the size of a large cityâand are phenomenally dense. Their period of rotation shortens dramatically as the stars shrink (due to
1297:(and in particular, of certain isotopes of elements that have multiple stable or long-lived isotopes) produced in such reactions is quite different from that produced in a supernova. Neither abundance alone matches that found in the
886:
Core helium flash stars evolve to the red end of the horizontal branch but do not migrate to higher temperatures before they gain a degenerate carbon-oxygen core and start helium shell burning. These stars are often observed as a
1506:, and were the first neutron stars to be discovered. Though electromagnetic radiation detected from pulsars is most often in the form of radio waves, pulsars have also been detected at visible, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths.
1327:, leaves behind no black hole remnant. In the past history of the universe, some stars were even larger than the largest that exists today, and they would immediately collapse into a black hole at the end of their lives, due to
545:
in which energy released by the core maintains a high gas pressure, balancing the weight of the star's matter and preventing further gravitational collapse. The star thus evolves rapidly to a stable state, beginning the
3139:
Ekström, S.; Georgy, C.; Eggenberger, P.; Meynet, G.; Mowlavi, N.; Wyttenbach, A.; Granada, A.; Decressin, T.; Hirschi, R.; Frischknecht, U.; Charbonnel, C.; Maeder, A. (2012). "Grids of stellar models with rotation".
931:
and they occur towards the end of the asymptotic-giant-branch phase, sometimes even into the post-asymptotic-giant-branch phase. Depending on mass and composition, there may be several to hundreds of thermal pulses.
1201:
in more massive stars. Once this mass is reached, electrons begin to be captured into the iron-peak nuclei and the core becomes unable to support itself. The core collapses and the star is destroyed, either in a
2449:
Jones, S.; Hirschi, R.; Nomoto, K.; Fischer, T.; Timmes, F. X.; Herwig, F.; Paxton, B.; Toki, H.; Suzuki, T.; MartĂnez-Pinedo, G.; Lam, Y. H.; Bertolli, M. G. (2013). "Advanced
Burning Stages and Fate of 8â10
367:(but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and fade away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.
2049:
1089:
envelope as it expands, or if they rotate rapidly enough so that convection extends all the way from the core to the surface, resulting in the absence of a separate core and envelope due to thorough mixing.
1567:, along with other evolving properties. Accurate models can be used to estimate the current age of a star by comparing its physical properties with those of stars along a matching evolutionary track.
1398:
to form magnesium, neon, and smaller amounts of other elements, resulting in a white dwarf composed chiefly of oxygen, neon, and magnesium, provided that it can lose enough mass to get below the
1077:), which are very luminous and thus have very rapid stellar winds, lose mass so rapidly due to radiation pressure that they tend to strip off their own envelopes before they can expand to become
987:
nebula with an extremely hot central star. The central star then cools to a white dwarf. The expelled gas is relatively rich in heavy elements created within the star and may be particularly
927:
star. Helium from these hydrogen burning shells drops towards the center of the star and periodically the energy output from the helium shell increases dramatically. This is known as a
1187:
due to various corrections for the relativistic effects, entropy, charge, and the surrounding envelope. The effective
Chandrasekhar mass for an iron core varies from about 1.34
1081:, and thus retain extremely high surface temperatures (and blue-white color) from their main-sequence time onwards. The largest stars of the current generation are about 100â150
4597:
2980:
1050:
however, they were more luminous on the main sequence and they evolve to highly luminous supergiants. Their cores become massive enough that they cannot support themselves by
1726:
Zhang, Guo-Yin; André, Ph.; Men'shchikov, A.; Wang, Ke (1 October 2020). "Fragmentation of star-forming filaments in the X-shaped nebula of the
California molecular cloud".
2213:
Gratton, R. G.; Carretta, E.; Bragaglia, A.; Lucatello, S.; d'Orazi, V. (2010). "The second and third parameters of the horizontal branch in globular clusters".
1486:. Without electrons, which keep nuclei apart, the neutrons collapse into a dense ball (in some ways like a giant atomic nucleus), with a thin overlying layer of
1542:
may allow deviations from this strict rule. The existence of black holes in the universe is well supported, both theoretically and by astronomical observation.
1524:. The stellar remnant thus becomes a black hole. The mass at which this occurs is not known with certainty, but is currently estimated at between 2 and 3
700:
and it will not develop a degenerate helium core with a shell burning hydrogen. Instead, hydrogen fusion will proceed until almost the whole star is helium.
722:
will be able to reach temperatures high enough to fuse helium, and these "mid-sized" stars go on to further stages of evolution beyond the red-giant branch.
781:
with a helium-fusing core. Many of these helium-fusing stars cluster towards the cool end of the horizontal branch as K-type giants and are referred to as
1308:
The energy transferred from collapse of the core to rebounding material not only generates heavy elements, but provides for their acceleration well beyond
1289:. Although non-exploding red giants can produce significant quantities of elements heavier than iron using neutrons released in side reactions of earlier
573:
star, like the Sun, will remain on the main sequence for about 10 billion years. The Sun is thought to be in the middle of its main sequence lifespan.
670:
is around 13.8 billion years old, which is less time (by several orders of magnitude, in some cases) than it takes for fusion to cease in such stars.
1427:
and the star collapses. Depending upon the chemical composition and pre-collapse temperature in the center, this will lead either to collapse into a
2649:
Ahluwalia-Khalilova, D. V (2004). "Addendum to: Gen. Rel. Grav. 28 (1996) 1161, First Prize Essay for 1996: Neutrino
Oscillations and Supernovae".
1116:
to form neon, sodium, and magnesium. Stars somewhat less massive may partially ignite carbon, but they are unable to fully fuse the carbon before
1003:
and molecules to form. With the high infrared energy input from the central star, ideal conditions are formed in these circumstellar envelopes for
1538:. According to classical general relativity, no matter or information can flow from the interior of a black hole to an outside observer, although
845:, so it increases in temperature which causes the rate of fusion in the hydrogen shell to increase. The star increases in luminosity towards the
117:
begin to fuse hydrogen along a spherical shell surrounding the core. This process causes the star to gradually grow in size, passing through the
2627:
2610:
2755:
van den Heuvel, E. P. J. (2004). "X-Ray
Binaries and Their Descendants: Binary Radio Pulsars; Evidence for Three Classes of Neutron Stars?".
757:
K or M. Red giants lie along the right edge of the
HertzsprungâRussell diagram due to their red color and large luminosity. Examples include
2307:
Zijlstra, A. A.; Loup, C.; Waters, L. B. F. M.; Whitelock, P. A.; Th. van Loon, J.; Guglielmo, F.; Groenewegen; Waters; Trams (March 1996).
