National Convention

82: 2728:

able-bodied and home relief "wherever possible for other varieties of the needy," while almsgiving was prohibited. A later public assistance law dated 28 June 1793 provided for state aid to be given through district ‘agencies’ to the aged, children and, for the first time in the history of France, unmarried mothers. In addition, abandoned children were to be received in hospitals until they turned 12, when they were to be apprenticed. A law of 15 October 1793, however, provided for the prohibition of begging and almsgiving and that "departmental maisons de repression are to be established, to set beggars to work." A law on pensions for soldier’s dependents was introduced on 9 February 1794, along with a "Generous and humane" law on pensions for war widows on 4 June 1794. In addition, a law of 11 May 1794 established the Grand Livre de Bienfaisance Nationale, "a register of state pensions benefiting the needy in rural areas."

1570: 283: 1729:(4 December) which set the seal on what had been the gradual development of centralized dictatorship founded on the Terror. In the center was the Convention, whose secular arm was the Committee of Public Safety, vested with immense powers: it interpreted the Convention's decrees and settled their methods of application; under its immediate authority it had all state bodies and all civil servants (even ministers would disappear in April 1794); it directed military and diplomatic activity, appointed generals and members of other committees, subject to ratification by the Convention. It held responsibility for conducting war, public order and the provisioning of the population. The Commune of Paris, a famous 7921: 7856: 7788: 2623: 176: 1061:, also called Brissotins. Historians are divided on the exact make up of the Convention but the current consensus is that the Mountain was the biggest faction with around 302–309 deputies. The Girondins were represented by 178–227 deputies and the Plain was represented by 153–250 deputies. Of the three groups the Mountain was the most cohesive and the Plain was the least cohesive. Over 94% of The Mountain voted similarly on core issues, comparatively the Girondins and the Plain were much more divided with only 70% of Girondins voting similarly on the same issues and only 58% of the Plain voting similarly on the same issues. 1483:. However, the frontier departments had remained faithful to the Convention. The rising was widespread, rather than deep. It was essentially the work of the departmental and district administrations. The communes, which were more popular in composition, showed themselves in general lukewarm or hostile, and federalist leaders soon became divided among themselves. Sincere republicans among them could not fail to be uneasy about the foreign invasion and the Vendée. Those who were seeing themselves rejected by the people sought support from the moderates, the Feuillants and even the aristocrats. 2732:

workers, along with pay for sick leave and disability and death benefits. Other Jacobin welfare projects included the founding of primary schools in some districts, an "egalitarian food policy," and the division and distribution of the land of the emigres. According to one study however, the actual impact of such policies and laws were much more limited, arguing that "Decree after decree proclaimed the eradication of mendacity and the end of chronic deprivation, and ever larger appropriations were ear-marked with seemingly reckless abandon for poor relief…all to no lasting effect."

1260:

unanimous. There was to be no popular referendum, as Girondins had hoped. The fatal vote started on 16 January and continued until the next day. Of the 726 deputies present, 361 declared themselves for the death penalty without condition, 26 voted for death on condition that the Mailhe amendment be applied, 334 were opposed (incl. 44 who voted for death with reprieve), 5 abstained or recused. On 19 January, the question of reprieve was put to a vote: 380 votes were cast against and 310 for (2 voted on condition, 10 abstained or recused). Each time, the Girondins had split.

2172:

demanded that "unity of government" be realized. When called upon to name those whom he was accusing, however, he refused. That failure destroyed him, for it was assumed that he was demanding a blank cheque. That night, an uneasy alliance was formed from threatened deputies and members of The Plain. On the next day, 9 Thermidor, Robespierre and his friends were not allowed to speak, and Louis Louchet of Aveyron called for the indictment of Robespierre, which the convention accepted. The men of the extreme left played the leading roles:

7662: 2522:, 250 deputies, with powers to accept or reject proposed laws. Executive power was to be shared between five Directors chosen by the Ancients from the list drawn by Five Hundred. One of the Directors would be renewed each year with re-election after five years. As one of the practical precautions, no military were allowed within 60 miles of the sitting assembly and it could relocate in case of danger. The Directory still retained great power, including emergency powers to curb freedom of the press and freedom of association. 968:

increased electorate votes, compared to 10.2% of a much smaller electorate in the 1791. The low turn-out was partly due to a fear of victimization; in Paris, Robespierre presided over the elections and, in concert with the radical press, managed to exclude any candidate of royalist sympathies. In the whole of France, only eleven primary assemblies wanted to retain the monarchy. The electoral assemblies all tacitly voted for a "republic", though only Paris used that word. The elections returned the same sort of men that the

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majority of the votes cast, and the assembly would sit for one year. The executive council of 24 members was chosen by the Legislative Assembly from among the 83 candidates chosen by the departments on the basis of universal male suffrage, and in that way, ministers were made responsible to the representatives. The exercise of popular suffrage was widened through the institution of the referendum. The Constitution was to be ratified by the people, as were laws in certain precisely defined circumstances.

2152: 1745:; to save the Republic the government mobilized all the nation's productive forces and reluctantly accepted the need for a controlled economy, which it introduced extemporaneously, as the emergency required. It was necessary to develop war production, revive foreign trade, and find new resources in France itself, and time was short. Circumstances gradually compelled it to assume the economic government of the country. Along with organization of the army, this was the most original feature of its work. 2131:

done in an attempt to please the white colonists and convince them not to join forces with the British. It also gave the colonies the power to control their own laws regarding slavery and allowed for the National Convention to wash their hands of the issue. Three deputies from Saint Domingue traveled to France to attempt to persuade the National Convention to abolish slavery. The National Convention abolished slavery after hearing speeches from the deputies on 4 February 1794. However, the

1463: 1236: 1320: 2603:, to help aid in quelling the insurrection. The rebels outnumbered the Army by the thousands, but because of their preparations the night before, Bonaparte and the armies were able to line the road into Paris with cannons from Sablons Camp. Without a way into Paris, the rebels surrendered to the Convention on Vendémiaire 13. Barras and the Convention gave the armies permission to kill. Within 45 minutes over 300 royalist rebels were dead in front of the Church of 2117:, implemented rights for free men of color that were equal to their white counterparts. On 5 May 1793 Sonthonax and Polverel attacked the plantation system and forced the owners to treat the slaves better and care more for their well-being. Sonthonax then attacked slavery itself by freeing any slave Huzards, Latin for hazards, who had been armed by their masters since they could not return to peaceful plantation life. Polverel issued a proclamation in 2362: 2544: 4465: 2472: 2879:. In six departments no executions were recorded; in 31, there were fewer than 10; in 32, fewer than 100; and only in 18 were there more than 1,000. Charges of rebellion and treason were by far the most frequent grounds for execution (78%), followed by federalism (10%), crimes of opinion (9%) and economic crimes (1.25%). Artisans, shopkeepers. wage-earners and humble folk made up the largest contingent (31%), concentrated in Lyon, 7886: 2884:

than other social categories. In the most sheltered regions, they were the only victims. Furthermore, the "Great Terror" is hardly distinguishable from the rest. In June and July 1794, it accounted for 14% of executions, as against 70% from October 1793 to May 1794, and 3.5% before September 1793. if one adds executions without trial and deaths in prison, a total of 50,000 seems likely, that is 2 per 1,000 of the population.

7831: 817: 2312:, and prisoners were massacred wholesale in gaol or on their way to prison, while in other cities, bands of so-called Companions of the Sun indiscriminately murdered "terrorists", "patriots of '89" and, most eagerly of all, purchasers of former Church properties. Such excesses were deplored in Paris, but the Convention and its Committees were powerless to contain forces that they had themselves done much to unleash. 1248:

divided concerning Louis's fate, with some arguing for royal inviolability, others supporting clemency and still others advocating lesser punishment or banishment. On 13 November, Robespierre stated in the Convention that a Constitution which Louis had violated himself, despite declaring his inviolability, could not be used in his defence. Robespierre had been taken ill and had done little other than support

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brushwood, and even household ashes for manufacturing of potassium salts, and chestnuts for distilling. All businesses were placed at the disposal of the nation: forests, mines, quarries, furnaces, forges, tanneries, paper mills, large cloth factories and shoe making workshops. The labor of men and the value of things were subject to price controls. No one had a right to speculate at the cost of

2168:, in particular, was irritated by the criticisms directed at his plans by Robespierre and Saint-Just. Dispute followed dispute. Bickering broke out on the Committee of Public Safety, with Carnot describing Robespierre and Saint-Just as "ridiculous dictators" and Collot making veiled attacks on the "Incorruptible". From the end of June to 23 July, Robespierre ceased to attend the Committee. 2350:. The government continued to provision Paris but was unable to supply the promised rations. In provinces, local municipalities resorted to some sort of regulations with indirect coercion in obtaining provisions. The misery of rural day laborers, abandoned by everyone, was often appalling. Inflation ruined creditors to the advantage of debtors and unleashed an unprecedented speculation. 1925:). The Hébertists felt that if they increased the pressure, they would triumph once and for all. Although the call appeared like one for insurrection it was probably just for a new demonstration, like the one in September. However, the Committee of Public Safety decided on 22 Ventôse Year II (12 March 1794) that the Hébertists posed too serious a threat. The Committee linked Hébert, 1722:

itself above all, and choose those popular demands which were most suitable for achieving the Assembly's aims: to crush the enemies of the Republic and dash the last hopes of the aristocracy. To govern in the name of the Convention, at the same time controlling it, and to restrain the people without quenching their enthusiasm—this was a gamble.

1014:

night. Sometimes in exceptional circumstances, the Convention declared itself in permanent session and sat for several days without interruption. For both legislative and administrative the Convention used committees, with powers more or less widely extended and regulated by successive laws. The most famous of these committees included the

2450:), managed to obtain the passage of decrees favorable to the rebels. But at 11:30 p.m. two armed columns entered the chamber and cleared out the rioters. The next day insurgents repeated the same mistakes and after receiving promises from the deputies to take speedy measures against the famine, returned to the sections. 1717:

twelve committee members at loggerheads; Barère was more a man of the Convention than of the committee and was a link with The Plain. Robert Lindet had qualms about the Terror which, by contrast, was the outstanding theme of Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, latecomers to the committee, forced on it by the

1081:". Three days later, the corollary that "the French republic is one and indivisible" was added to guard against federalism. A republic had been proclaimed but remained to enact a republican government. The country was little more republican in feeling or practice than it had been before at any time since 2171:

Realizing the danger of fragmentation, they attempted a reconciliation. Saint-Just and Couthon favored it, but Robespierre doubted the sincerity of his enemies. It was he who brought about the fatal intervention of the Convention. On 8 Thermidor, Year II (26 July 1794), he denounced his opponents and

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Ultimately, the Committee had undermined its own support by eliminating the Dantonists and Hébertists, both of which had backed the Committee. By compelling the Convention to allow the arrests of the Girondins and Dantonists, the Committee believed that it had destroyed its major opposition. However,

1311:

Girondins were convinced that their opponents aspired to a bloody dictatorship, but the Montagnards believed that the Girondins were ready for any compromise with conservatives and even royalists to guarantee their remaining in power. The bitter enmity soon reduced the Convention to a state of limbo.

2858:

17,000 victims names distributed according to specific geographical areas: 52% in the Vendee, 19% in the south-east, 10% in the capital and 13% in the rest of France. The distinction is between zones of turmoil and an insignificant proportion of rural areas. Between departments, the contrast becomes

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But how to make sure that the new elected body would not overturn the constitution as it was before with Legislative Assembly? Thermidorians attempted this on 5 Fructidor (22 August) by voting for a decree on "formation of a new legislative body". Article II stipulated: "All members presently active

1831:

For the first time since the Roman Empire, a government succeeded in arming and feeding great numbers of soldiers. The technical innovations resulted chiefly from its sheer size as well the strategy that developed from it. The old system of cordons lost its prestige. Moving between the armies of the

1800:

During the summer the requisition of the levy was completed and by July the total strength of the army reached 650,000. The difficulties were tremendous. The war production just started in September. The army was in the middle of the purge. In the spring of 1794, the amalgamation was undertaken. Two

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So long as it remained united, the Committee was virtually invulnerable, but it had scarcely attained the apogee of its power before signs of internal conflict appeared. The Committee of Public Safety had never been a homogeneous body. It was a coalition cabinet. Its members were kept together less

2130:

On 12 October 1790 the National Convention declared the only body of power who could control the status of people in the colonies were committees in the colonies themselves, which meant although free blacks met the requirement for active citizenship, the white colonists would not allow it. That was

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and Pereira, so as to present the Hébertists as parties to the "foreign plot". All were executed on 4 Germinal (24 March). This move largely silenced the Hébertists, now without their leadership. Having succeeded in stifling dissent on the left, the Committee then turned on the Dantonists, several

1776:

Only to the wage earners did the Maximum seem thoroughly advantageous. It increased wages by one-half in relation to 1790, and commodities by only one-third. But since the Committee did not ensure that it was respected (except for bread), they would have been duped had they not been benefiting from

1652:

The dictatorship of the Convention and the committees, simultaneously supported and controlled by the Parisian sections, representing the sovereign people in permanent session, lasted from June to September. It governed through a network of institutions set up haphazardly since spring in March, the

1283:

The Assembly began harmoniously, but within a few days the Girondins launched a bitter attack on their Montagnard opponents. Conflict continued without interruption until the expulsion of the Girondin leaders from the Convention on 2 June 1793. The Girondins had relied on votes from the majority of

1259:

The trial began on 10 December. The Montagnards put the debate on the ideological level. Louis XVI was classified as an enemy, who was alien to the body of the nation and as a "usurper". Balloting began on 15 January 1793. Each deputy explained his vote at the rostrum. The vote against the king was

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and, pushing aside the palace guards, burst into the chamber where the Convention met. Amidst the uproar, spokesmen of the sections outlined the people's grievances. Reliable battalions of National Guard were called and demonstrators, lacking arms and leaders, were forced to withdraw. For the most

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Whatever reasons the conspirators had behind 9 Thermidor, the events afterwards went beyond their intentions. Evidently, the remaining members on the Committees counted on staying in office and currying the favour of the Jacobin dictatorship, as though nothing more had happened than a party purge.

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The Jacobin dictatorship could hope to remain in power only so long as it was dealing successfully with a national emergency. As soon as its political opponents had been destroyed, and its foreign enemies defeated, it would lose the chief force that kept it together. The Jacobin fall happened more

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lost the War Office, the Cordeliers Club was forced to self-censor and the Government pressure brought about closing 39 popular societies. The Paris Commune, controlled by sans-culottes, was purged and filled with Committee nominees. With the execution of the Dantonists, many of the members of the

1721:

in September; unlike Robespierre and his friends, Lazare Carnot had given his support only provisionally and for reasons of state to a policy concession to the people. But the situation which united them in the summer of 1793 was stronger than those differences of opinion. The Committee had to set

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on 21 September 1792 left open the fate of the former king. A commission was therefore established to examine the evidence against him while the Convention's Legislation Committee considered legal aspects of any future trial. Most Montagnards favoured judgment and execution, but the Girondins were

1013:

According to its own ruling, the Convention elected its President every fortnight, and the outgoing President was eligible for re-election after the lapse of a fortnight. Ordinarily, the sessions were held in the morning, but evening sessions also occurred frequently, often extending late into the

927:

and the convocation of a National Convention to draw up a new constitution with no monarchy. The other major innovation was to decree that deputies to that Convention should be elected by all Frenchmen twenty-one years old or more, domiciled for a year and living by the product of their labor. The

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and neighboring small towns. Because of the peasant rebellion in the Vendée, peasants are more heavily represented (28%) than the federalist and merchant bourgeoisie. Nobles (8.25%) and priests (6.5%), who would seem to have been relatively spared, actually provided a higher proportion of victims

2727:

A number of social welfare policies and programs were introduced under the National Convention. Under a public assistance law of 19 March 1793, various principles were established such as state aid to be distributed according to population in each department, while work was to be provided to the

2510:

The constitution went back to the distinction between active and passive citizens. Only citizens over twenty-five years old, disposing of an income of two hundred days of work, were eligible to be electors. This electoral body, which held the real power, included 30,000 people, half as many as in

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complained that "We are on the verge of regretting all the sacrifices that we have made for the Revolution." Police law was passed which lay down the death penalty for use of seditious language. Arms were distributed to the "good citizens", the faithful nucleus of the National Guard. The trial of

2319:

was relaxed even before 9 Thermidor. Now virtually nobody believed in price controls any longer. Because the black market was plentifully supplied, the idea took hold that price controls equalled scarcity and that free trade, therefore, would bring back abundance. It was generally supposed by the

2244:

They were speedily disabused of that notion. Robespierrists might go out and Dantonists come in. The Convention had recovered its initiative and would put an end, once and for all, to the dictatorial committees government, which had ousted it from power. It was decreed that no member of governing

2183:

On hearing the news the Paris Commune, loyal to the man who had inspired it, called for an insurrection and released the arrested deputies in the evening and mobilized two or three thousand militants. The night of 9–10 Thermidor was one of great confusion in Paris, as the Commune and the Assembly

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on 21 June 1793, which freed all slaves who agreed to fight for the French Republic from both internal and external threats. The commissaires then ruled that the Republic would pay an indemnity to the owners of female slaves marrying free men and that all children of that union would be free. The

1716:

The committee was always managed collegially, despite the specific nature of the tasks of each director: the division into "politicians" and "technicians" was a Thermidorian invention, intended to lay the corpses of the Terror at the door of the Robespierrists alone. Many things, however, set the

1556:

The lack of forethought displayed by the Convention during the first few days was redeemed by its vigor and skill in organizing measures of repression. Warrants were issued for the arrest of the rebellious Girondin leaders. The members of the revolting departmental administration were deprived of

1412:

The Montagnards attempted to reassure the middle classes by rejecting any idea of terror, by protecting property rights and by restricting the popular movement to very narrowly-circumscribed limits. It was a delicate balance to achieve, a balance that was destroyed in July by the worsening of the

2453:

On 3 Prairial the government assembled loyal troops, chasseurs and dragoons, national guardsmen, selected from those "who had fortune to preserve"—20,000 men in all. Faubourg Saint-Antoine was surrounded and on 4 Prairial surrendered and was disarmed. Uncertainty about how to react, hesitancy in

2035:

At the summit of the apparatus of the Terror sat the Committee of General Security, the state's second organization. It consisted of twelve members elected each month by the Convention, and vested with security, surveillance and police functions, including over civil and military authorities. It

2731:

A decree of June 1793, as noted by one study, "proposed to provide the services of physicians, nurses, midwives, and apothecaries to the sick poor." A variety of local and concrete welfare projects were pursued by the Jacobins, including a program that provided for free healthcare for armaments

1748:

All material resources were subjected to requisitioning. Farmers surrendered their grain, fodder, wool, flax, and hemp. Artisans and merchants gave up their manufactured products. Raw materials were carefully sought out: metal of all kinds, church bells, old paper, rags and parchments, grasses,

1632:

again encircled the Convention to demand the setting up of an internal revolutionary army, the arrest of suspects and a purge of the committees. It was probably the key day in the formation of the revolutionary government: the convention yielded, but kept control of events. It put Terror on the

1560:

The regions in which the revolt was dangerous were precisely those in which a large number of royalists had remained. There was no room for a third party between the Mountain, which was identified with the Republic, and royalism, which was the ally of the enemy. The royalist insurrection in the

2093:

wanted to have representation, 21 members because of their population size and contribution to the economy. That was shot down by the National Convention as the majority of their population were slaves and thus had no rights as citizens and contributed nothing to representative population. The

1447:

The Constitution was submitted for popular ratification and adopted by a huge margin of more than 1,801,918 in favour to some 17,610 against. The results of the plebiscite were made public on 10 August 1793, but the application of the Constitution, the text of which was placed in an ark in the

1443:

The chief aim of the Constitution was to ensure the major role of the deputies in the Convention, which was seen as being the essential basis for political democracy. The Legislative Assembly was to be elected by direct vote cast for a single member, deputies were elected on receiving a simple

1408:

In June the Montagnards played for time. On 3 June the sale of the property of emigrants, in small parcels and payable in ten years, was decreed; on the 10 June, the optional division of common lands by head; and on 17 July, the abolition, without compensation, of all that remained of manorial

2506:

The new constitution went back to the constitution of 1791 as to the dominant ideology of the country. Equality was certainly confirmed, but within the limits of civil equality. Numerous democratic rights of the constitution of 1793—the right to work, to relief, to education—were omitted. The

1404:

Scarcely had the Gironde been eliminated when the Convention, now under Montagnard leadership, found itself caught between two threats. While the federalist revolt gained strength, the popular movement, roused to fury by high prices, was increasing the pressure it exercised on the government.

967:

took place from 2 to 10 September 1792 after the election of the electoral colleges by primary assemblies on 26 August. Despite the introduction of universal male suffrage, the turn-out was low, though the election saw an increase in comparison to the 1791 elections—in 1792 11.9% of a greatly

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at their head, called for a planned economy from a Convention, which had no liking for the idea. However, the revolutionary logic of the mobilization of resources by national dictatorship was infinitely more powerful than economic doctrine. In August, a series of decrees gave the authorities

1193:

resisted the idea of centralization. They saw the idea being symbolised by the desire to reduce the capital of the Revolution to a minuscule share of influence. Much of the Gironde wished to remove the Assembly from a city dominated by "agitators and flatterers of the people" but did not yet

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the trials demonstrated the Committee's lack of respect for members of the Convention, several of whom had been executed. Many Convention members who had sided with the Committee by mid-1794 no longer supported it. The Committee had acted as mediator between the Convention and the

2164:

by comradeship or common ideals than by calculation and routine. The press of business, which at first prevented personal quarrels, also produced tired nerves. Trifling differences were exaggerated into the issues of life and death. Small disputes estranged them from one another.

1478:

Indeed, the Montagnards faced dramatic circumstances: federalist insurrection, war in the Vendée, military failures and a worsening economic situation. Despite everything, a new civil war could not be avoided. By the middle of June, about 60 departments were in more or less

1275:. Within the nation, "voters" and "appellants", those against or for the execution of Louis, swore undying hatred of each other. The rest of Europe, fearing the outcome of the French Revolution in their own countries, decreed a war of extermination against regicides. 1801:

battalions of volunteers joined one battalion of regulars to constitute a demi-brigade, or regiment. At the same time, the command was reconstituted. The purge ended with most of the nobles excluded. The new generation reached the highest ranks, and the War College (

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to end the slave trade in the colonies, the National Convention refused on the grounds of slavery being too core to the French economic wealth. The committee felt "six million French people relied on the colonies to survive" and continued to stand by the argument.

2645:

Anchel (1911) concludes, "The work of the Convention was immense in all branches of public affairs. To appreciate it without prejudice, one should recall that this assembly saved France from a civil war and invasion, that it founded the system of public education

1561:

Vendée had already led the Convention to take a long step in the direction of the Terror: that is to say, the dictatorship of central power and the suppression of liberties. The Girondin insurrection now prompted it to take a decisive step in the same direction.

1891:

Following the Hébertists would jeopardize revolutionary unity, and giving in to the demands of the moderates would have undermined both the Terror and the controlled economy. However, unity, centralization and the Terror were all considered essential to the war

1212:

The Plain was a third faction during the Convention. It derived its name from their place on the floor of the Convention. During the start of the Convention, they sided with the Girondins, however, as it progressed and the Montagnards began to push for the

1386:: "If any attack made on the persons of the representatives of the nation, then I declare to you in the name of the whole country that Paris would be destroyed". On the next day, the Jacobins declared themselves in a state of insurrection. On 28 May, the 1597:. The second, which had formidable powers, is less well known than the first, which was the true executive authority and was armed with immense prerogatives. It dated from April, but its composition was thoroughly reshuffled during the summer of 1793. 2561:

But the Convention had not taken into account those Paris sections who were against Two-Thirds decrees and failed to provide precise vote figures: 47 Parisian sections had rejected the decrees. Eighteen of the Paris sections contested the result. The

2806:

The Convention had therefore been elected by small minority of the population, but those who were the most determined. That explains the ambiguity of the word "popular" when it is applied to this period: "popular" the French Revolution was certainly

2324:

economists within France that prices would at first rise but that then they would fall as a result of competition. This illusion, however, was to be shattered in the winter of 1794–1795. Formally, the National Convention had put the end to the

1874:, which formed in response to the increasing centralization of the Revolutionary Government and the dictatorship of the Committees. The Dantonists were led predominately by deputies of the Convention (rather than the sans-culottes), including 1312:

Debate after debate degenerated into verbal brawling from which no decision could emerge. The political deadlock, which had repercussions all over France, eventually drove men to accept dangerous allies: royalists in the case of Girondins,

2336:

That winter, the abandonment of the controlled economy provoked a frightful catastrophe. Prices soared and the rate of exchange fell. The Republic was condemned to massive inflation and its currency was ruined. In Thermidor, Year III,

1712:

on 6 September. They had a few clear ideas to which they clung: to command, to fight, and to conquer. Their work in common, the danger, the taste of and pride in power created solidarity that made the Committee an autonomous organism.

1619:

discretionary powers over the production and circulation of grain and ferocious punishments for fraud. "Granaries of plenty" were prepared, to stock corn requisitioned by authorities in each district. On 23 August, the decree on the

1288:, but their insistence on monopolising all positions of authority during the Convention, and their attacks on the Montagnard leaders, soon irritated them and caused them to regard the party as a faction. One by one, deputies such as 2403:, and the implementation of the constitution of 1793. While in the sections of the center and the west formal addresses called for the punishment of the "Four" and passed over the food shortages, the sections of the east and the 2036:

employed a large staff, headed the gradually constituted network of local revolutionary committees and applied the law on suspects by sifting through the thousands of local denunciations and arrests, which it then had to try.

81: 1395:

surrounded the Convention. After an attempt of deputies to leave was stopped with guns, the deputies resigned themselves to declare the arrest of 29 leading Girondins. In that way, the Gironde ceased to be a political force.

2088:

The monarchy made a distinction between French soil on the mainland and soil under French control such as the colonies. That distinction allowed for slavery to be illegal in France but continue in the colonies. Colonists in

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members of which were implicated in financial corruption. The Committee forced the Convention to lift the parliamentary immunity of nine Dantonist deputies, allowing them to be put on trial. On 5 April Dantonist leaders

1390:

section called the other sections to a meeting in order to organize the insurrection. On 29 May, the delegates representing 33 of the sections formed an insurrectionary committee of nine members. On 2 June, 80,000 armed

1653:

Revolutionary Tribunal and representatives on missions in the departments and was followed the next month by the Convention's representatives to the armies, also armed with unlimited powers; and enforced acceptance of

1154:, a region of France from which many of the deputies of this faction were elected (although many "Girondins" were actually Parisian by origin) and were also known as the Brissotins after their most prominent speaker, 1969:

were stunned by the Hébertists' execution. All positions of influence traditionally held by the sans-culottes were eliminated. The Revolutionary Army was disbanded, the inspectors of food-hoarding were dismissed,

1435:

The Declaration of Rights, which precedes the text of the Constitution, solemnly reaffirmed the nation's indivisibility and the great principles of equality, liberty, security, and property. In contrast to the

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The stability of the government was weakening. Next came the concentration of power, another revolutionary principle. The identification of the Committee of Public Safety with the executive was ended on 7

1785:

and the formation of the revolutionary army were thinning their ranks; many now were working in arms and equipment shops or in the offices of the committees and ministries, which were expanded enormously.

2834:

developed, they grouped themselves to the right and left of the President's chair, whiles the extreme Jacobins found a place of vantage in the higher seats at the end of the hall, which came to be called

9008: 1753:

while it was in danger. Armaments caused more concern. As early as September 1793 efforts were made to create a large factory in Paris for rifles and sidearms. A special appeal was made to scientists.

4948: 2893:

Barras reference to "Faubourg Saint-Antoin whose attachment to the cause of liberty is well known" in subsequent report offers curious commentary to the official evolution since journees of prairial.

2511:

1791. Later, the age limit was reduced to twenty-one. Guided by recent experience, institutions were set up to protect the Republic from two dangers: the omnipotence of an assembly and dictatorship.

2457:

4 Prairial Year III is one of the crucial dates of the revolutionary period. The people had ceased to be a political force, participants in history. They were now no more than victims or spectators.

3292: 2934: 2570:

seven sections were in state of revolt, sections which were the base of the Convention since 9 Thermidor and now won by the far right if not royalists. The Convention declared itself permanent. The

2221:

and nineteen of their political allies were executed without trial. The following day, it was the turn of a large batch of 71 men, the largest mass execution in the entire course of the Revolution.