1171:
In more massive stars, the fusion of neon proceeds without a runaway deflagration. This is followed in turn by complete oxygen burning and
235:). As it collapses, a giant molecular cloud breaks into smaller and smaller pieces. In each of these fragments, the collapsing gas releases
5016:
501:, which will be the last phase in which the Sun undergoes fusion. The numbers along the main sequence curve are the masses in solar units.
3002:
Demarque, P.; Guenther, D. B.; Li, L. H.; Mazumdar, A.; Straka, C. W. (August 2008). "YREC: the Yale rotating stellar evolution code".
1379:, compressed into approximately the volume of the Earth. White dwarfs are stable because the inward pull of gravity is balanced by the
452:
389:
1520:
If the mass of the stellar remnant is high enough, the neutron degeneracy pressure will be insufficient to prevent collapse below the
2378:
Evolution of Stars: The
Photospheric Abundance Connection: Proceedings of the 145th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union
2988:
2793:
1301:, so both supernovae and ejection of elements from red giants are required to explain the observed abundance of heavy elements and
1241:
841:
The helium core continues to grow on the red-giant branch. It is no longer in thermal equilibrium, either degenerate or above the
39:
Artist's depiction of the life cycle of a Sun-like star, starting as a main-sequence star at lower left then expanding through the
1969:
1347:
After a star has burned out its fuel supply, its remnants can take one of three forms, depending on the mass during its lifetime.
1394:
The chemical composition of the white dwarf depends upon its mass. A star that has a mass of about 8-12 solar masses will ignite
1105:. At the end of helium fusion, the core of a star consists primarily of carbon and oxygen. In stars heavier than about 8
1127:
The exact mass limit for full carbon burning depends on several factors such as metallicity and the detailed mass lost on the
4794:
4629:
3122:
1654:
1423:
for a white dwarf composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen, neon, and/or magnesium, then electron degeneracy pressure fails due to
565:
fuse hydrogen slowly and will remain on the main sequence for hundreds of billions of years or longer, whereas massive, hot
158:
suggest they will slowly become brighter and hotter before running out of hydrogen fuel and becoming low-mass white dwarfs.
3190:
254:
as it reaches its final mass. Further development is determined by its mass. Mass is typically compared to the mass of the
956:
activity. These stars are clearly oxygen rich, in contrast to the carbon stars, but both must be produced by dredge ups.
842:
1861:
280:
1319:
The most massive stars that exist today may be completely destroyed by a supernova with an energy greatly exceeding its
239:
as heat. As its temperature and pressure increase, a fragment condenses into a rotating ball of superhot gas known as a
4604:
3923:
914:
After a star has consumed the helium at the core, hydrogen and helium fusion continues in shells around a hot core of
3103:
3084:
3041:
1490:(chiefly iron unless matter of different composition is added later). The neutrons resist further compression by the
2309:"Obscured asymptotic giant branch stars in the Magellanic Clouds -- II. Near-infrared and mid-infrared counterparts"
1499:
511:
325:
2930:
D'Amico, N.; Stappers, B. W.; Bailes, M.; Martin, C. E.; Bell, J. F.; Lyne, A. G.; Manchester, R. N. (June 1998).
541:) contributes a large portion of the energy generation. The onset of nuclear fusion leads relatively quickly to a
19:
4316:
1846:
1564:
554:
465:
2887:
Nomoto, Ken'ichi & Kondo, Yoji (January 1991). "Conditions for accretion-induced collapse of white dwarfs".
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666:
What happens after a low-mass star ceases to produce energy through fusion has not been directly observed; the
4656:
4523:
1622:
4639:
4590:
4565:
3858:
1320:
868:
651:
883:
on the
HertzsprungâRussell diagram, gradually shrinking in radius and increasing its surface temperature.
715:(AGB) star, but at lower luminosity, to become a white dwarf. A star with an initial mass about 0.6
5006:
4580:
4560:
1597: â Process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons
1020:
846:
3943:
5136:
5131:
5053:
4817:
4644:
4575:
4545:
1588:
1324:
1165:
1019:), hydrogen deficient post-asymptotic-giant-branch stars, variable planetary nebula central stars, and
1343:
Stellar evolution of low-mass (left cycle) and high-mass (right cycle) stars, with examples in italics
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4528:
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3536:
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3526:
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3211:
2635:
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1384:
570:
566:
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Heber, U. (1991). "Atmospheres and Abundances of Blue Horizontal Branch Stars and Related Objects".
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3668:
3303:
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834:, with lower C/C ratios and altered proportions of carbon and nitrogen. These are detectable with
684:
may stay on the main sequence for some six to twelve trillion years, gradually increasing in both
75:. The table shows the lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses. All stars are formed from
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4120:
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stars toward electron capture supernovae. I â Formation of electron-degenerate O + Ne + Mg cores"
2515:
Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A.; Weaver, T. A. (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars".
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1128:
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Eventually the star's core exhausts its supply of hydrogen and the star begins to evolve off the
542:
498:
433:
236:
1966:
Lejeune, T; Schaerer, D (2001). "Database of Geneva stellar evolution tracks and isochrones for
867:
In the helium cores of stars in the 0.6 to 2.0 solar mass range, which are largely supported by
27:
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Yang, Yue; Kneller, James P (2017). "GR effects in supernova neutrino flavor transformations".
2338:
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enriched, depending on the type of the star. The gas builds up in an expanding shell called a
734:
The evolutionary track of a solar mass, solar metallicity, star from main sequence to post-AGB
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4256:
3422:
3199:
216:
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powers a star for most of its existence. Initially the energy is generated by the fusion of
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1930:
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616:, convection zones with arrowed cycles and radiative zones with red flashes. To the left a
8:
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4169:
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can exist (with a possible minor exception for very rapidly spinning white dwarfs, whose
1413:
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1328:
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The onion-like layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse (not to scale)
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heavier-than-iron material including the radioactive elements up to (and likely beyond)
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becomes sufficient to oppose gravity or the core becomes hot enough (around 100 MK) for
35:
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1603: â Theoretical framework detailing the sun's structure, composition and energetics
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due to rotation partially counteracts the weight of their matter). Mass transfer in a
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Majaess, D. (March 2013). "Discovering protostars and their host clusters via WISE".
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1138:. After carbon burning is complete, the core of these stars reaches about 2.5
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of the star to increase, at which point the star expands onto the red-giant branch.
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For a more-massive protostar, the core temperature will eventually reach 10 million
109:
of the main-sequence star. Later, as the preponderance of atoms at the core becomes
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2532:
2484:
2420:
2348:
2287:
2240:
2187:
2090:
2078:
1938:
1828:
1753:
1694:
1642:
1483:
1424:
1232:, the shattered remnants of a star which exploded as a supernova visible in 1054 AD
1150:
979:
876:
813:
597:
477:
131:
48:
3171:
2244:
1757:
1477:
Bubble-like shock wave still expanding from a supernova explosion 15,000 years ago
4926:
4687:
4490:
4359:
4203:
4174:
4115:
4110:
3985:
3713:
3678:
3612:
3558:
3553:
3498:
3308:
2614:
2565:
stars toward electron capture supernovae. II â Collapse of an O + Ne + Mg core".