1832:

Coalition, the French could maneuver along interior lines, deploy part of their troops along the frontiers and take advantage of the inaction of any one of their enemies to beat the others. Acting

2558:

On 23 September the results were announced: the constitution was accepted by 1,057,390 votes, with 49,978 against. The Two-Thirds decrees obtained only 205,498 votes in favor and 108,754 against.

2525:

The Constitution generally was accepted favorably, even by those on the right, who were hopeful for the upcoming elections and even more happy to get rid of the legislative body so hated by them.

1889:

Putting the needs of national defense above all other considerations, the Committee of Public Safety had no intentions of giving in to the demands of either the popular movement or the moderates.

1329:

Thus, the struggle within the Convention continued without results. The decision was to come from outside. Since the king's trial, the sans-culottes had been constantly assailing the "appealers" (

6322: 2415:

people it was the constitution of 1793—seen as a liberating utopia—which represented the solution to all evils. There were others who openly regretted the passing of "the reign of Robespierre".

912:, it was the first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether. The Convention sat as a single-chamber assembly from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (4 7985: 2273:(24 August), restricting it to its former domain of war and diplomacy. The Committee of General Security kept its control over the police. There was now to be a total of sixteen committees. 2043:, "The severity of repressive measures in the provinces was in direct proportion to danger of revolt." Many outspoken members of the community were tried and executed for claims of treason. 1353:

to portray Girondins as soft. The Montagnards proposed measures, but the Girondins were reluctant to take such measures. The Girondins were forced to accept the Montagnards' creation of the

4996: 5149: 5047: 5115: 5098: 1537:

In addition were other incidents that compounded the fury of the revolutionaries and convinced them that their opponents had abandoned all restraint of civilized behavior. On 13 July,

7684: 1428: 2343:

were worth less than 3% of their face value. Neither peasants nor merchants would accept anything but cash. The debacle was so swift that economic life seemed to come to standstill.

983:, an immense hall in which the deputies were loosely scattered. The Salle des Machines had galleries for the public who often influenced the debates with interruptions or applause. 2407:

demanded measures to deal with the grain crisis, the implementation of the constitution of 1793, the reopening of the popular societies and the release of the imprisoned patriots.

5166: 2387:(30 March) all the sections called their general assemblies. The political geography of Paris emerged clearly from this. Convention debate was centered on two issues: the fate of 2139:

to the abolition of slavery. The issue was eventually resolved by the Committee circumventing Robespierre and ordering the abolition decree to be sent to Saint Domingue. However,

2054:

Deputies sent as "representatives on mission" by the Committee of Public Safety, armed with full powers, reacted according to both the local situation and their own temperaments.

4890: 5427: 5081: 2296:, notorious as the public prosecutor of the Great Terror of the late spring and summer of 1794, after which the Revolutionary Tribunal was quietly put aside. Yet an unofficial 2253:) from the ranks of the Convention. In November the Jacobin club was closed. Anti-Robespierrist but also anti-Jacobin reaction was in full flood. At the beginning of September 5231: 5132: 4979: 2479:

The victors now could set up a new constitution, the task the National Convention was originally elected for. The Commission of Eleven (the most notable members of which were

1088:

When the Convention met the military situation was undergoing an extraordinary transformation that seemed to confirm the Girondin prophecies of easy victory. After Valmy, the

5064: 5013: 2529:

in the Convention are re-eligible. Election assemblies may not take fewer than two-thirds of them to form the legislative body". This was known as the Law of the Two-Thirds.

5200: 2196:

were left without instructions and little by little they dispersed and left the square deserted. Around two o'clock in the morning, a column from Gravilliers section led by

1894:

In order to balance the contradictory demands of these two factions, the Revolutionary Government attempted to maintain a position halfway between the moderate Dantonists (

2741: 2277:, while aware of the dangers of fragmentation, were even more worried by its experience of monopoly of powers. In a few weeks the revolutionary government was dismantled. 5248: 5183: 5030: 4477: 2614:

in the south was stopped. On 4 Brumaire Year IV, just before breaking up, the Convention voted a general amnesty for "deeds exclusively connected with the Revolution".

5549: 2811:

in the sense of participation by the people in public affairs. But if the word "popular" is taken to mean that revolutionary policy was formed under pressure from the

1256:

consisting of Louis's personal communications with bankers and ministers. At his trial, he claimed not to recognise documents that had been clearly signed by himself.

1252:, who gave his first major speech, in his argument against the king's inviolability. On 20 November, opinion turned sharply against Louis following the discovery of a 4743: 9774: 8670: 5534: 1413:

crisis. The Convention rapidly approved the new constitution in the hope to clear itself of the charge of dictatorship and calm the anxieties of the departments.

9554: 1836:, and overwhelming the foe by sheer numbers were Carnot's principles. They were still untried and not until Bonaparte appeared did they enjoy any great success. 7551: 5893: 2143:'s attempt to return to slavery in 1801 removed France's state of being the first to abolish slavery and led to the loss of the most prosperous French colony. 3565: 7925: 5529: 2188:

was given the task of mustering an armed force, and the moderate sections gave their support. The National Guardsmen and artillerymen assembled outside the

1586: 8715: 2938: 2353:

At the beginning of spring in March–April 1795, scarcity was such that more unrest appeared almost everywhere. The city of Paris was 'active' once again.

2021:

was nominated president. The Terror was meant to discourage support for the enemies of the Revolution by condemning outspoken critics of the Montagnards.

8947: 6037: 5420: 2588:

were appointed to deal with the crisis. A decree of 12 Vendémiaire (4 October) repealed the former disarmament of the former terrorists and an appeal to

2436: 1862:

approved it. The Hébertists preferred to side with the Montagnards so long as they could hope to control the Convention through them. They dominated the

1437: 860: 2817:

movement and organized minorities, and received an egalitarian impetus from them, then yes, the Revolution had well and truly entered its "popular" age.

8337: 7238: 7193: 7100: 7047: 6978: 6848: 6822: 6739: 6636: 6563: 2826:

During the early meetings of the Convention the deputies had sat indiscriminately, where they pleased. But it was noticed that, as the quarrel between

2284:

was repealed, the prisons were opened and "suspects" were released: 500 in Paris in a single week. A few public trials were staged, including those of

2024:

The great political trials began in October. The queen was guillotined on 16 October. A special decree stifled the defense of 21 Girondins, including

2001:

Though the Terror was organized in September 1793, it was not introduced until October. It had resulted from a popular movement. A new chapter of the

5327: 1405:

Meanwhile, the Government was proving incapable of controlling the situation. In July 1793, the nation appeared to be on the point of falling apart.

8645: 7873: 5569: 4410: 2585: 2185: 7933: 5456: 7726: 5413: 4953: 4918: 3955:

Andress, David, and Manuel Covo. "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution." The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution, 2015, 6.

943:

and his allies dominated the Committee of Public Safety, represent the most radical and bloodiest phase of the French Revolution, known as the

2249:

was repealed and the Revolutionary Tribunal shorn of its abnormal powers. The Commune was replaced with a Commission of Civil Administrators (

10137: 10132: 10127: 10122: 9880: 9446: 5618: 1070: 683: 8072: 7868: 5658: 8264: 8206: 7995: 6081: 2496: 1649:, on the 17th voted in the law on suspects, and on the 20th gave the local revolutionary committees the task of drawing up lists of them. 1569: 5809: 5668: 5613: 5588: 5500: 5451: 4854:

Moitt, Bernard. Women and Slavery in the French Antilles, 1635–1848. Blacks in the Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.

2787: 2346:

The crisis was greatly aggravated by famine. Peasants finally stopped bringing any produce to market because they did not wish to accept

4486: 2443:) was read. In the chaos, none of the ringleaders thought of implementing the key item of the program: the overthrow of the government. 10142: 8695: 8052: 7391: 5732: 1909:

to demand stringent measures, and at first, the Committee proved conciliatory. The Convention voted 10 million livres for relief, on 3

9219: 7818: 5344: 1809: 8650: 8102: 8005: 5154: 2488: 10087: 6272: 5103: 3030: 2599:

was tasked with putting down the royalist rebels and keep them from attacking the Convention. He recruited other generals, such as

1480: 1365: 964: 189: 8229: 5900: 5001: 9045: 8998: 8067: 7980: 7441: 5717: 853: 7636: 5648: 5052: 2039:

The goal was to strike down alleged enemies of the Revolution, in the provinces and elsewhere, of various classes. According to

10112: 9594: 9579: 9496: 8906: 8680: 8397: 6005: 5559: 5120: 4196:

Histoire generale de la revolution francaise, de l'empire, de la Restauration, de la monarchie de 1830, jusques et compris 1841

2280:

The measures affected, finally, the instruments of the Terror and opened numerous breaches in the apparatus of repression. The

1701: 987: 901: 5643: 3910: 3856: 2184:

competed for the support of the sections and their troops. The Convention proclaimed that the rebels were henceforth outlaws.

1770: 1308:

began to gravitate towards the Montagnards, and the majority, The Plain, as it was called, held itself aloof from both sides.

986:

The members of the Convention came from all classes of society, but the most numerous were lawyers. 75 members had sat in the

9347: 7808: 7747: 7705: 7536: 5989: 5692: 5510: 5505: 5495: 4661: 4600: 2998: 2378: 994:. The full number of deputies was 749, not counting 33 from the French colonies, of whom only some arrived in Paris in time. 503: 8710: 8254: 7762: 6314: 5628: 9978: 8171: 7588: 7481: 6405: 5086: 2123: 935:

Although the Convention lasted until 1795, power was effectively delegated by the Convention and concentrated in the small

38: 17: 7461: 5673: 5339: 5302: 5171: 4984: 3054: 1805:) received six young men from each district to improve the staff. Army commanders were to be appointed by the Convention. 1608:

and its squadron had been handed over to the enemy. In the name of the wretched poverty of the people, the leaders of the

9701: 9464: 9120: 9110: 8685: 8640: 7813: 6965: 6726: 5981: 5653: 5593: 1844:

As late as September 1793, there were two distinct wings among the revolutionaries. Firstly, those who were later called

1604:

disturbances reach a peak under a double banner: price fixing and terror. On top came the news of unprecedented treason:

1511: 621: 8186: 8140: 5205: 2102:

breaking out. The French showed a much greater willingness to act on the issue of slavery when the threat of a war with

9549: 9003: 8993: 7757: 7063: 6713: 5697: 4911: 4857:

Quinney, Valerie. "Decisions on Slavery, the Slave-Trade and Civil Rights for Negroes in the Early French Revolution."

4802: 3196: 846: 8382: 7593: 7568: 5376: 5236: 5137: 2507:

Convention wanted to define rights and simultaneously reject both the privilege of the old order and social leveling.

2454:

action, and lack of revolutionary leadership had doomed the popular movement to throw away its last chance in battle.

1905:

But at the end of the winter of 1793–94, the shortage of food took a sharp turn for the worse. The Hébertists incited

9521: 9506: 8377: 7718: 7679: 7225: 6856: 5886: 5837: 5539: 5471: 5069: 5018: 4837: 4783: 4760: 4699: 4680: 4642: 4623: 4581: 4562: 4543: 4506: 3271: 3241: 2315:

The destruction of the system of revolutionary government eventually brought about the end of the 'Economic Terror'.

1938: 1375: 782: 7426: 975:

On 20 September the Convention held its first session in the "Salle des Cent-Suisses", the next day it moved to the

10097: 9789: 9630: 9584: 8372: 8279: 7613: 6089: 6029: 5742: 5663: 5598: 2688:, and definitely established the social and political gains of the Revolution." By a decree of 4 February 1794 (16 735: 8807: 8595: 8522: 5554: 3558: 2705: 2480: 2110: 10117: 10102: 8748: 8457: 7396: 5858: 5830: 5802: 5737: 5712: 5638: 5623: 5279: 5253: 2098:

in France originally opposed slavery during the 1780s, but much of the opposition was ignored as a result of the

2095: 804: 522: 8590: 8487: 8077: 7071: 5188: 5035: 2669: 2135:

delayed sending the proclamation to the colonies for two months. That was because of the apparent opposition of

1971: 1867: 1852:

himself was never the official leader of a party that advocated war to the death and adopted the program of the

10082: 9809: 9384: 8983: 8585: 8362: 7055: 6193: 6045: 5766: 5707: 5297: 3302: 2109:

In 1792 the National Convention agreed to delegate 3 commissaries for Saint Domingue. Two of the commissaires,

1777:

the favorable conditions that a great war always offers the labor force. Still Paris became calmer because the

1705: 1634: 1490:, the symbol of previous successes, capitulated to the Prussians, and the Austrians captured the fortresses of 948: 909: 7990: 5318: 10092: 9732: 9352: 9293: 9288: 8988: 7511: 6986: 6830: 6809: 6747: 6667: 6530: 6265: 6185: 6150: 5761: 5564: 5520: 5386: 5366: 4904: 2661: 2419: 2010: 1594: 1185:

created friction among the people that served as a propaganda tool and combat weapon for the two groups. The

1159: 1019: 905: 799: 792: 777: 765: 750: 552: 140: 9374: 7421: 7411: 6098: 2122:

National Convention eventually allowed for six representative members for the colony. When pressured by the

1342: 1105: 1069:

The first session was held on 20 September 1792. The following day, the assembly agreed to the proposition "

10060: 9799: 9278: 9115: 8700: 8387: 8284: 7775: 7752: 7697: 7583: 7526: 6413: 6345: 5702: 5633: 5356: 4927: 2466: 2400: 2018: 7692: 6495: 5608: 475: 9917: 9637: 9511: 9501: 9249: 9090: 9038: 8802: 8427: 8322: 8201: 8181: 8092: 8021: 7843: 7341: 7108: 6801: 6654: 6142: 5603: 2424:

But it was not the end. A new explosion was on the horizon. Insurrection was being openly prepared. On 1

2214: 1918: 1828:, and a host of others, backed by officers who combined abilities as soldiers and their political sense. 1673: 1585:

The Constituent Assembly had legislated through its commissions. The Convention governed by means of its

1422: 1249: 991: 969: 772: 8625: 8477: 7491: 7386: 6624: 5544: 1930: 10107: 9828: 9749: 9516: 9426: 9405: 9105: 9095: 9085: 8937: 8492: 7471: 6695: 6644: 6576: 6476: 6260: 6169: 5956: 5795: 4864:

Nash, Gary B. "Reverberations of Haiti in the American North: Black Saint Dominguans in Philadelphia."

4402: 3153:

Kim, Minchul (2018). "Pierre-Antoine Antonelle and representative democracy in the French Revolution".