2082:
1594:
1309:
1016:
697:
419:
398:
364:
84:
1339:
1252:
released by this core collapse is converted into a Type Ib, Type Ic, or Type II
777:
hydrogen-burning shells. Between these two phases, stars spend a period on the
5115:
4991:
4954:
4749:
4515:
4354:
4181:
4152:
4127:
4060:
3749:
3617:
3503:
3405:
3295:
3285:
2733:
2536:
1577:
1277:
1078:
473:
426:
317:
187:
167:
102:
98:
3222:
MESA stellar evolution codes (Modules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics)
3033:
2757:
Proceedings of the 5th INTEGRAL Workshop on the INTEGRAL Universe (ESA SP-552)
1869:
1832:
1451:
may cause an initially stable white dwarf to surpass the Chandrasekhar limit.
1145:
and becomes hot enough for heavier elements to fuse. Before oxygen starts to
5125:
5021:
5001:
4701:
4495:
4458:
4426:
4301:
4010:
3833:
3804:
3782:
3400:
3373:
3350:
3251:
2965:
2916:
2873:
2594:
2362:
2353:
2308:
1952:
1840:
1765:
1619: â Angular motion of a star about its axis â Rotations slow as stars age
1409:. However, the universe is not old enough for any black dwarfs to exist yet.
1102:
1092:
965:
945:
928:
750:
655:
639:
613:
558:
547:
469:
376:
155:
92:
3226:
3196:
Astronomy 162, Unit 2 (The Structure & Evolution of Stars) lecture notes
2817:
4761:
4436:
4386:
4381:
4281:
4164:
4147:
4105:
4075:
4065:
4000:
3883:
3828:
3809:
3789:
3767:
3759:
3602:
3595:
3434:
3355:
3338:
3216:
2325:
1943:
1918:
1468:
1428:
1298:
1237:
1055:
872:
835:
704:
337:
333:
288:
203:
139:
134:. Stars with around ten or more times the mass of the Sun can explode in a
106:
2424:
2403:
Vanbeveren, D.; De Loore, C.; Van Rensbergen, W. (1998). "Massive stars".
692:, and take several hundred billion years more to collapse, slowly, into a
4970:
4911:
4803:
4677:
4349:
4341:
4331:
4311:
4286:
4215:
4137:
3893:
3868:
3863:
3777:
3737:
3698:
3663:
3646:
3641:
3313:
3229:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Paul Murdin, Janna Levin and Phil Charles (
2769:
2663:
2160:
Deupree, R. G. (1996-11-01). "A Reexamination of the Core Helium Flash".
2065:
1610:
1406:
1360:
1356:
1229:
1121:
937:
693:
685:
569:
will leave the main sequence after just a few million years. A mid-sized
321:
300:
127:
2932:"The Parkes Southern Pulsar Survey â III. Timing of long-period pulsars"
1120:
sets in, and these stars will eventually leave an oxygen-neon-magnesium
730:
55:
5011:
4975:
4932:
4261:
3958:
3931:
3908:
3888:
3873:
3725:
3629:
3607:
3585:
3580:
3444:
1515:
1281:
1245:
1207:
1059:
1032:
949:
819:
801:
689:
224:
143:
44:
5110:
1164:, this process is unstable and creates runaway fusion resulting in an
561:
depending upon the mass of the star. Small, relatively cold, low-mass
497:
after its main-sequence phase ends before expanding further along the
283:(WISE) have been especially important for unveiling numerous galactic
4915:
4867:
4842:
4827:
4448:
4296:
4080:
4045:
4040:
4035:
3995:
3948:
3938:
3732:
3708:
3683:
3590:
3541:
3474:
3464:
3439:
3412:
3388:
3323:
1265:
1253:
1219:
1203:
888:
862:
831:
827:
782:
758:
746:
708:
674:
658:
to begin. Which of these happens first depends upon the star's mass.
620:
562:
538:
519:
494:
440:
284:
272:
240:
198:
151:
135:
122:
91:
settle down into a state of equilibrium, becoming what is known as a
88:
1494:, in a way analogous to electron degeneracy pressure, but stronger.
1405:
In the end, all that remains is a cold dark mass sometimes called a
1268:
fragment some nuclei; some of their energy is consumed in releasing
1248:. Through a process that is not completely understood, some of the
770:
553:
A new star will sit at a specific point on the main sequence of the
4863:
4441:
4142:
3816:
3575:
3548:
2908:
2864:
2832:
2716:
2586:
2292:
2267:
2191:
1740:
1699:
1674:
1302:
1273:
1269:
1261:
1257:
823:
794:
766:
667:
515:
276:
232:
147:
118:
40:
3237:
3154:
3016:
2471:
2227:
1815:
1473:
4716:
4191:
3953:
3720:
3673:
3656:
3651:
3570:
2212:
1286:
1256:. It is known that the core collapse produces a massive surge of
1042:
982:
formed by the death of a star with about the same mass as the Sun
944:
Another well known class of asymptotic-giant-branch stars is the
647:
586:
219:. Typical giant molecular clouds are roughly 100 light-years (9.5
178:
3096:
An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution
3077:
Stellar interiors: physical principles, structure, and evolution
3067:, p. 79, "Assigning ages from hydrogen-burning timescales")
2402:
1787:
696:. Such stars will not become red giants as the whole star is a
4706:
4694:
3913:
3799:
3221:
3075:
Hansen, Carl J.; Kawaler, Steven D.; Trimble, Virginia (2004).
2929:
1862:"Working Group on Extrasolar Planets: Definition of a "Planet""
1503:
992:
988:
919:
915:
826:
of hydrogen and helium, being unobservable. The effects of the
646:
generated by the fusion of hydrogen to counteract the force of
523:
507:
110:
80:
23:
Representative lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses
4772:
3138:
1725:
1673:
Laughlin, Gregory; Bodenheimer, Peter; Adams, Fred C. (1997).
1224:
275:
are encompassed in dust, and are thus more readily visible at
3187:
Astronomy 606 (Stellar Structure and Evolution) lecture notes
1917:
Adams, F. C.; Bodenheimer, P.; Laughlin, G. (December 2005).
953:
608:
461:
2044:{\displaystyle (UBV)_{\mathsf {J}}(RI)_{\mathsf {C}}JHKLL'M}
182:
Simplistic representation of the stages of stellar evolution
4055:
3274:
2306:
2266:
Sackmann, I. -J.; Boothroyd, A. I.; Kraemer, K. E. (1993).