2132: 2006: 1645:

for grain and fodder (general controls for prices, and wages on the 29th), on the 14th reorganized the

1590: 1358: 1015: 980: 936: 929: 917: 787: 755: 730: 290: 262: 248: 8472: 8234: 7366: 5771: 5727: 5722: 2622: 1951: 1934: 1879: 1641:

to the Committee of Public Safety, on the 9th created the revolutionary army, on the 11th decreed the

10008: 9764: 9679: 9652: 9569: 9364: 9209: 8952: 8537: 8269: 8112: 7967: 7770: 7333: 7209: 7132: 7010: 6994: 5776: 5490: 2634: 2492: 1795: 1190: 1170:, they got their name from the high bleachers on which they sat while the Convention was in session. 356: 299: 8847: 8392: 8224: 8000: 7381: 2596: 1741:

Administrative and economic centralization went hand in hand. The state of siege forced France into

9589: 9559: 9164: 8660: 8507: 8462: 7792: 7787: 7531: 7361: 7351: 7164: 7148: 7026: 6941: 6788: 6772: 6675: 6449: 6013: 923:

The Convention came about when the Legislative Assembly decreed the provisional suspension of King

318: 175: 8087: 2191: 1975:

National Convention lost trust in the Committee and even began to fear for their personal safety.

1965:

The execution of the leaderships of both rival factions caused some to become disillusioned. Many

1491: 1005: 9845: 9727: 9674: 9620: 9574: 9263: 8512: 8467: 8176: 8057: 7734: 7556: 7180: 7087: 6755: 6571: 6514: 6429: 6134: 5973: 5026: 4885: 2515: 1983:

from which they both had acquired their strength. By executing the Hébertists and alienating the

1926: 1527: 1264: 760: 740: 433: 154: 8517: 8412: 7466: 3308: 1817: 1677: 465: 9950: 9912: 9870: 9855: 9647: 9469: 9369: 9031: 8302: 8135: 7739: 7431: 7416: 7289: 7156: 7034: 6780: 6700: 6369: 6244: 6236: 6126: 5683: 5218: 4935: 2771: 2697: 2693: 2432: 2002: 1646: 1354: 1334: 1268: 1230: 1214: 1155: 951:, the Convention lasted for another year until a new constitution was written, ushering in the 940: 745: 693: 572: 7246: 5335: 4403:"Napoleon and Counter-Revolutionary Royalists – 13 Vendémiaire Year 4 – Napoleon & Empire" 2988: 2653: 2514:

Bicameral legislature as a precaution against sudden political fluctuations was proposed: the

1526:'s revolt expelled the French from the island with British support. British troops opened the 1333:), quickly came to desire their expulsion from the Convention and demanded the establishing a 9875: 9865: 9657: 9481: 9389: 9324: 8842: 8156: 8107: 8042: 7573: 7456: 7446: 7324: 7319: 7217: 7172: 6925: 6872: 6690: 6680: 6619: 6609: 6604: 6361: 6217: 5865: 5442: 5266: 4966: 2484: 2285: 2239: 1825: 1725:

The ensemble of institutions, measures and procedures which constituted it was codified in a

1244: 1186: 1101: 1038: 1034: 893: 703: 630: 592: 532: 68: 6901: 4515:

Andress, David, and Manuel Covo. "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution." In

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and entered the sitting chamber. After an hour of uproar, "The Insurrection of the People" (

9900: 9441: 9379: 9268: 9159: 8781: 8655: 8417: 8239: 8161: 8010: 7618: 7608: 7401: 7116: 6933: 6880: 6685: 6468: 5752: 4519:, The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution, Chapter 017. Oxford University Press, 2015. 1293: 1272: 1174: 1113: 885: 582: 308: 31: 8097: 7578: 7496: 6649: 6594: 5372: 3083:

Patrick, Alison (1969). "Political Divisions in the French National Convention, 1792–93".

2551: 1921:

obtained a decree confiscating the property of suspects and distributing it to the needy (

1346: 1077:. On the same day, it was decreed that "in future the acts of the assembly shall be dated 8: 9983: 9940: 9860: 9814: 9691: 9684: 9664: 9625: 9537: 9329: 9298: 9273: 9239: 9141: 9136: 8857: 8787: 8635: 8565: 8422: 8402: 8367: 8342: 8274: 7975: 7501: 6885: 6764: 6522: 6434: 6201: 6177: 5936: 5481: 5145: 5043: 4992: 2519: 2392: 2258: 2177: 2063: 1681: 1507: 1468: 1383: 1285: 1182: 979:, which had little room for the public and bad acoustics. From 10 May 1793 it met in the 542: 451: 390: 380: 150: 8542: 8497: 5111: 5094: 3026: 2709: 2114: 1002:

were appointed in the Convention by Girondins. Besides these, however, the newly formed

9895: 9840: 9794: 9642: 9608: 9192: 8317: 8082: 8047: 7898: 7860: 7855: 7603: 7521: 7516: 7262: 7254: 6949: 6909: 6721: 6614: 6378: 6353: 6297: 6280: 6118: 4772: 4612: 3170: 3108: 3100: 2876: 2721: 2611: 2600: 2305: 2297: 2281: 2246: 2071: 2044: 1959: 1821: 1726: 1457: 1226: 1178: 1109: 1092:

withdrew to the frontier, and in November, French troops occupied the left bank of the

1082: 8665: 8482: 8244: 8117: 7674: 7628: 5965: 4738:. Vol. III: Novembre 1793 – Juillet 1794. Introduction et notes explicatives par 4085:

Andress, David, and Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 26.

4076:

Andress, David, and Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 26.

4058:

Andress, David, and Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 25.

4049:

Andress, David, and Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 24.

4040:

Andress, David, and Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 24.

2197: 2051:

were two of the more notable men executed for their "threats" against the Revolution.

1922: 1685: 976: 243: 10041: 10023: 10018: 10003: 9988: 9927: 9890: 9804: 9737: 9715: 9696: 9564: 9491: 9314: 9214: 9100: 9080: 9057: 8894: 8827: 8817: 8797: 7903: 7201: 7140: 7124: 6917: 5997: 5851: 5818: 5275: 4833: 4798: 4779: 4756: 4695: 4676: 4657: 4638: 4619: 4596: 4577: 4558: 4539: 4533: 4502: 4177: 4067:

Andress, David, and Covo "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 26.

3973:

Andress, David, and Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 6.

3267: 3237: 3174: 3112: 2994: 2604: 2499:) drafted a text which would reflect the new balance of power. It was presented on 5 2293: 2099: 2083: 2014: 1942: 1382:, who was presiding over the Convention, launched into a diatribe reminiscent of the 1097: 1026: 999: 897: 889: 512: 411: 271: 64: 8452: 8151: 6441: 6341: 6288: 5405: 3261: 2538: 1870:'s offices, and could generally carry the Commune with them. The other wing was the 1849: 1657:

as the sole legal tender, price controls for grain and the forced loan of a billion

1621: 939:

from April 1793. The eight months from the fall of 1793 to the spring of 1794, when

9955: 9907: 9779: 9754: 9244: 8962: 8822: 8615: 8610: 8600: 8332: 8259: 8196: 8166: 7938: 7908: 7803: 7506: 7356: 7281: 7018: 7002: 6957: 6893: 6864: 6659: 6538: 6421: 6386: 5928: 5879: 5872: 5466: 5461: 5293: 5162: 4555:

La République jacobine. Terreur, guerre et gouvernement révolutionnaire (1792–1794)

3902: 3848: 3162: 3092: 2860: 2384: 1538: 952: 485: 9417: 9256: 8741: 5844: 4593:

Incidence of the Terror During the French Revolution: A Statistical Interpretation

4194: 3166: 2265:

left the Committee of Public Safety; by the end of the year, they were in prison.

2067: 1579: 652: 457: 10050: 10013: 9998: 9993: 9935: 9850: 9410: 9151: 8887: 8675: 8352: 8347: 8312: 8062: 7666: 7661: 7563: 7486: 7376: 7346: 6705: 6581: 6306: 6252: 6053: 5382: 5362: 3964:

Andress, David, Covo, "Race, Slavery, and Colonies in the French Revolution.", 6.

3058: 2840: 2780: 2173: 1996: 1863: 1709: 1642: 1638: 1574: 1546: 1371: 1338: 1124:

proclaimed its union with France. The successes made it safe to quarrel at home.

1074: 1030: 944: 641: 9396: 8532: 5077: 2300:

continued. In the provinces the Terror assumed violent and vicious form. In the

1440:, the 1793 added rights to public assistance, work, education and insurrection. 1361:. Social and economic difficulties exacerbated the tensions between the groups. 603: 9973: 9968: 9960: 9784: 9742: 9319: 8957: 8899: 8705: 8527: 8307: 8027: 7890: 7885: 7835: 7830: 7650: 6838: 6072: 5352: 5227: 5128: 4975: 3231: 3051: 2868: 2762: 2701: 2245:

committees should hold office for more than four months. Three days later, the

2151: 2090: 2048: 2040: 1947: 1875: 1665: 1523: 1379: 1253: 836: 422: 5060: 5009: 2567: 2475:

Constitution de la République Française du 5 Fructidor l'an III (22 août 1795)

1049:

The National Convention was made up of three major factions: The Montagnards (

10076: 10055: 9885: 9669: 9357: 8971: 8942: 8812: 8630: 8407: 8249: 8145: 8037: 7598: 7541: 5579: 5196: 4719:

Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution

4481: 4471: 2677: 2574:

knew the score. They knew the art of insurrection by heart and to bring down

2369:

Discontent increased along with the shortages. On 17 March a delegation from

2165: 1697: 1448:

debating-chamber of the Convention, was postponed until peace had been made.

1313: 1297: 821: 562: 8437: 4449:

To Heal Humankind The Right to Health in History By Adam Gaffney, 2017, P.46

4431:

To Heal Humankind The Right to Health in History By Adam Gaffney, 2017, P.46

3188: 2005:

was opened after 5 September, divided into four sections: the Committees of

1845: 1378:

marched to the Convention to demand the release of the activists. In reply,

9769: 9474: 9431: 9231: 9202: 8978: 8923: 8837: 8792: 8620: 8502: 8294: 7451: 7436: 7406: 4944: 4739: 4496: 3257: 2935:"Du 2 au 10 septembre 1792: élection des députés à la Convention nationale" 2836: 2813: 2755: 2118: 1813: 1658: 1615: 1495: 1349:, which began in March 1793, were all used as arguments by Montagnards and 1181:, and the Parisian dominance of politics. Antagonism between Paris and the 1163: 1143: 1137: 1050: 995: 928:

National Convention was, therefore, the first French assembly elected by a

670: 401: 198: 27:

Single-chamber assembly in France from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795

5244: 1462: 1235: 9436: 9339: 9184: 8832: 8690: 8580: 8357: 8327: 7476: 6796: 6589: 5311: 5286: 5179: 4440:

The Longman Companion to the French Revolution By Colin Jones, 2014, P.26

4199:(in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Bourgogne et Martinet. pp. 317–318. 2210: 2136: 1766: 1758: 1693: 1319: 665: 8930: 2689: 2638: 9945: 9174: 8736: 8575: 8191: 7546: 6021: 4896: 4094:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery.", 464–465.

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pacified the Girondin west in July without a single death sentence. In

1955: 1883: 1871: 1762: 1195: 1167: 338: 107: 8443: 4811:

Stein, Robert. "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery."

4490:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 46. 2503:(23 June) and passed on 22 August 1795 (5 Fructidor of the Year III). 2361: 1910: 1854: 1628:

On 5 September, Parisians tried to repeat the revolt of 2 June. Armed

1610: 1284:

the deputies, many of whom were alarmed as well as scandalized by the

1010:

annexed to France from 1782 to 1789 were allowed to send deputations.

9283: 8570: 8216: 8127: 7710: 7079: 3982:

Robert Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery."

2831: 2748: 2576: 2543: 2270: 2025: 1503: 1486:

July and August were bad months on the frontiers. Within three weeks

1337:

to deal with supposed aristocratic plots. Military setbacks from the

1207: 1147: 1133: 1058: 1054: 1037:

and had three distinct periods: Girondin, Montagnard or Jacobin, and

924: 224: 211: 5787: 2864: 2471: 2388: 2330: 2262: 1914: 1431:

Constitution du Peuple Française du 6 Messidor l'an I (24 June 1793)

1427: 1305: 1173:

Three issues dominated the first months of the National Convention:

8918: 8913: 8852: 8731: 8605: 7371: 4103:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery.", 465.

4031:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery.", 458.

4022:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery.", 456.

4004:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery.", 455.

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by shooting because the guillotine was not working swiftly enough.

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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

4112:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery", 466.

4013:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery", 456.

3995:

Stein, "The Revolution of 1789 and the Abolition of Slavery", 454.

2309: 1085:

but now had to become a republic because it no longer had a king.

9197: 9065: 4498:

The Terror: the merciless war for freedom in revolutionary France

2548:

Napoleon Bonaparte quelling of the Royalist revolt 13 Vendémiaire

2396: 2254: 2218: 2029: 1742: 1669: 1519: 1289: 1151: 1089: 365: 9023: 4525:

The French Revolution, a Political History, 1789–1804, in 4 vols

2682:), created institutions of capital importance, like that of the 1263:

On the morning of 21 January, the Convention ordered the entire

1073:" and was carried with cheers. On the 22nd came the news of the 9486: 9054: 2410:

On the morning of 12 Germinal (1 April) crowds gathered on the

2289: 2055: 1689: 1605: 1531: 1374:'s trial and the arrest of sectional activists. On 25 May, the 1301: 369: 7986:

François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt

2595:

During the nights of Vendémiaire 12–13 (October 4–5), General

1366:

Insurrection of 31 May –& § 32;2 June 1793

7920: 2103: 1808:

What gradually emerged was a well-equipped military command.

1754: 1515: 1487: 1121: 1093: 4654:

The Jacobin clubs in the French Revolution: the Middle Years

4281: 9759: 9169: 2059: 1198:, which would have run counter to its political ambitions. 1117: 328: 7960: 4813:

Canadian Journal of History/Annales Canadiennes D'Histoire

4346: 4344: 4232: 4230: 4159: 4157: 3984:

Canadian Journal of History/Annales Canadiennes D'Histoire

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rapidly than expected because of issues within the party.

1553:, and they were believed to have used her as their agent. 7800: 4373: 4371: 4269: 4215: 4132: 4130: 3937: 3699: 3697: 3634: 3418: 3416: 3136: 3134: 2958: 2956: 2308:

flung the bodies of its victims, men and women, into the

3440: 3211: 1514:

took advantage of the diversion of republican forces at

1498:

and invaded northern France. Spanish troops crossed the

4893:

from the Ball State University Digital Media Repository

4866:

Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies

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bastion, was neutralized by coming under its control.

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formed a nucleus of resolute Montagnards who rallied

8716:

List of people associated with the French Revolution

4830:

The Thermidorean regime and the directory: 1794–1799

4675:. Vol. I. New York: Columbia University Press. 4635:

The King's Trial: Luis XVI vs. the French Revolution

4203: 3925: 3871: 3598: 3583: 3564:. Charles Tilly University of Michigan. March 1977. 3524: 3353: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2329:

as the season had started on the Christmas Eve of 4

1987:, the Committee became unnecessary to the Assembly. 192:

and the subsequent purge of the National Convention:

188:

Composition of the National Convention prior to the

8948:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

6038:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

4254: 3883: 2968: 2356: 4795:Dictionnaire historique de la Révolution française 4771: 4611: 4175: 2990:The Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre 4182:(in French). Paris: Baudouin frères. p. 199. 3317:, p. 42, in "Armoir de Fer" by Grendron, F.. 2906: 2013:were to propose the names of judges and jurymen; 1267:to line both sides of the route to the scaffold. 10074: 7874:Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen 4886:Presidents of the National Convention: 1792–1795 1917:presented a new general Maximum, and on the 8th 1549:. She had been in touch with Girondin rebels in 651: 4673:The French Revolution: from its Origins to 1793 4656:. Princeton University Press. pp. 308–10. 3326:Hardman, John (2016) The life of Louis XVI, p. 2460: 2209:On the evening of 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794), 1534:. The military situation had become desperate. 1278: 1146:than the Montagnards, although they were still 5916:Significant civil and political events by year 4193:Vivien, L. (1842). P.M. Pourrat freres (ed.). 3263:Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution 1773:perfected metallurgy and manufacture of arms. 1530:in August, and in October, the Allies invaded 1220: 1158:. The Montagnards drew their support from the 9039: 5803: 5421: 4912: 4176:Durand de Maillane, Pierre Toussaint (1825). 3236:. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 106. 2692:) it also ratified and expanded to the whole 2586:Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras 2566:section issued a call to insurrection. By 11 2446:The remainder of the Montagnards, The Crest ( 2435:and Marceau. The armed battalions arrived at 2428:(20 May 1795) the alarm bells sounded in the 1664:At last, France saw a government take shape. 854: 9415: 9394: 9254: 8969: 8928: 8904: 8885: 7869:Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick 4637:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 4517:The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution 2993:. University of Chicago Press. p. 119. 2778: 2769: 2760: 2746: 2683: 2675: 2667: 2659: 2651: 2288:, held responsible for the mass drowning at 2201: 2189: 1781:were gradually finding ways to subsist; the 1625:turned able-bodied civilians into soldiers. 1589:. Two of them were of essential importance: 1518:in order to invade France from the east. In 1451: 1243:The Convention's unanimous declaration of a 1127: 1003: 54: 6556: 4891:National Convention pamphlets and documents 4733: 3298: 2788:Ministers of the French National Convention 1564: 9046: 9032: 8073:Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth 5810: 5796: 5733:Last cabinet of the French Second Republic 5428: 5414: 4919: 4905: 4618:. Routledge: University of Toronto Press. 4531: 3943: 3640: 3446: 3266:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 648. 3223: 3217: 2224: 1633:agenda on 5 September, on the 6th elected 861: 847: 8338:Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau 7996:Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau 7819:Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany 5398:Acting presidents are denoted by italics. 4832:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4614:A Social History of the French Revolution 4538:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3250: 2371:faubourgs Saint-Marceau and Saint-Jacques 1150:. The Girondins drew their name from the 8770: 6054:Nationalization of the Church properties 4926: 4873:A Short History of the French Revolution 4827: 4818: 4708: 4692:The French Revolution: from 1793 to 1799 4689: 4670: 4362: 4323: 4311: 4299: 4287: 4275: 4248: 4236: 4163: 4148: 4121: 3823: 3787: 3763: 3751: 3739: 3715: 3703: 3688: 3676: 3664: 3652: 3628: 3616: 3545: 3422: 3371: 3347: 3125: 3070: 2980: 2962: 2621: 2542: 2470: 2360: 2233: 2150: 1568: 1461: 1426: 1399: 1318: 1234: 8999:Historiography of the French Revolution 8270:Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville 7981:Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette 4724: 4651: 4609: 4494: 4350: 4136: 3811: 3799: 3518: 3506: 3494: 3482: 3470: 3286: 3229: 3140: 3082: 2859:more striking. Some were hard hit, the 1416: 1370:The final showdown was precipitated by 14: 10075: 8006:Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord 7961:Other significant figures and factions 4792: 4769: 4632: 4522: 4475: 4377: 4221: 4192: 3835: 3775: 3727: 3458: 3434: 3407: 3395: 3383: 3335: 3314: 3256: 2986: 2921: 2856:Based on recent figures of the Terror: 1789: 1162:and the popular societies such as the 1064: 1044: 930:suffrage without distinctions of class 9027: 8874: 8769: 8053:François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy 7959: 7809:James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez 7748:Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld 7706:Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth 7309: 6555: 6186:Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary 5914: 5817: 5791: 5409: 4900: 4711:The Thermidorians & the Directory 4590: 4571: 4552: 4389: 4335: 4209: 3931: 3889: 3877: 3604: 3592: 3533: 3359: 3013: 2974: 2379:Insurrection of 12 Germinal, Year III 2251:commission des administrateurs civils 1217:, The Plain began to side with them. 1033:powers during the first years of the 896:for its first three years during the 10138:1795 events of the French Revolution 10133:1794 events of the French Revolution 10128:1793 events of the French Revolution 10123:1792 events of the French Revolution 8207:Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux 7619:Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno 7310: 6406:Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III 4750: 4576:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 4527:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 4263: 3571:from the original on 1 February 2022 3199:from the original on 11 October 2016 3189:"Girondin | political group, France" 3033:from the original on 18 October 2018 2497:Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux 2124:Society of the Friends of the Blacks 1810:François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers 190:Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 39:National Convention (disambiguation) 8875: 7814:Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth 4734:Robespierre, Maximilien de (1958). 4179:Histoire de la Convention nationale 3152: 2610:Moderate repression ensued and the 2607:. The rest had scattered and fled. 2489:François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas 2365:Journée du 1er Prairial de l'an III 1839: 1071:That royalty be abolished in France 206:The Mountain (disputed members) (7) 24: 9004:Influence of the French Revolution 8994:Symbolism in the French Revolution 7758:Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen 7719:Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc 5974:Convocation of the Estates General 4848: 4523:Aulard, François-Alphonse (1910). 3903:"Reign of Terror | French history" 3849:"Reign of Terror | French history" 1345:'s defection to the enemy and the 25: 10154: 10143:Historical legislatures in France 9053: 8646:Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes 8378:Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville 7680:Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen 7462:François Christophe de Kellermann 6701:Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees) 5436:Governments of France (1792–1870) 4879: 4557:. Paris: Le Seuil, coll. Points. 4413:from the original on 4 April 2017 3913:from the original on 20 June 2020 3859:from the original on 20 June 2020 3559:"From Mobilization to Revolution" 2032:, and they perished on the 31st. 2017:stayed as public prosecutor, and 1079:First Year of the French Republic 233:The Plain (disputed members) (97) 219:Girondins (disputed members) (49) 91:Emblem of the National Convention 8373:Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai 8280:Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours 8250:Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot 8141:Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière 7919: 7884: 7854: 7829: 7786: 7660: 7537:Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise 7318: 6090:Civil Constitution of the Clergy 5599:First ministry of Louis-Philippe 4774:The French Revolution: 1787–1799 4721:(Oxford University Press, 2013). 4574:The French Revolution: 1770–1814 4463: 4443: 4434: 4425: 4395: 2887: 2685:Grand Livre de la Dette publique 2627:Autel de la Convention nationale 2518:with rights to propose laws and 2357:Crushing of the popular movement 1898:) and the extremist Hébertists ( 1112:on 6 November and evacuated the 830: 815: 281: 174: 80: 10088:Defunct unicameral legislatures 8711:Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil 8458:Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne 8383:Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas 7594:Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier 7589:Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer 7569:Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon 7397:Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine 6315:Marie Antoinette is guillotined 4535:The Jacobin Republic: 1792–1794 4186: 4169: 4106: 4097: 4088: 4079: 4070: 4061: 4052: 4043: 4034: 4025: 4016: 4007: 3998: 3989: 3976: 3967: 3958: 3949: 3895: 3841: 3551: 3320: 3181: 3146: 3076: 2850: 2820: 9385:Government of National Defense 8984:Women in the French Revolution 8586:Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien 7763:Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló 7427:Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino 7056:French invasion of Switzerland 5767:Fourth cabinet of Napoleon III 5511:Provisional Government of 1815 5496:Provisional Government of 1814 4755:. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. 3045: 3027:"Saint-Just: Lieux de mémoire" 3019: 2927: 2800: 2532: 910:insurrection of 10 August 1792 13: 1: 10113:1792 establishments in France 9294:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 9289:War of the Spanish Succession 8989:Incroyables and merveilleuses 8808:Pierre Claude François Daunou 8596:Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé 7727:Maximilian Baillet de Latour 7698:Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze 6995:Naval Engagement off Brittany 6748:Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies 6722:Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees) 6531:Constitution of the Year VIII 6266:Committee of General Security 6151:National Legislative Assembly 6006:National Constituent Assembly 5762:Third cabinet of Napoleon III 4501:. Farrar: Straus and Giroux. 3167:10.1080/01916599.2018.1442955 3085:The Journal of Modern History 2900: 2712:, though this did not affect 2481:Pierre Claude François Daunou 2333:Year III (24 December 1794). 1668:resigned from it on 10 July. 1254:secret cache of 726 documents 1104:in October, were defeated by 1020:Committee of General Security 988:National Constituent Assembly 918:Convention's adopted calendar 902:National Constituent Assembly 8907:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 8701:Charles Alexandre de Calonne 8591:Louis Henri, Prince of Condé 8488:Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte 8388:Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier 8078:Charles Malo François Lameth 7753:Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich 7584:Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr 7527:Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey 6727:Second Battle of Wissembourg 6414:Constitution of the Year III 5654:Transitional cabinet of 1839 4859:The Journal of Negro History 4652:Kennedy, Michael L. (1988). 2670:École des langues orientales 2467:Constitution of the Year III 2461:Constitution of the Year III 2146: 2019:Martial Joseph Armand Herman 1972:Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte 1316:in that of the Montagnards. 1279:Crisis and fall of Girondins 1201: 958: 7: 8803:Charles-Augustin de Coulomb 8428:Antoine Christophe Saliceti 8363:Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois 8323:Louis Antoine de Saint-Just 8202:Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet 8187:Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve 8182:Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud 7991:Isaac René Guy le Chapelier 7844:William V, Prince of Orange 6714:First Battle of Wissembourg 6671:(21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793) 6387:Closing of the Jacobin Club 6256:(27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794) 6213:(20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795) 6073:Abolition of the Parlements 6046:Women's March on Versailles 4729:. New York: Alfred a Knopf. 