1456:
1294:
1194:
in the least massive red supergiants to more than 1.8
581:
138:
as their inert iron cores collapse into an extremely dense
67:
4756:
3001:
1236:
When the core of a massive star collapses, it will form a
970:
4421:
2448:
2051:, HST-WFPC2, Geneva and Washington photometric systems".
1070:
Extremely massive stars (more than approximately 40
537:
10 kg), the carbonânitrogenâoxygen fusion reaction (
490:
255:
114:
3243:
2265:
1916:
1672:
1276:, and some of their energy is transformed into heat and
871:, helium fusion will ignite on a timescale of days in a
294:
47:
phases, until its outer envelope is expelled to form a
5051:
2634:. Max-Planck-Institut fĂŒr Astrophysik. Archived from
2558:
Nomoto, Ken'ichi (November 1987). "Evolution of 8â10
1972:
370:
316:
10 kg) never reach temperatures high enough for
250:
of gas and dust from the molecular cloud, becoming a
3074:
2103:
1919:"M dwarfs: planet formation and long term evolution"
941:
and spectra of carbon stars in particular clusters.
468:. The tracks start once the star has evolved to the
2648:
1157:. For a range of stars of approximately 8â12
999:and cools as it moves away from the star, allowing
345:), 2.5 × 10 kg, or 0.0125
305:
Protostars with masses less than roughly 0.08
2514:
2043:
1609: â Grouping of stars by similar metallicity (
2936:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2313:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1372:, the resulting white dwarf is of about 0.6
5123:
2116:
2114:
2112:
903:
476:stops (for massive stars) and at the end of the
328:defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to
3058:
1965:
838:and have been measured for many evolved stars.
451:
388:
223:10 km) across and contain up to 6,000,000
87:. Over the course of millions of years, these
31:The change in size with time of a Sun-like star
2754:
2143:
2141:
1412:If the white dwarf's mass increases above the
1383:of the star's electrons, a consequence of the
4788:
3259:
3198:, Richard W. Pogge, Department of Astronomy,
2628:"Supernova Simulations Still Defy Explosions"
2109:
1788:"Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer Mission"
2995:
2794:"Pair Instability Supernovae and Hypernovae"
154:to have reached the end of their existence,
2886:
2701:
2153:
2138:
1534:Black holes are predicted by the theory of
952:, pulsating in the infrared and showing OH
818:The expanding outer layers of the star are
4795:
4781:
3266:
3252:
3112:
3064:
2551:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2206:
2132:
2120:
1591: â History and future of the universe
1240:, or in the case of cores that exceed the
1054:and will eventually collapse to produce a
150:is not old enough for any of the smallest
3153:
3113:Ryan, Sean G.; Norton, Andrew J. (2010).
3015:
2978:
2955:
2863:
2791:
2768:
2715:
2662:
2470:
2369:
2352:
2342:
2324:
2291:
2226:
2181:
2064:
1942:
1895:
1814:
1739:
1698:
1641:
1350:
1293:, the abundance of elements heavier than
1175:, producing a core consisting largely of
807:
673:Recent astrophysical models suggest that
320:of hydrogen to begin. These are known as
3189:, Cole Miller, Department of Astronomy,
3093:
2626:Buras, Robert; et al. (June 2003).
2444:
2442:
2147:
1889:
1713:
1472:
1338:
1223:
1091:
1036:
969:
729:
607:
580:
202:
177:
54:
34:
26:
18:
2503:
2159:
1959:
1800:
1668:
1666:
1065:
830:appear at the surface during the first
596:, which furthermore can develop into a
130:and the outer layers are expelled as a
5124:
2830:
2785:
2557:
2012:
1991:
438:
431:
424:
4776:
3247:
3115:Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2981:"Pulsar Detected by Gamma Waves Only"
2979:Courtland, Rachel (17 October 2008).
2625:
2439:
2405:The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
2375:
1902:"Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small".
1794:
1780:
464:with different initial masses on the
417:
410:
403:
396:
79:clouds of gas and dust, often called
16:Changes to stars over their lifespans
2792:J. Hammer, Nicolay (July 24, 2003).
1663:
852:
295:Brown dwarfs and sub-stellar objects
2300:
2104:Hansen, Kawaler & Trimble (2004
1580: â Classification in astronomy
1334:
576:
526:. In stars of slightly over 1
281:Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer
279:wavelengths. Observations from the
13:
3132:
2681:10.1023/B:GERG.0000038633.96716.04
2651:General Relativity and Gravitation
2268:"Our Sun. III. Present and Future"
1617:Stellar rotation § After formation
1554:A stellar evolutionary model is a
725:
650:, the core contracts until either
585:Illustration of the dynamics of a
447:
384:
371:Main sequence stellar mass objects
211:Stellar evolution starts with the
14:
5153:
3205:
3079:(2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag.
788:
661:
332:at some point in their lives (13
246:A protostar continues to grow by
173:
5109:
5097:
5085:
5073:
5061:
4755:
4745:
4744:
2957:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1998.01397.x
2818:"Fossil Stars (1): White Dwarfs"
1500:conservation of angular momentum
1462:
1242:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
1131:, but is approximately 8â9
1026:
489:A yellow track is shown for the
326:International Astronomical Union
269:10 kg) means 1 solar mass.
4802:
2972:
2923:
2880:
2824:
2810:
2748:
2695:
2642:
2619:
2601:
2396:
2259:
2126:
2097:
1910:
603:
3117:. Cambridge University Press.
3098:. Cambridge University Press.
3004:Astrophysics and Space Science
2007:
1997:
1986:
1973:
1883:
1854:
1803:Astrophysics and Space Science
1719:
1707:
1675:"The End of the Main Sequence"
1635:
1584:Galaxy formation and evolution
1509:
1250:gravitational potential energy
634:blue-white main-sequence star.
237:gravitational potential energy
207:Schematic of stellar evolution
1:
4888:creation of chemical elements
4657:Timeline of stellar astronomy
2608:How do Massive Stars Explode?
1629:
1623:Timeline of stellar astronomy
1323:. This rare event, caused by
1260:, as observed with supernova
904:Asymptotic-giant-branch phase
843:SchönbergâChandrasekhar limit
738:Stars of roughly 0.6â10
3142:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2831:Nomoto, K. (February 1984).
2053:Astronomy & Astrophysics
1868:. 2003-02-28. Archived from
1321:gravitational binding energy
1213:
1181:effective Chandrasekhar mass
1021:R Coronae Borealis variables
869:electron degeneracy pressure
652:electron degeneracy pressure
512:protonâproton chain reaction
192:
7:
4317:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
3212:Stellar evolution simulator
3172:10.1051/0004-6361/201117751
2489:10.1088/0004-637X/772/2/150
2245:10.1051/0004-6361/200912572
1758:10.1051/0004-6361/202037721
1570:
1565:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
959:
847:tip of the red-giant branch
555:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
466:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
460:The evolutionary tracks of
121:stage until it reaches the
10:
5158:
4818:Chronology of the universe
4231:KelvinâHelmholtz mechanism
2734:10.1103/PhysRevD.96.023009
2537:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015
2215:Astronomy and Astrophysics
2083:10.1051/0004-6361:20000214
1728:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1589:Chronology of the universe
1513:
1466:
1354:
1316:collapse of an iron core.
1264:. The extremely energetic
1217:
1166:electron capture supernova
1030:
963:
907:
856:
811:
792:
374:
298:
196:
185:
66:is the process by which a
59:Chart of stellar evolution
5030:
4984:
4963:
4851:
4810:
4740:
4665:
4514:
4412:
4340:
4239:
4096:
3971:
3849:
3758:
3494:
3485:
3364:
3294:
3281:
3273:
3034:10.1007/s10509-007-9698-y
2889:The Astrophysical Journal
2844:The Astrophysical Journal
2567:The Astrophysical Journal
2517:Reviews of Modern Physics
2459:The Astrophysical Journal
2272:The Astrophysical Journal
2162:The Astrophysical Journal
1923:Astronomische Nachrichten
1833:10.1007/s10509-012-1308-y
1679:The Astrophysical Journal
1549:
1492:Pauli exclusion principle
1385:Pauli exclusion principle
1183:, higher than the formal
1112:, the carbon ignites and
557:, with the main-sequence
4610:With multiple exoplanets
1432:collapse and leads to a
1206:or direct collapse to a
769:in the constellation of
550:phase of its evolution.
352:). Objects smaller than
4945:Agricultural Revolution
3396:Asymptotic giant branch
3164:2012A&A...537A.146E
3094:Prialnik, Dina (2000).
3065:Ryan & Norton (2010
3026:2008Ap&SS.316...31D
2417:1998A&ARv...9...63V
2237:2010A&A...517A..81G
2133:Ryan & Norton (2010
2121:Ryan & Norton (2010
2075:2001A&A...366..538L
1825:2013Ap&SS.344..175M
1750:2020A&A...642A..76Z
1563:of the star across the
1129:asymptotic giant branch
1041:Reconstructed image of
924:asymptotic giant branch
922:. The star follows the
910:Asymptotic giant branch
713:asymptotic-giant-branch
612:Internal structures of
543:hydrostatic equilibrium
499:asymptotic giant branch
4732:Tidal disruption event
4221:Circumstellar envelope
3455:Luminous blue variable
3191:University of Maryland
2354:10.1093/mnras/279.1.32
2045:
1944:10.1002/asna.200510440
1866:IAU position statement
1478:
1351:White and black dwarfs
1344:
1280:, thus augmenting the
1233:
1097:
1046:
997:circumstellar envelope
983:
808:Red-giant-branch phase
755:stellar classification
749:, which are large non-
735:
642:. Without the outward
635:
589:
493:, which will become a
455:
392:
252:pre-main-sequence star
213:gravitational collapse
208:
183:
60:
52:
32:
24:
5142:Concepts in astronomy
4257:Effective temperature
3236:Life cycle of a star
3200:Ohio State University
2425:10.1007/s001590050015
2046:
1476:
1365:For a star of 1
1342:
1227:
1095:
1040:
973:
761:in the constellation
733:
611:
584:
454:
391:
217:giant molecular cloud
206:
181:
58:
38:
30:
22:
4997:Cynthia Stokes Brown
4902:formation of planets
4838:Goldilocks principle
4727:Planet-hosting stars
4605:With resolved images
4576:Historical brightest
4506:Photometric-standard
4432:Solar radio emission
4226:Eddington luminosity
4006:Triple-alpha process
3944:ThorneâĆ»ytkow object
3319:Young stellar object
1970:
1906:(22). November 1997.
1892:, Fig. 8.19, p. 174)
1649:. World Scientific.
1647:Nuclei in the Cosmos
1643:Bertulani, Carlos A.
1601:Standard solar model
1522:Schwarzschild radius
1416:, which is 1.4
1066:Supergiant evolution
4971:Big History Project
4964:Web-based education
4811:Themes and subjects
4551:Highest temperature
4322:Colorâcolor diagram
4187:Protoplanetary disk
3991:Protonâproton chain
3669:Chemically peculiar
3227:"The Life of Stars"
3217:Pisa Stellar Models
2948:1998MNRAS.297...28D
2901:1991ApJ...367L..19N
2856:1984ApJ...277..791N
2833:"Evolution of 8â10
2779:2004ESASP.552..185V
2726:2017PhRvD..96b3009Y
2673:2004GReGr..36.2183A
2632:Research Highlights
2579:1987ApJ...322..206N
2529:2002RvMP...74.1015W
2481:2013ApJ...772..150J
2390:1991IAUS..145..363H
2335:1996MNRAS.279...32Z
2284:1993ApJ...418..457S
2174:1996ApJ...471..377D
1935:2005AN....326..913A
1904:Sky & Telescope
1872:on February 4, 2012
1691:1997ApJ...482..420L
1414:Chandrasekhar limit
1400:Chandrasekhar limit
1381:degeneracy pressure
1329:photodisintegration
1118:electron degeneracy
1052:electron degeneracy
630:and at the right a
614:main-sequence stars
594:protoplanetary disk
73:age of the universe
4556:Lowest temperature
4307:Photometric system
4277:Absolute magnitude
4211:Circumstellar dust
3824:Stellar black hole
3460:Stellar population
3346:HerbigâHaro object
2613:2003-06-27 at the
2326:astro-ph/9709119v1
2041:
1607:Stellar population
1561:evolutionary track
1556:mathematical model
1536:general relativity
1479:
1345:
1234:
1185:Chandrasekhar mass
1177:iron-peak elements
1098:
1047:
1045:, a red supergiant
984:
898:RR Lyrae variables
736:
644:radiation pressure
636:
623:, in the center a
592:A star may gain a
590:
518:to fuse, first to
480:(for stars 1
456:
393:
363:are classified as
209:
184:
61:
53:
33:
25:
5137:Stellar astronomy
5132:Stellar evolution
5049:
5048:
4924:- development of
4916:evolution of life
4878:creation of stars
4770:
4769:
4673:Substellar object
4652:Planetary nebulae
4071:Luminous red nova
3981:Deuterium burning
3967:
3966:
3450:Instability strip
3430:Wolf-Rayet nebula
3384:Horizontal branch
3329:Pre-main-sequence
3124:978-0-521-13320-3
2991:on April 2, 2013.