2742:Fall of the French monarchy 2735: 1423:French Constitution of 1793 1221:Trial and execution of king 10: 10159: 9775:French subdivisions by GDP 9522:2022 presidential election 9507:2017 presidential election 8938:French Republican calendar 8493:Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel 8118:Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac 7472:Pierre Choderlos de Laclos 7422:Charles François Dumouriez 7412:Jacques François Dugommier 7226:League of Armed Neutrality 7059:(28 January – 17 May 1798) 7011:Battle of the Bay of Cádiz 6834:(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795) 6813:(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795) 6477:Second Congress of Rastatt 6261:Committee of Public Safety 6248:(9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795) 5589:Paris Municipal Commission 5457:Committee of Public Safety 4823:. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 4815:17, no. 3 (1982): 447–468. 4778:. New York: Random House. 4709:Lefebvre, Georges (1964). 4690:Lefebvre, Georges (1963). 4671:Lefebvre, Georges (1962). 4455: 2536: 2464: 2420:Insurrection of 1 Prairial 2417: 2376: 2374:strength was approaching. 2237: 2133:Committee of Public Safety 2096:Société des amis des Noirs 2081: 2077: 1994: 1793: 1736: 1692:, then successfully added 1455: 1420: 1363: 1359:Committee of Public Safety 1343:Charles François Dumouriez 1224: 1205: 1131: 1016:Committee of Public Safety 937:Committee of Public Safety 908:. Created after the great 36: 29: 10036: 9926: 9836: 9827: 9723: 9714: 9616: 9607: 9545: 9536: 9457: 9338: 9307: 9279:Second Hundred Years' War 9230: 9183: 9150: 9129: 9121:Liberalism and radicalism 9073: 9064: 8953:Cult of the Supreme Being 8881: 8870: 8776: 8765: 8724: 8558: 8551: 8436: 8293: 8215: 8126: 8113:Pierre Paul Royer-Collard 8019: 7968:Patriotic Society of 1789 7966: 7955: 7917: 7882: 7852: 7827: 7784: 7771:Karl Philipp Sebottendorf 7693:Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg 7658: 7649: 7627: 7332: 7316: 7305: 7274: 7237: 7210:Convention of Alessandria 7192: 7099: 7046: 6977: 6847: 6821: 6738: 6635: 6562: 6551: 6507: 6496:Law of 22 Floréal Year VI 6488: 6461: 6398: 6334: 6229: 6162: 6111: 6065: 5957:What Is the Third Estate? 5948: 5921: 5910: 5825: 5751: 5682: 5578: 5519: 5480: 5441: 5396: 5265: 5217: 4965: 4934: 4713:. New York: Random House. 4532:Bouloiseau, Marc (1983). 3230:Bernard, Jack F. (1973). 3155:History of European Ideas 2987:Jordan, David P. (1989). 2720:and was abolished by the 2617: 2584:. Five members including 2493:Antoine Claire Thibaudeau 2206:and arrested insurgents. 2202: 2190: 1990: 1858:, ostensibly because the 1796:French Revolutionary Army 1452:Federalist revolt and war 1128:Girondins and Montagnards 900:, following the two-year 242: 237: 182: 173: 165: 160: 146: 136: 128: 120: 115: 101: 96: 74: 63: 48: 9550:Administrative divisions 8661:Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target 8626:Joséphine de Beauharnais 8508:Stanislas-Marie Maillard 8478:François-Nicolas Vincent 8463:Pierre Gaspard Chaumette 7637:Charles-Alexandre Linois 7532:Jean Victor Marie Moreau 7512:François Séverin Marceau 7492:François Joseph Lefebvre 7387:Jean-Étienne Championnet 7362:Louis-Alexandre Berthier 7357:Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte 7352:Alexandre de Beauharnais 7342:Eustache Charles d'Aoust 7064:French Invasion of Egypt 6942:Second Battle of Bassano 6676:Battle of Kaiserslautern 6450:Conspiracy of the Equals 6143:The Constitution of 1791 6014:Storming of the Bastille 5319:Valéry Giscard d'Estaing 4945:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 4828:Woronoff, Denis (1984). 4819:Thompson, J. M. (1959). 4725:Mathiez, Albert (1929). 4610:Hampson, Norman (1988). 4572:Furet, François (1996). 4478:Convention, The National 4476:Anchel, Robert (1911). " 3305:., in Tome IX, Discours. 2793: 2662:École Normale Supérieure 2441:L'Insurrection du Peuple 2111:Léger-Félicité Sonthonax 1931:François-Nicolas Vincent 1565:Revolutionary government 1194:encourage an aggressive 1142:The Girondins were more 640: 602: 432: 421: 400: 30:Not to be confused with 10098:Provisional governments 9770:Franc (former currency) 9375:Coup of 2 December 1851 9348:Long nineteenth century 8641:Jacques-Donatien Le Ray 8513:Charles-Philippe Ronsin 8473:Antoine-François Momoro 8468:Charles-Philippe Ronsin 8285:François de Neufchâteau 8235:Charles-François Lebrun 8177:Jean Baptiste Treilhard 8058:Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas 7934:Luis Firmin de Carvajal 7740:Rudolf Ritter von Otto 7735:Karl Mack von Leiberich 7367:Jean-Baptiste Bessières 7181:Second Battle of Zurich 7072:Irish Rebellion of 1798 6918:First Battle of Bassano 6756:Second Battle of Boulou 6557:Revolutionary campaigns 6515:Coup of 30 Prairial VII 6430:Council of Five Hundred 6218:First republic declared 6154:(1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792) 6135:Declaration of Pillnitz 5859:Constitutional monarchy 4793:Soboul, Albert (2005). 4770:Soboul, Albert (1974). 4595:. Peter Smith Pub Inc. 4495:Andress, David (2006). 4487:Encyclopædia Britannica 4407:www.napoleon-empire.com 3907:Encyclopædia Britannica 3853:Encyclopædia Britannica 3233:Talleyrand: a biography 3193:Encyclopædia Britannica 3052:The National Convention 2704:by civil commissioners 2516:Council of Five Hundred 2448:la Crête de la Montagne 2225:Thermidorian Convention 1935:Antoine-François Momoro 1927:Charles-Philippe Ronsin 1600:The summer of 1793 saw 1502:and began advancing on 155:Council of Five Hundred 10118:1795 disestablishments 10103:Constituent assemblies 9790:Science and technology 9447:Provisional Government 9416: 9395: 9255: 8970: 8929: 8905: 8886: 8398:Prieur de la Côte-d'Or 8393:Jean-Pierre-André Amar 8303:Maximilien Robespierre 8136:Jacques Pierre Brissot 8001:Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès 7432:Louis-Charles de Flers 7417:Thomas-Alexandre Dumas 7382:Jean François Carteaux 7157:First Battle of Zurich 7120:(20 Mar – 21 May 1799) 7075:(23 May – 23 Sep 1798) 7035:Treaty of Campo Formio 6781:Glorious First of June 6709:(18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793) 6668:Expedition to Sardinia 6346:Desmoulins guillotined 6281:Assassination of Marat 6273:Fall of the Girondists 6245:Revolutionary Tribunal 6237:Execution of Louis XVI 6127:Champ de Mars massacre 6030:Abolition of Feudalism 5693:Provisional Government 4633:Jordan, David (1979). 4591:Greer, Donald (1935). 3986:17, no. 3 (1982): 451. 2844: 2779: 2772:Maximilien Robespierre 2770: 2761: 2747: 2694:French colonial empire 2684: 2676: 2668: 2660: 2652: 2642: 2597:Jacques-François Menou 2555: 2476: 2366: 2156: 2003:Revolutionary Tribunal 1647:Revolutionary Tribunal 1582: 1475: 1432: 1355:Revolutionary Tribunal 1335:Revolutionary Tribunal 1326: 1273:Place de la Revolution 1240: 1239:The trial of Louis XVI 1231:Execution of Louis XVI 1215:execution of Louis XVI 1175:revolutionary violence 1156:Jacques Pierre Brissot 1004: 941:Maximilien Robespierre 881: 476:Valois-Angoulême kings 55: 10083:French First Republic 8843:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 8108:Jean-Charles Pichegru 8088:Jean-François Rewbell 7574:Jean-Charles Pichegru 7457:Jean-Baptiste Jourdan 7447:Jacques Maurice Hatry 7218:Battle of Hohenlinden 7091:(12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798) 6926:Battle of Emmendingen 6873:Battle of Castiglione 6760:(30 Apr – 1 May 1794) 6691:Battle of Hondschoote 6362:Thermidorian Reaction 6326:(throughout the year) 6099:Fête de la Fédération 6025:(20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789) 6009:(9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791) 5993:(17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790) 4821:The French Revolution 4753:The French Revolution 4751:Rude, George (1988). 4727:The French Revolution 4553:Dupuy, Roger (2005). 2625: 2546: 2485:Jean-Denis Lanjuinais 2474: 2364: 2240:Thermidorian Reaction 2234:Thermidorian Reaction 2154: 2062:, some months later, 1826:Jean-Baptiste Jourdan 1727:decree of 14 Frimaire 1572: 1465: 1430: 1400:Montagnard Convention 1324:Fall of the Girondins 1322: 1238: 1035:French First Republic 894:French First Republic 69:French First Republic 10093:Government of France 9595:World Heritage Sites 9512:Coronavirus pandemic 8771:Influential thinkers 8518:Jean-François Varlet 8418:Jean-Lambert Tallien 8413:Jean Bon Saint-André 8240:Pierre-Joseph Cambon 8162:Marquis de Condorcet 8011:Nicolas de Condorcet 7776:Dagobert von Wurmser 7609:Louis-Gabriel Suchet 7552:Pierre-Jacques Osten 7467:Jean-Baptiste Kléber 7402:Louis-Nicolas Davout 7392:Chapuis de Tourville 6934:Battle of Schliengen 6881:Battle of Theiningen 6802:Battle of Aldenhoven 6686:Battle of Wattignies 6655:Battle of Neerwinden 6469:Coup of 18 Fructidor 5982:Death of the Dauphin 5698:Executive Commission 5594:Provisional Ministry 4928:Presidents of France 3303:_tome_9.djvu/122 120 3301:, pp. 104–105, 3057:25 July 2017 at the 2698:abolition of slavery 2635:François-Léon Sicard 2580:was easier than the 2176:, who attacked, and 1818:Jean Baptiste Kléber 1702:Prieur of Cote-d'Ore 1417:Constitution of 1793 1114:Austrian Netherlands 1025:The Convention held 992:Legislative Assembly 972:had chosen in 1791. 906:Legislative Assembly 892:for one day and the 886:constituent assembly 882:Convention nationale 684:Provisional Republic 466:Valois-Orléans kings 141:Legislative Assembly 56:Convention nationale 37:For other uses, see 32:Political Convention 18:Convention nationale 9733:Automotive industry 9517:2021 labor protests 9274:Peace of Westphalia 9142:History of Normandy 9137:History of Brittany 8858:Mary Wollstonecraft 8636:Jean Sylvain Bailly 8423:Pierre Louis Prieur 8368:Jean-Henri Voulland 8343:Jacques-Louis David 8275:Jean Joseph Mounier 7976:Jean Sylvain Bailly 7614:Belgrand de Vaubois 7502:Jean-Antoine Marbot 7442:Emmanuel de Grouchy 7247:Treaty of Lunéville 6886:Battle of Neresheim 6831:Siege of Luxembourg 6810:Siege of Luxembourg 6765:Battle of Tourcoing 6696:Siege of Bellegarde 6523:Coup of 18 Brumaire 6435:Council of Ancients 6210:National Convention 6202:September Massacres 6178:Brunswick Manifesto 6170:France declares war 5937:Assembly of Vizille 5452:National Convention 5336:François Mitterrand 5146:Alexandre Millerand 5044:Jean Casimir-Perier 4993:Patrice de MacMahon 4290:, pp. 142–143. 4224:, pp. 411–412. 3289:, pp. 308–310. 2941:on 22 December 2018 2654:École Polytechnique 2554:, rue Saint-Honoré. 2520:Council of Ancients 2070:relied on frequent 1790:Army of the Year II 1682:Prieur of the Marne 1678:Jeanbon Saint-Andre 1508:War of the Pyrenees 1469:Jacques-Louis David 1438:Declaration of 1789 1384:Brunswick Manifesto 1286:September massacres 1065:Girondin Convention 1045:Political breakdown 949:fall of Robespierre 878:National Convention 151:Council of Ancients 50:National Convention 9800:Telecommunications 9502:2015 Paris attacks 9365:Revolution of 1848 9193:Visigothic Kingdom 8696:Loménie de Brienne 8671:Madame de Lamballe 8606:Napoléon Bonaparte 8403:Prieur de la Marne 8318:Camille Desmoulins 8172:Marie Jean Hérault 8048:Jean-Sifrein Maury 8043:Arnaud de La Porte 7899:Alexander Korsakov 7685:Count of Clerfayt 7604:Jean-de-Dieu Soult 7517:Auguste de Marmont 7372:Napoléon Bonaparte 7263:Algeciras campaign 7255:Treaty of Florence 7133:Battle of Stockach 6966:Ireland expedition 6950:Battle of Calliano 6910:Battle of Rovereto 6902:Battle of Würzburg 6354:Law of 22 Prairial 6323:Anti-clerical laws 6298:The Death of Marat 6119:Flight to Varennes 5743:Louis Napoleon (2) 5738:Louis Napoleon (1) 4871:Popkin, Jeremy D. 4797:. Quadrige / PUF. 2722:law of 20 May 1802 2643: 2601:Napoleon Bonaparte 2556: 2550:, in front of the 2477: 2367: 2320:free trade minded 2306:Companions of Jehu 2282:law of 22 Prairial 2157: 2072:summary executions 2045:Camille Desmoulins 1704:on 14 August, and 1583: 1476: 1458:Federalist revolts 1433: 1327: 1269:Louis was beheaded 1241: 1227:Trial of Louis XVI 1110:Battle of Jemappes 981:Salle des Machines 837:History portal 333: until 50 BC 249:Salle des Machines 10108:French Revolution 10070: 10069: 10032: 10031: 9823: 9822: 9710: 9709: 9702:Political parties 9638:Foreign relations 9603: 9602: 9532: 9531: 9315:French Revolution 9269:Thirty Years' War 9250:Absolute monarchy 9215:Kingdom of France 9111:Foreign relations 9091:Political history 9021: 9020: 9017: 9016: 8895:Cockade of France 8866: 8865: 8828:Antoine Lavoisier 8818:Benjamin Franklin 8798:Anacharsis Cloots 8761: 8760: 8757: 8756: 8681:Louis de Breteuil 8523:Theophile Leclerc 7951: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7904:Alexander Suvorov 7645: 7644: 7579:Józef Poniatowski 7497:Étienne Macdonald 7301: 7300: 7202:Battle of Marengo 7165:Battle of Trebbia 7149:Battle of Cassano 7141:Battle of Magnano 7125:Battle of Ostrach 7027:Battle of Neuwied 6789:Battle of Fleurus 6773:Battle of Tournay 6650:War in the Vendée 6586:Royalist Revolts 6547: 6546: 6104: 6080:Abolition of the 5998:Tennis Court Oath 5990:National Assembly 5819:French Revolution 5785: 5784: 5501:First restoration 5403: 5402: 5373:François Hollande 5276:Charles de Gaulle 4875:. Sixth ed. 2015. 4861:55, no. 2 (1970). 4744:Éditions sociales 4663:978-0-691-05526-8 4602:978-0-8446-1211-9 3016:, pp. 34–40. 3000:978-0-226-41037-1 2631:Autel républicain 2552:Église Saint-Roch 2437:Place du Carousel 2294:Fouquier-Tinville 2106:seemed imminent. 