2704:Physical Review D
2106:, pp. 55â56)
1656:978-981-4417-66-2
1488:degenerate matter
1445:centrifugal force
1434:Type Ia supernova
1291:nuclear reactions
1151:capture electrons
1149:, neon begins to
1013:horizontal-branch
894:instability strip
881:horizontal branch
859:Horizontal branch
853:Horizontal branch
779:horizontal branch
510:, initiating the
287:and their parent
164:stellar structure
113:, stars like the
64:Stellar evolution
5149:
5114:
5113:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5090:
5089:
5088:
5078:
5077:
5076:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5057:
4852:Eight thresholds
4823:Cosmic evolution
4797:
4790:
4783:
4774:
4773:
4762:Stars portal
4760:
4759:
4748:
4747:
4404:Planetary system
4327:Strömgren sphere
4199:Asteroseismology
3920:Black hole star
3492:
3491:
3418:Planetary nebula
3379:Red-giant branch
3268:
3261:
3254:
3245:
3244:
3233:, Mar. 27, 2003)
3183:
3157:
3128:
3109:
3090:
3068:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3019:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2987:. Archived from
2976:
2970:
2969:
2959:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2867:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2799:. Archived from
2798:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2770:astro-ph/0407451
2752:
2746:
2745:
2719:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2666:
2664:astro-ph/0404055
2657:(9): 2183â2187.
2646:
2640:
2639:
2623:
2617:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2523:(4): 1015â1071.
2512:
2501:
2500:
2474:
2446:
2437:
2436:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2356:
2346:
2328:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2230:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2185:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2118:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2068:
2066:astro-ph/0011497
2050:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2017:
2016:
2015:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1946:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1858:
1852:
1844:
1818:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1743:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1670:
1661:
1660:
1639:
1484:electron capture
1425:electron capture
1335:Stellar remnants
1325:pair-instability
1017:subdwarf B stars
980:planetary nebula
976:Cat's Eye Nebula
877:Milky Way Galaxy
814:Red-giant branch
598:planetary system
577:Planetary system
536:
478:red-giant branch
450:
443:
436:
429:
422:
415:
408:
401:
387:
365:sub-brown dwarfs
355:
315:
268:
230:
222:
132:planetary nebula
85:molecular clouds
49:planetary nebula
5157:
5156:
5152:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5147:
5146:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5108:
5098:
5096:
5086:
5084:
5074:
5072:
5062:
5060:
5052:
5050:
5045:
5026:
5007:David Christian
4980:
4959:
4847:
4806:
4801:
4771:
4766:
4754:
4736:
4661:
4630:Milky Way novae
4566:Smallest volume
4510:
4491:Radial velocity
4414:
4408:
4360:Common envelope
4336:
4235:
4204:Helioseismology
4175:Bipolar outflow
4116:Microturbulence
4111:Convection zone
4092:
3986:Lithium burning
3973:Nucleosynthesis
3963:
3845:
3754:
3481:
3360:
3309:Molecular cloud
3290:
3277:
3272:
3208:
3135:
3133:Further reading
3125:
3106:
3087:
3071:
3063:
3059:
3044:
3000:
2996:
2977:
2973:
2928:
2924:
2885:
2881:
2839:
2836:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2803:
2796:
2790:
2786:
2753:
2749:
2700:
2696:
2647:
2643:
2624:
2620:
2615:Wayback Machine
2606:
2602:
2564:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2513:
2504:
2456:
2453:
2447:
2440:
2411:(1â2): 63â152.
2401:
2397:
2374:
2370:
2344:10.1.1.389.3269
2305:
2301:
2264:
2260:
2211:
2207:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2139:
2131:
2127:
2119:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2030:
2011:
2010:
2006:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1929:(10): 913â919.
1915:
1911:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1875:
1873:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1799:
1795:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1724:
1720:
1712:
1708:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1595:Nucleosynthesis
1573:
1552:
1540:quantum effects
1530:
1527:
1518:
1512:
1471:
1465:
1442:
1439:
1422:
1419:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1355:Main articles:
1353:
1337:
1310:escape velocity
1222:
1216:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1173:silicon burning
1163:
1160:
1153:which triggers
1144:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1111:
1108:
1087:
1084:
1079:red supergiants
1076:
1073:
1068:
1035:
1029:
968:
962:
912:
906:
865:
857:Main articles:
855:
816:
810:
797:
791:
744:
741:
728:
726:Mid-sized stars
721:
718:
707:do expand into
698:convection zone
683:
680:
664:
606:
579:
534:
532:
504:
503:
502:
488:
486:
483:
458:
457:
453:
448:
445:
444:
439:
437:
432:
430:
425:
423:
418:
416:
411:
409:
404:
402:
397:
394:
390:
385:
379:
373:
362:
359:
353:
351:
348:
343:
340:
313:
311:
303:
297:
266:
264:
228:
220:
201:
195:
190:
176:
168:computer models
146:. Although the
17:
12:
11:
5:
5155:
5145:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5119:
5118:
5106:
5094:
5082:
5070:
5047:
5046:
5044:
5043:
5034:
5032:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4992:Walter Alvarez
4988:
4986:
4985:Notable people
4982:
4981:
4979:
4978:
4973:
4967:
4965:
4961:
4960:
4958:
4957:
4947:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4918:
4904:
4894:
4880:
4870:
4855:
4853:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4814:
4812:
4808:
4807:
4800:
4799:
4792:
4785:
4777:
4768:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4752:
4741:
4738:
4737:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4698:
4697:
4692:
4691:
4690:
4685:
4669:
4667:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4642:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4595:
4594:
4593:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4561:Largest volume
4558:
4553:
4548:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4531:
4520:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4487:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4445:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4418:
4416:
4410:
4409:
4407:
4406:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4379:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4346:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4272:Magnetic field
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4243:
4241:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4196:
4195:
4194:
4189:
4182:Accretion disk
4179:
4178:
4177:
4172:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4158:Alfvén surface
4155:
4153:Stellar corona
4150:
4145:
4140:
4130:
4128:Radiation zone
4125:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4108:
4102:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3977:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3935:
3934:
3929:
3926:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3866:
3861:
3855:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3837:
3836:
3826:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3797:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3775:
3770:
3764:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3750:Blue straggler
3747:
3746:
3745:
3735:
3730:
3729:
3728:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3666:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3605:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3508:Main sequence
3506:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3487:Classification
3483:
3482:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3426:
3425:
3423:Protoplanetary
3415:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3403:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3381:
3376:
3370:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3300:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3234:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3207:
3206:External links
3204:
3203:
3202:
3193:
3184:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3123:
3110:
3104:
3091:
3085:
3070:
3069:
3057:
3042:
3010:(1â4): 31â41.
2994:
2971:
2922:
2909:10.1086/185922
2879:
2865:10.1086/161749
2837:
2834:
2823:
2809:
2806:on 2012-06-08.
2784:
2747:
2694:
2641:
2638:on 2003-08-03.
2618:
2600:
2587:10.1086/165716
2562:
2559:
2550:
2502:
2454:
2451:
2438:
2395:
2368:
2299:
2293:10.1086/173407
2258:
2205:
2192:10.1086/177976
2168:(1): 377â384.
2152:
2150:, p. 151)
2148:Prialnik (2000
2137:
2135:, p. 125)
2125:
2123:, p. 115)
2108:
2096:
2059:(2): 538â546.
2040:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1958:
1909:
1894:
1890:Prialnik (2000
1882:
1853:
1848:VizieR catalog
1809:(1): 175â186.
1793:
1779:
1718:
1714:Prialnik (2000
1706:
1700:10.1086/304125
1685:(1): 420â432.
1662:
1655:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1581:
1578:Compact object
1574:
1572:
1569:
1551:
1548:
1528:
1525:
1514:Main article:
1511:
1508:
1467:Main article:
1464:
1461:
1440:
1437:
1420:
1417:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1352:
1349:
1336:
1333:
1278:kinetic energy
1218:Main article:
1215:
1212:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1188:
1161:
1158:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1109:
1106:
1085:
1082:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1031:Main article:
1028:
1025:
1001:dust particles
964:Main article:
961:
958:
946:Mira variables
908:Main article:
905:
902:
854:
851:
812:Main article:
809:
806:
793:Main article:
790:
789:Subgiant phase
787:
742:
739:
727:
724:
719:
716:
703:Slightly more
681:
678:
663:
662:Low-mass stars
660:
605:
602:
578:
575:
530:
484:
481:
472:and stop when
459:
446:
395:
383:
382:
381:
380:
375:Main article:
372:
369:
360:
357:
349:
346:
341:
338:
334:Jupiter masses
330:fuse deuterium
318:nuclear fusion
309:
299:Main article:
296:
293:
262:
197:Main article:
194:
191:
188:Star formation
186:Main article:
175:
174:Star formation
172:
156:stellar models
103:hydrogen atoms
99:Nuclear fusion
51:at upper right
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5154:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5129:
5127:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5105:
5095:
5093:
5083:
5081:
5071:
5069:
5059:
5058:
5055:
5042:(2013 series)
5041:
5040:
5036:
5035:
5033:
5029:
5023:
5022:Graeme Snooks
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5002:Eric Chaisson
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4983:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4962:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4928:
4923:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4850:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4793:
4791:
4786:
4784:
4779:
4778:
4775:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4751:
4743:
4742:
4739:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4722:Intergalactic
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4702:Galactic year
4700:
4696:
4693:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4671:
4670:
4668:
4664:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4596:
4592:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4581:Most luminous
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4543:
4542:
4539:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4517:
4513:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4496:Proper motion
4494:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4459:Constellation
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4427:Solar eclipse
4425:
4424:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4413:Earth-centric
4411:
4405:
4402:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4167:
4166:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4095:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4011:Alpha process
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3933:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3818:
3815:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3783:Helium planet
3781:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3773:Parker's star
3771:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3751:
3748:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3719:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3704:Lambda Boötis
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3484:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3470:Superluminous
3468:
3467:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3397:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3374:Main sequence
3372:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3351:Hayashi track
3349:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3269:
3264:
3262:
3257:
3255:
3250:
3249:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3136:
3126:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3105:0-521-65065-8
3101:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3086:0-387-20089-4
3082:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3066:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3043:9781402094408
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2985:New Scientist
2982:
2975:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2827:
2819:
2813:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2710:(2): 023009.
2709:
2705:
2698:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2554:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2445:
2443:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2372:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2149:
2144:
2142:
2134:
2129:
2122:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2105:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2003:
2000:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1905:
1898:
1891:
1886:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1850:
1849:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1789:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1716:, Chapter 10)
1715:
1710:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1667:
1658:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1523:
1517:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1470:
1463:Neutron stars
1460:
1458:
1452:
1450:
1449:binary system
1446:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1396:carbon fusion
1392:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1362:
1358:
1348:
1341:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1311:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1167:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1104:
1103:alpha process
1094:
1090:
1080:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1027:Massive stars
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
981:
977:
972:
967:
966:Post-AGB star
957:
955:
951:
947:
942:
939:
933:
930:
929:thermal pulse
925:
921:
917:
911:
901:
899:
895:
890:
884:
882:
878:
874:
870:
864:
860:
850:
848:
844:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
815:
805:
803:
796:
786:
784:
780:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
751:main-sequence
748:
732:
723:
714:
710:
706:
705:massive stars
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
676:
671:
669:
659:
657:
656:helium fusion
653:
649:
645:
641:
640:main sequence
633:
629:
626:
622:
619:
615:
610:
601:
599:
595:
588:
583:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
559:spectral type
556:
551:
549:
548:main-sequence
544:
540:
529:
525:
521:
517:
514:and allowing
513:
509:
500:
496:
492:
479:
475:
471:
470:main sequence
467:
463:
442:
435:
428:
421:
414:
407:
400:
378:
377:Main sequence
368:
366:
344:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
308:
302:
292:
290:
289:star clusters
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
261:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
238:
234:
226:
218:
214:
205:
200:
189:
180:
171:
169:
165:
159:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
94:
93:main-sequence
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
69:
65:
57:
50:
46:
42:
37:
29:
21:
5104:Solar System
5037:
4950:
4940:
4927:Homo sapiens
4925:
4921:
4907:
4897:
4891:
4883:
4873:
4859:
4625:White dwarfs
4615:Brown dwarfs
4598:Most distant
4546:Most massive
4524:Proper names
4484:Photographic
4437:Solar System
4415:observations
4342:Star systems
4165:Stellar wind
4148:Chromosphere
4121:Oscillations
4001:Helium flash
3851:Hypothetical
3829:X-ray binary
3768:Compact star
3603:Bright giant
3365:
3356:Henyey track
3334:Herbig Ae/Be
3230:
3145:
3141:
3114:
3095:
3076:
3060:
3007:
3003:
2997:
2989:the original
2984:
2974:
2942:(1): 28â40.
2939:
2935:
2925:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2847:
2843:
2826:
2812:
2801:the original
2787:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2636:the original
2631:
2621:
2603:
2570:
2566:
2553:
2520:
2516:
2462:
2458:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2319:(1): 32â62.
2316:
2312:
2302:
2275:
2271:
2261:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2183:10.1.1.31.44
2165:
2161:
2155:
2128:
2099:
2056:
2052:
1961:
1926:
1922:
1912:
1903:
1897:
1885:
1874:. Retrieved
1870:the original
1865:
1856:
1847:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1782:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1709:
1682:
1678:
1646:
1637:
1553:
1544:
1533:
1519:
1496:
1480:
1469:Neutron star
1453:
1429:neutron star
1411:
1404:
1393:
1389:
1364:
1346:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1299:Solar System
1272:, including
1238:neutron star
1235:
1180:
1170:
1155:neon burning
1126:
1099:
1069:
1056:neutron star
1048:
1009:
1007:excitation.