2100:French Revolution 2084:Slavery in France 2015:Fouquier-Tinville 1943:Anacharsis Cloots 1347:War in the Vendée 1179:trial of the king 1120:was occupied and 1000:Anacharsis Cloots 965:indirect election 904:and the one-year 898:French Revolution 890:Kingdom of France 871: 870: 822:France portal 715: 714: 612: 611: 523:Kingdom of France 513:French Revolution 504:Long 19th century 494: 493: 442: 441: 412:Kingdom of France 347: 346: 255: 254: 147:Succeeded by 124:20 September 1792 65:Kingdom of France 16:(Redirected from 10150: 9834: 9833: 9750:Economic history 9721: 9720: 9614: 9613: 9543: 9542: 9421: 9400: 9299:Seven Years' War 9264:Wars of Religion 9260: 9245:House of Bourbon 9240:Early modern era 9220:Fundamental laws 9096:Military history 9071: 9070: 9048: 9041: 9034: 9025: 9024: 8975: 8963:Temple of Reason 8934: 8910: 8891: 8872: 8871: 8823:Thomas Jefferson 8767: 8766: 8686:de Chateaubriand 8616:Joseph Bonaparte 8611:Lucien Bonaparte 8601:Marie Antoinette 8556: 8555: 8543:Sylvain Maréchal 8498:François Hanriot 8333:Louis Philippe I 8260:Louis Philippe I 8255:Philippe Égalité 8197:Olympe de Gouges 8167:Charlotte Corday 8157:Étienne Clavière 7957: 7956: 7939:Antonio Ricardos 7924: 7923: 7909:Andrei Rosenberg 7889: 7888: 7859: 7858: 7834: 7833: 7804:Ralph Abercromby 7791: 7790: 7766: 7743: 7730: 7722: 7714: 7701: 7688: 7665: 7664: 7656: 7655: 7560: 7507:Marcellin Marbot 7330: 7329: 7323: 7322: 7311:Military leaders 7307: 7306: 7294: 7286: 7282:Treaty of Amiens 7267: 7259: 7251: 7230: 7222: 7214: 7206: 7185: 7184:(25–26 Sep 1799) 7177: 7169: 7168:(17–20 Jun 1799) 7161: 7153: 7152:(27–28 Apr 1799) 7145: 7137: 7129: 7128:(20–21 Mar 1799) 7121: 7113: 7109:Second Coalition 7092: 7084: 7076: 7068: 7060: 7039: 7031: 7023: 7019:Treaty of Leoben 7015: 7007: 7006:(14–15 Jan 1797) 7003:Battle of Rivoli 6999: 6991: 6987:Italian campaign 6970: 6962: 6961:(15–17 Nov 1796) 6958:Battle of Arcole 6954: 6946: 6938: 6930: 6922: 6914: 6906: 6898: 6894:Battle of Amberg 6890: 6877: 6869: 6865:Battle of Lonato 6861: 6857:Italian campaign 6835: 6814: 6806: 6793: 6785: 6777: 6769: 6761: 6752: 6731: 6730:(26–27 Dec 1793) 6718: 6710: 6672: 6664: 6660:Battle of Famars 6628: 6553: 6552: 6535: 6527: 6519: 6500: 6481: 6473: 6454: 6446: 6426: 6418: 6410: 6391: 6383: 6375: 6366: 6358: 6350: 6327: 6319: 6311: 6303: 6293: 6285: 6277: 6257: 6249: 6241: 6222: 6214: 6206: 6198: 6190: 6182: 6174: 6155: 6147: 6139: 6131: 6123: 6122:(20–21 Jun 1791) 6102: 6094: 6086: 6077: 6058: 6050: 6042: 6034: 6026: 6018: 6010: 6002: 5994: 5986: 5978: 5970: 5962: 5941: 5933: 5929:Day of the Tiles 5912: 5911: 5812: 5805: 5798: 5789: 5788: 5777:Cousin-Montauban 5467:French Consulate 5462:French Directory 5430: 5423: 5416: 5407: 5406: 5348: 5331: 5306: 5294:Georges Pompidou 5257: 5240: 5209: 5192: 5175: 5163:Gaston Doumergue 5158: 5141: 5124: 5112:Raymond Poincaré 5107: 5095:Armand Fallières 5090: 5073: 5056: 5039: 5022: 5005: 4988: 4957: 4921: 4914: 4907: 4898: 4897: 4843: 4824: 4808: 4789: 4777: 4766: 4747: 4730: 4717:Linton, Marisa, 4714: 4705: 4686: 4667: 4648: 4629: 4617: 4606: 4587: 4568: 4549: 4528: 4512: 4491: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4450: 4447: 4441: 4438: 4432: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4420: 4418: 4399: 4393: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4339: 4333: 4327: 4321: 4315: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4278:, pp. 9–10. 4273: 4267: 4261: 4252: 4246: 4240: 4234: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4173: 4167: 4161: 4152: 4146: 4140: 4134: 4125: 4119: 4113: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4068: 4065: 4059: 4056: 4050: 4047: 4041: 4038: 4032: 4029: 4023: 4020: 4014: 4011: 4005: 4002: 3996: 3993: 3987: 3980: 3974: 3971: 3965: 3962: 3956: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3845: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3815: 3809: 3803: 3797: 3791: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3701: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3581: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3570: 3563: 3555: 3549: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3345: 3339: 3333: 3327: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3299:Robespierre 1958 3296: 3290: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3080: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3023: 3017: 3011: 3005: 3004: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2937:. 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1997:Reign of Terror 1993: 1962:were executed. 1923:Ventôse Decrees 1890: 1864:Cordeliers Club 1842: 1798: 1792: 1739: 1710:Billaud-Varenne 1661:from the rich. 1639:Billaud-Varenne 1575:La Marseillaise 1567: 1547:Jean-Paul Marat 1467: 1460: 1454: 1425: 1419: 1402: 1372:Jean-Paul Marat 1368: 1339:First Coalition 1281: 1245:French Republic 1233: 1225:Main articles: 1223: 1210: 1204: 1140: 1132:Main articles: 1130: 1075:Battle of Valmy 1067: 1053:), the Marais ( 1047: 977:Salle du Manège 970:active citizens 961: 945:Reign of Terror 873: 867: 831: 829: 816: 814: 809: 717: 716: 709: 694:Fourth Republic 675: 642:Interwar period 624: 614: 613: 573:Second Republic 506: 496: 495: 454: 444: 443: 359: 349: 348: 302: 273: 266: 247: 244:Salle du Manège 230: 228: 221: 220: 216: 215: 208: 207: 203: 202: 195: 193: 185: 153: 132:3 November 1795 111: 110: 92: 89: 88: 87: 86: 85: 67: 59: 52: 51: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10156: 10146: 10145: 10140: 10135: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10110: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10068: 10067: 10064: 10063: 10058: 10053: 10047: 10045: 10044: 10038: 10037: 10034: 10033: 10030: 10029: 10027: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9996: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9966: 9965:Cultural icons 9963: 9958: 9953: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9932: 9930: 9924: 9923: 9921: 9920: 9915: 9910: 9905: 9904: 9903: 9893: 9888: 9883: 9878: 9873: 9868: 9863: 9858: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9837: 9831: 9825: 9824: 9821: 9820: 9818: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9785:Stock exchange 9782: 9777: 9772: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9746: 9745: 9735: 9730: 9724: 9718: 9712: 9711: 9708: 9707: 9705: 9704: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9688: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9667: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9655: 9645: 9640: 9635: 9634: 9633: 9623: 9617: 9611: 9605: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9598: 9597: 9592: 9587: 9585:National parks 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9560:Climate change 9557: 9552: 9546: 9540: 9534: 9533: 9530: 9529: 9527: 9526: 9525: 9524: 9519: 9514: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9489: 9482:Fifth Republic 9479: 9478: 9477: 9467: 9461: 9459: 9455: 9454: 9452: 9451: 9450: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9424: 9423: 9422: 9408: 9403: 9402: 9401: 9390:Third Republic 9387: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9361: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9344: 9342: 9336: 9335: 9333: 9332: 9327: 9325:First Republic 9322: 9320:Napoleonic era 9317: 9311: 9309: 9305: 9304: 9302: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9271: 9266: 9261: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9236: 9234: 9228: 9227: 9225: 9224: 9223: 9222: 9212: 9207: 9206: 9205: 9195: 9189: 9187: 9181: 9180: 9178: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9165:Greek colonies 9162: 9156: 9154: 9148: 9147: 9145: 9144: 9139: 9133: 9131: 9127: 9126: 9124: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9077: 9075: 9068: 9062: 9061: 9051: 9050: 9043: 9036: 9028: 9019: 9018: 9015: 9014: 9012: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8967: 8966: 8965: 8958:Cult of Reason 8955: 8950: 8945: 8940: 8935: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8902: 8900:Flag of France 8897: 8892: 8882: 8879: 8878: 8868: 8867: 8864: 8863: 8861: 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8777: 8774: 8773: 8763: 8762: 8759: 8758: 8755: 8754: 8752: 8751: 8746: 8745: 8744: 8739: 8728: 8726: 8722: 8721: 8719: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8706:Jacques Necker 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8562: 8560: 8553: 8549: 8548: 8546: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8528:Claire Lacombe 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8485: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8453:Jacques Hébert 8449: 8447: 8434: 8433: 8431: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8350: 8345: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8308:Georges Danton 8305: 8299: 8297: 8291: 8290: 8288: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8221: 8219: 8213: 8212: 8210: 8209: 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8152:Henri Grégoire 8148: 8143: 8138: 8132: 8130: 8124: 8123: 8121: 8120: 8115: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8095: 8093:Camille Jordan 8090: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8065: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8034: 8032: 8020: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7972: 7970: 7964: 7963: 7953: 7952: 7949: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7942: 7941: 7936: 7930: 7928: 7915: 7914: 7912: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7895: 7893: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7876: 7871: 7865: 7863: 7850: 7849: 7847: 7846: 7840: 7838: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7797: 7795: 7782: 7781: 7779: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7737: 7732: 7724: 7716: 7708: 7703: 7695: 7690: 7682: 7677: 7671: 7669: 7653: 7647: 7646: 7643: 7642: 7640: 7639: 7633: 7631: 7625: 7624: 7622: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7338: 7336: 7327: 7314: 7313: 7303: 7302: 7299: 7298: 7296: 7295: 7287: 7278: 7276: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7260: 7252: 7243: 7241: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7231: 7223: 7215: 7207: 7198: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7178: 7173:Battle of Novi 7170: 7162: 7160:(4–7 Jun 1799) 7154: 7146: 7138: 7130: 7122: 7114: 7105: 7103: 7097: 7096: 7094: 7093: 7085: 7077: 7069: 7061: 7052: 7050: 7044: 7043: 7041: 7040: 7032: 7024: 7016: 7008: 7000: 6992: 6983: 6981: 6975: 6974: 6972: 6971: 6963: 6955: 6953:(6–7 Nov 1796) 6947: 6939: 6931: 6923: 6915: 6907: 6899: 6891: 6883: 6878: 6870: 6868:(3–4 Aug 1796) 6862: 6853: 6851: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6839:Peace of Basel 6836: 6827: 6825: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6815: 6807: 6799: 6794: 6786: 6778: 6770: 6762: 6753: 6744: 6742: 6736: 6735: 6733: 6732: 6724: 6719: 6711: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6681:Siege of Mainz 6678: 6673: 6665: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6641: 6639: 6633: 6632: 6630: 6629: 6617: 6612: 6610:Siege of Mainz 6607: 6602: 6601: 6600: 6597: 6592: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6568: 6566: 6560: 6559: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6528: 6520: 6511: 6509: 6505: 6504: 6502: 6501: 6492: 6490: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6474: 6465: 6463: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6447: 6442:13 Vendémiaire 6439: 6438: 6437: 6432: 6419: 6411: 6402: 6400: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6384: 6376: 6367: 6359: 6351: 6338: 6336: 6332: 6331: 6329: 6328: 6320: 6312: 6304: 6294: 6289:Levée en masse 6286: 6278: 6270: 6269: 6268: 6263: 6250: 6242: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6215: 6207: 6199: 6194:10th of August 6191: 6183: 6175: 6166: 6164: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6148: 6140: 6132: 6124: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6095: 6087: 6078: 6076:(Feb–Jul 1790) 6069: 6067: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6059: 6051: 6043: 6035: 6027: 6019: 6011: 6003: 5995: 5987: 5979: 5971: 5963: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5934: 5925: 5923: 5919: 5918: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5897: 5890: 5883: 5876: 5869: 5862: 5855: 5848: 5841: 5834: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5815: 5814: 5807: 5800: 5792: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5758: 5756: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5689: 5687: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5609:Casimir Perier 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5585: 5583: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5526: 5524: 5517: 5516: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5487: 5485: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5448: 5446: 5443:First Republic 5439: 5438: 5433: 5432: 5425: 5418: 5410: 5401: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5380: 5370: 5360: 5353:Jacques Chirac 5350: 5333: 5316: 5308: 5291: 5283: 5272: 5270: 5269:(1958–present) 5267:Fifth Republic 5263: 5262: 5260: 5259: 5242: 5228:Vincent Auriol 5224: 5222: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5194: 5177: 5160: 5143: 5129:Paul Deschanel 5126: 5109: 5092: 5075: 5058: 5041: 5024: 5007: 4990: 4976:Adolphe Thiers 4972: 4970: 4967:Third Republic 4963: 4962: 4960: 4959: 4941: 4939: 4932: 4931: 4924: 4923: 4916: 4909: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4888: 4881: 4880:External links 4878: 4877: 4876: 4869: 4862: 4855: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4844: 4838: 4825: 4816: 4809: 4804:978-2130536055 4803: 4790: 4784: 4767: 4761: 4748: 4736:Textes choisis 4731: 4722: 4715: 4706: 4700: 4687: 4681: 4668: 4662: 4649: 4643: 4630: 4624: 4607: 4601: 4588: 4582: 4569: 4563: 4550: 4544: 4529: 4520: 4513: 4507: 4492: 4482:Chisholm, Hugh 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4451: 4442: 4433: 4424: 4394: 4392:, p. 167. 4382: 4380:, p. 473. 4367: 4355: 4353:, p. 247. 4340: 4338:, p. 166. 4328: 4316: 4304: 4292: 4280: 4268: 4266:, p. 115. 4253: 4241: 4239:, p. 516. 4226: 4214: 4212:, p. 150. 4202: 4185: 4168: 4166:, p. 134. 4153: 4151:, p. 508. 4141: 4139:, p. 229. 4126: 4124:, p. 502. 4114: 4105: 4096: 4087: 4078: 4069: 4060: 4051: 4042: 4033: 4024: 4015: 4006: 3997: 3988: 3975: 3966: 3957: 3948: 3946:, p. 210. 3936: 3934:, p. 138. 3924: 3894: 3882: 3880:, p. 135. 3870: 3840: 3838:, p. 341. 3828: 3816: 3814:, p. 221. 3804: 3802:, p. 220. 3792: 3780: 3778:, p. 359. 3768: 3756: 3744: 3732: 3730:, p. 400. 3720: 3708: 3693: 3691:, p. 109. 3681: 3679:, p. 101. 3669: 3667:, p. 104. 3657: 3655:, p. 100. 3645: 3643:, p. 100. 3633: 3621: 3609: 3607:, p. 133. 3597: 3595:, p. 134. 3582: 3550: 3538: 3536:, p. 132. 3523: 3521:, p. 340. 3511: 3509:, p. 337. 3499: 3497:, p. 189. 3487: 3485:, p. 336. 3475: 3473:, p. 338. 3463: 3461:, p. 316. 3451: 3439: 3437:, p. 314. 3427: 3412: 3410:, p. 313. 3400: 3398:, p. 311. 3388: 3386:, p. 309. 3376: 3364: 3362:, p. 122. 3352: 3350:, p. 272. 3340: 3338:, p. 284. 3328: 3319: 3307: 3291: 3279: 3272: 3249: 3242: 3222: 3210: 3180: 3145: 3143:, p. 157. 3130: 3128:, p. 315. 3118: 3097:10.1086/240442 3091:(4): 447–463. 3075: 3073:, p. 320. 3063: 3044: 3018: 3006: 2999: 2979: 2977:, p. 115. 2967: 2965:, p. 310. 2952: 2926: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2895: 2886: 2869:Maine-et-Loire 2849: 2819: 2798: 2797: 2795: 2792: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2776: 2767: 2763:Georges Danton 2758: 2753: 2744: 2737: 2734: 2702:Saint-Domingue 2619: 2616: 2572:conventionnels 2539:13 Vendémiaire 2537:Main article: 2534: 2531: 2465:Main article: 2462: 2459: 2418:Main article: 2412:Ile de la Cité 2377:Main article: 2358: 2355: 2275:Conventionnels 2238:Main article: 2235: 2232: 2226: 2223: 2203:Hôtel de Ville 2192:Hôtel de Ville 2148: 2145: 2091:Saint Domingue 2082:Main article: 2079: 2076: 2049:Georges Danton 2041:Albert Mathiez 1995:Main article: 1992: 1989: 1850:Jacques Hébert 1841: 1838: 1794:Main article: 1791: 1788: 1783:levée en masse 1738: 1735: 1622:levée en masse 1566: 1563: 1557:their office. 