985:
943:
934:
913:
885:
873:helium flash
866:
840:
836:spectroscopy
817:
798:
775:
737:
702:
677:of 0.1
672:
665:
637:
631:
628:yellow dwarf
624:
617:
604:Mature stars
591:
571:yellow dwarf
567:O-type stars
552:
527:
522:and then to
505:
322:brown dwarfs
306:
304:
271:
259:
245:
225:solar masses
210:
160:
140:neutron star
97:
63:
62:
5092:Outer space
5080:Spaceflight
5039:Big History
4941:Agriculture
4912:abiogenesis
4892:dying stars
4833:Time scales
4804:Big History
4678:Brown dwarf
4454:Circumpolar
4332:Kraft break
4312:Color index
4287:Metallicity
4247:Designation
4216:Cosmic dust
4138:Photosphere
3904:Dark-energy
3879:Electroweak
3864:Black dwarf
3795:Radio-quiet
3778:White dwarf
3664:White dwarf
3314:Bok globule
3231:In Our Time
2763:: 185â194.
1611:metallicity
1510:Black holes
1407:black dwarf
1361:Black dwarf
1357:White dwarf
1230:Crab Nebula
1122:white dwarf
950:OH/IR stars
938:carbon star
694:white dwarf
686:temperature
301:Brown dwarf
258:: 1.0
128:white dwarf
5126:Categories
5017:Fred Spier
5012:Carl Sagan
4976:ChronoZoom
4955:modern era
4640:Candidates
4635:Supernovae
4620:Red dwarfs
4479:Extinction
4267:Kinematics
4262:Luminosity
4240:Properties
4133:Atmosphere
4031:Si burning
4021:Ne burning
3959:White hole
3932:Quasi-star
3859:Blue dwarf
3714:Technetium
3630:Hypergiant
3608:Supergiant
2717:1705.09723
2465:(2): 150.
1876:2012-05-30
1741:2002.05984
1630:References
1516:Black hole
1282:shock wave
1246:black hole
1208:black hole
1060:black hole
1033:Supergiant
820:convective
802:luminosity
747:red giants
709:red giants
690:luminosity
675:red dwarfs
563:red dwarfs
487:and less).
285:protostars
273:Protostars
152:red dwarfs
144:black hole
89:protostars
77:collapsing
5068:Astronomy
4951:Modernity
4933:Stone Age
4868:cosmogony
4843:Modernity
4828:Deep time
4571:Brightest
4469:Magnitude
4449:Pole star
4370:Symbiotic
4365:Eclipsing
4297:Starlight
4098:Structure
4088:Supernova
4081:Micronova
4076:Recurrent
4061:Symbiotic
4046:p-process
4041:r-process
4036:s-process
4026:O burning
4016:C burning
3996:CNO cycle
3939:Gravastar
3475:Hypernova
3465:Supernova
3440:Dredge-up
3413:Blue loop
3406:super-AGB
3389:Red clump
3366:Evolution
3324:Protostar
3304:Accretion
3296:Formation
3155:1110.5049
3017:0710.4003
2966:0035-8711
2917:0004-637X
2874:0004-637X
2742:119190550
2595:0004-637X
2497:118687195
2472:1306.2030
2433:189933559
2363:0035-8711
2339:CiteSeerX
2228:1004.3862
2178:CiteSeerX
1953:0004-6337
1841:0004-640X
1816:1211.4032
1774:211126855
1766:0004-6361
1455:termed a
1305:thereof.
1266:neutrinos
1258:neutrinos
1254:supernova
1220:Supernova
1214:Supernova
1204:supernova
889:red clump
863:Red clump
832:dredge-up
828:CNO cycle
783:red clump
759:Aldebaran
753:stars of
625:mid-sized
621:red dwarf
539:CNO cycle
520:deuterium
495:red giant
248:accretion
241:protostar
199:Protostar
193:Protostar
136:supernova
123:red-giant
4884:Elements
4864:Big Bang
4860:Creation
4750:Category
4645:Remnants
4541:Extremes
4501:Parallax
4474:Apparent
4464:Asterism
4442:Sunlight
4392:Globular
4377:Multiple
4302:Variable
4292:Rotation
4252:Dynamics
4143:Starspot
3817:Magnetar
3760:Remnants
3576:Subgiant
3549:Subdwarf
3401:post-AGB
3180:85458919
3148:: A146.
3052:14254892
2838:☉
2611:Archived
2563:☉
2545:55932331
2457:Stars".
2455:☉
2253:55701280
2200:15585754
2035:′
1645:(2013).
1571:See also
1529:☉
1441:☉
1421:☉
1377:☉
1370:☉
1303:isotopes
1274:neutrons
1270:nucleons
1262:SN 1987A
1199:☉
1192:☉
1162:☉
1143:☉
1136:☉
1110:☉
1086:☉
1075:☉
960:Post-AGB
824:isotopes
795:Subgiant
785:giants.
767:Arcturus
743:☉
720:☉
682:☉
668:universe
618:low-mass
516:hydrogen
485:☉
350:☉
277:infrared
231:10
148:universe
126:a dense
119:subgiant
41:subgiant
5116:Science
5054:Portals
5031:Related
4898:Planets
4890:inside
4717:Gravity
4666:Related
4586:Nearest
4534:Chinese
4382:Cluster
4355:Contact
4192:Proplyd
4066:Remnant
3954:Blitzar
3928:Hawking
3884:Strange
3834:Burster
3790:Neutron
3743:Extreme
3694:He-weak
3339:T Tauri
3160:Bibcode
3022:Bibcode
2944:Bibcode
2897:Bibcode
2895:: L19.
2852:Bibcode
2850:: 791.
2775:Bibcode
2722:Bibcode
2689:1045277
2669:Bibcode
2575:Bibcode
2573:: 206.
2525:Bibcode
2477:Bibcode
2413:Bibcode
2386:Bibcode
2384:: 363.
2331:Bibcode
2280:Bibcode
2278:: 457.
2233:Bibcode
2221:: A81.
2170:Bibcode
2091:6708419
2071:Bibcode
1931:Bibcode
1821:Bibcode
1790:. NASA.
1746:Bibcode
1734:: A76.
1687:Bibcode
1504:pulsars
1287:uranium
1043:Antares
1015:stars (
745:become
648:gravity
632:massive
587:proplyd
105:at the
81:nebulae
4922:Humans
4707:Galaxy
4695:Planet
4683:Desert
4591:bright
4529:Arabic
4350:Binary
4170:Bubble
3894:Planck
3869:Exotic
3805:Binary
3800:Pulsar
3738:Helium
3699:Barium
3642:Carbon
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