1481:open rebellion 1453: 1450: 1421:Main article: 1418: 1415: 1401: 1398: 1380:Maximin Isnard 1364:Main article: 1280: 1277: 1265:National Guard 1222: 1219: 1206:Main article: 1203: 1200: 1129: 1126: 1102:besieged Lille 1066: 1063: 1046: 1043: 960: 957: 869: 868: 866: 865: 858: 851: 843: 840: 839: 811: 810: 808: 807: 802: 797: 796: 795: 790: 785: 775: 770: 769: 768: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 727: 724: 723: 719: 718: 713: 712: 706: 704:Fifth Republic 700: 699: 696: 690: 689: 686: 680: 679: 676: 674: 673: 668: 662: 659: 658: 655: 648: 647: 644: 637: 636: 633: 631:Third Republic 625: 620: 619: 616: 615: 610: 609: 606: 599: 598: 595: 593:Third Republic 589: 588: 585: 579: 578: 575: 569: 568: 565: 559: 558: 555: 549: 548: 545: 539: 538: 535: 533:First Republic 529: 528: 525: 519: 518: 515: 507: 502: 501: 498: 497: 492: 491: 488: 482: 481: 478: 472: 471: 468: 455: 450: 449: 446: 445: 440: 439: 436: 429: 428: 425: 418: 417: 414: 408: 407: 404: 397: 396: 393: 387: 386: 383: 377: 376: 373: 360: 355: 354: 351: 350: 345: 344: 343:50 BC – 486 AD 341: 335: 334: 331: 325: 324: 323:600 BC – 49 BC 321: 319:Greek colonies 315: 314: 311: 303: 298: 297: 294: 293: 287: 286: 278: 277: 268: 267: 260: 253: 252: 240: 239: 235: 234: 186: 183: 180: 179: 171: 170: 167: 163: 162: 158: 157: 148: 144: 143: 138: 134: 133: 130: 126: 125: 122: 118: 117: 113: 112: 106: 105: 103: 99: 98: 94: 93: 90: 79: 78: 77: 76: 75: 72: 71: 61: 60: 53: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10155: 10144: 10141: 10139: 10136: 10134: 10131: 10129: 10126: 10124: 10121: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10080: 10078: 10062: 10059: 10057: 10054: 10052: 10049: 10048: 10043: 10040: 10039: 10035: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9949: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9933: 9931: 9929: 9925: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9902: 9899: 9898: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9852: 9849: 9847: 9846:Birth control 9844: 9842: 9839: 9838: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9768: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9725: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9713: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9672: 9671: 9668: 9666: 9663: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9632: 9629: 9628: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9621:Constitutions 9619: 9618: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9606: 9596: 9593: 9591: 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9547: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9535: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9484: 9483: 9480: 9476: 9473: 9472: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9460: 9456: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9429: 9428: 9425: 9420: 9419: 9418:Années folles 9414: 9413: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9399: 9398: 9393: 9392: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9380:Second Empire 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9362: 9359: 9358:July Monarchy 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9341: 9337: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9310: 9306: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9257:Ancien Régime 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9237: 9235: 9233: 9229: 9221: 9218: 9217: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9208: 9204: 9201: 9200: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9190: 9188: 9186: 9182: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9157: 9155: 9153: 9149: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9134: 9132: 9128: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9078: 9076: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9056: 9049: 9044: 9042: 9037: 9035: 9030: 9029: 9026: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8974: 8973: 8972:Sans-culottes 8968: 8964: 8961: 8960: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8943:Metric system 8941: 8939: 8936: 8933: 8932: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8909: 8908: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8890: 8889: 8884: 8883: 8880: 8873: 8869: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8783: 8779: 8778: 8775: 8768: 8764: 8750: 8747: 8743: 8742:Panthéon Club 8740: 8738: 8735: 8734: 8733: 8730: 8729: 8727: 8723: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8631:Joachim Murat 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8563: 8561: 8557: 8554: 8550: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8446: 8445: 8439: 8435: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8408:Gilbert Romme 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8300: 8298: 8296: 8292: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8230:de Cambacérès 8228: 8226: 8223: 8222: 8220: 8218: 8214: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8149: 8147: 8146:Madame Roland 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8133: 8131: 8129: 8125: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8083:André Chénier 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8038:Grace Elliott 8036: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8023: 8018: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7969: 7965: 7958: 7954: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7931: 7929: 7927: 7922: 7916: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7896: 7894: 7892: 7887: 7881: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7866: 7864: 7862: 7857: 7851: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7837: 7832: 7826: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7794: 7789: 7783: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7725: 7723: 7717: 7715: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7663: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7648: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7626: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7599:Joseph Souham 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7558: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7542:Joachim Murat 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7522:André Masséna 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7335: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7321: 7315: 7308: 7304: 7293:(25 Jun 1802) 7291: 7288: 7285:(25 Mar 1802) 7283: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7273: 7264: 7261: 7258:(18 Mar 1801) 7256: 7253: 7248: 7245: 7244: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7227: 7224: 7219: 7216: 7213:(15 Jun 1800) 7211: 7208: 7205:(14 Jun 1800) 7203: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7191: 7182: 7179: 7176:(15 Aug 1799) 7174: 7171: 7166: 7163: 7158: 7155: 7150: 7147: 7142: 7139: 7136:(25 Mar 1799) 7134: 7131: 7126: 7123: 7118: 7117:Siege of Acre 7115: 7110: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7089: 7088:Peasants' War 7086: 7081: 7078: 7073: 7070: 7065: 7062: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7045: 7038:(17 Oct 1797) 7036: 7033: 7030:(18 Apr 1797) 7028: 7025: 7022:(17 Apr 1797) 7020: 7017: 7014:(25 Jan 1797) 7012: 7009: 7004: 7001: 6998:(13 Jan 1797) 6996: 6993: 6988: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6980: 6976: 6967: 6964: 6959: 6956: 6951: 6948: 6943: 6940: 6937:(26 Oct 1796) 6935: 6932: 6929:(19 Oct 1796) 6927: 6924: 6919: 6916: 6911: 6908: 6903: 6900: 6897:(24 Aug 1796) 6895: 6892: 6889:(11 Aug 1796) 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6874: 6871: 6866: 6863: 6858: 6855: 6854: 6852: 6850: 6846: 6840: 6837: 6832: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6824: 6820: 6811: 6808: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6792:(26 Jun 1794) 6790: 6787: 6782: 6779: 6776:(22 May 1794) 6774: 6771: 6768:(18 May 1794) 6766: 6763: 6757: 6754: 6751:(24 Apr 1794) 6749: 6746: 6745: 6743: 6741: 6737: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6717:(13 Oct 1793) 6715: 6712: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6669: 6666: 6663:(23 May 1793) 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6638: 6634: 6626: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6565: 6561: 6554: 6550: 6540: 6537: 6534:(24 Dec 1799) 6532: 6529: 6524: 6521: 6518:(18 Jun 1799) 6516: 6513: 6512: 6510: 6506: 6499:(11 May 1798) 6497: 6494: 6493: 6491: 6487: 6478: 6475: 6470: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6460: 6451: 6448: 6443: 6440: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6417:(22 Aug 1795) 6415: 6412: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6390:(11 Nov 1794) 6388: 6385: 6380: 6377: 6374:(28 Jul 1794) 6371: 6368: 6365:(27 Jul 1794) 6363: 6360: 6357:(10 Jun 1794) 6355: 6352: 6347: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6333: 6324: 6321: 6318:(16 Oct 1793) 6316: 6313: 6310:(17 Sep 1793) 6308: 6305: 6300: 6299: 6295: 6292:(23 Aug 1793) 6290: 6287: 6284:(13 Jul 1793) 6282: 6279: 6274: 6271: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6258: 6254: 6251: 6246: 6243: 6240:(21 Jan 1793) 6238: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6221:(22 Sep 1792) 6219: 6216: 6211: 6208: 6203: 6200: 6197:(10 Aug 1792) 6195: 6192: 6187: 6184: 6181:(25 Jul 1792) 6179: 6176: 6173:(20 Apr 1792) 6171: 6168: 6167: 6165: 6161: 6152: 6149: 6144: 6141: 6138:(27 Aug 1791) 6136: 6133: 6130:(17 Jul 1791) 6128: 6125: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6103:(14 Jul 1790) 6101: 6100: 6096: 6093:(12 Jul 1790) 6091: 6088: 6085:(23 Jun 1790) 6083: 6079: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6064: 6055: 6052: 6047: 6044: 6041:(26 Aug 1789) 6039: 6036: 6031: 6028: 6023: 6020: 6017:(14 Jul 1789) 6015: 6012: 6007: 6004: 6001:(20 Jun 1789) 5999: 5996: 5991: 5988: 5985:(4 June 1789) 5983: 5980: 5975: 5972: 5969:(28 Apr 1789) 5967: 5964: 5959: 5958: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5940:(21 Jul 1788) 5938: 5935: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5898: 5896: 5895: 5891: 5889: 5888: 5884: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5868: 5867: 5863: 5861: 5860: 5856: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5847: 5846: 5845:Ancien Régime 5842: 5840: 5839: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5827: 5824: 5820: 5813: 5808: 5806: 5801: 5799: 5794: 5793: 5790: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753:Second Empire 5750: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5681: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5580:July Monarchy 5577: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5550:Richelieu (2) 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5535:Richelieu (1) 5533: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5518: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5472:Paris Commune 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5431: 5426: 5424: 5419: 5417: 5412: 5411: 5408: 5395: 5388: 5384: 5381: 5378: 5374: 5371: 5368: 5364: 5361: 5358: 5354: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5337: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5295: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5284: 5281: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5216: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5197:Albert Lebrun 5195: 5190: 5185: 5181: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5147: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5130: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5113: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5011: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4977: 4974: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4964: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4922: 4917: 4915: 4910: 4908: 4903: 4902: 4899: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4883: 4874: 4870: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4841: 4839:0-521-28917-3 4835: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4800: 4796: 4791: 4787: 4785:0-394-47392-2 4781: 4776: 4775: 4768: 4764: 4762:1-55584-150-3 4758: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4701:0-231-02519-X 4697: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4682:0-231-08599-0 4678: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4644:0-520-04399-5 4640: 4636: 4631: 4627: 4625:0-7100-6525-6 4621: 4616: 4615: 4608: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4589: 4585: 4583:0-631-20299-4 4579: 4575: 4570: 4566: 4564:2-02-039818-4 4560: 4556: 4551: 4547: 4545:0-521-28918-1 4541: 4537: 4536: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4508:0-374-27341-3 4504: 4500: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4473: 4472:public domain 4461: 4460: 4446: 4437: 4428: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4398: 4391: 4386: 4379: 4374: 4372: 4365:, p. 31. 4364: 4363:Woronoff 1984 4359: 4352: 4347: 4345: 4337: 4332: 4326:, p. 20. 4325: 4324:Woronoff 1984 4320: 4314:, p. 17. 4313: 4312:Woronoff 1984 4308: 4302:, p. 15. 4301: 4300:Woronoff 1984 4296: 4289: 4288:Lefebvre 1963 4284: 4277: 4276:Woronoff 1984 4272: 4265: 4260: 4258: 4250: 4249:Woronoff 1984 4245: 4238: 4237:Thompson 1959 4233: 4231: 4223: 4218: 4211: 4206: 4198: 4197: 4189: 4181: 4180: 4172: 4165: 4164:Lefebvre 1963 4160: 4158: 4150: 4149:Thompson 1959 4145: 4138: 4133: 4131: 4123: 4122:Thompson 1959 4118: 4109: 4100: 4091: 4082: 4073: 4064: 4055: 4046: 4037: 4028: 4019: 4010: 4001: 3992: 3985: 3979: 3970: 3961: 3952: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3928: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3892:, p. 19. 3891: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3837: 3832: 3826:, p. 90. 3825: 3824:Lefebvre 1963 3820: 3813: 3808: 3801: 3796: 3790:, p. 88. 3789: 3788:Lefebvre 1963 3784: 3777: 3772: 3766:, p. 61. 3765: 3764:Lefebvre 1963 3760: 3754:, p. 99. 3753: 3752:Lefebvre 1963 3748: 3742:, p. 98. 3741: 3740:Lefebvre 1963 3736: 3729: 3724: 3718:, p. 96. 3717: 3716:Lefebvre 1963 3712: 3706:, p. 71. 3705: 3704:Lefebvre 1963 3700: 3698: 3690: 3689:Lefebvre 1963 3685: 3678: 3677:Lefebvre 1963 3673: 3666: 3665:Lefebvre 1963 3661: 3654: 3653:Lefebvre 1963 3649: 3642: 3637: 3631:, p. 64. 3630: 3629:Lefebvre 1963 3625: 3619:, p. 62. 3618: 3617:Lefebvre 1963 3613: 3606: 3601: 3594: 3589: 3587: 3567: 3560: 3554: 3548:, p. 68. 3547: 3546:Lefebvre 1963 3542: 3535: 3530: 3528: 3520: 3515: 3508: 3503: 3496: 3491: 3484: 3479: 3472: 3467: 3460: 3455: 3449:, p. 67. 3448: 3443: 3436: 3431: 3425:, p. 55. 3424: 3423:Lefebvre 1963 3419: 3417: 3409: 3404: 3397: 3392: 3385: 3380: 3374:, p. 42. 3373: 3372:Lefebvre 1963 3368: 3361: 3356: 3349: 3348:Lefebvre 1963 3344: 3337: 3332: 3323: 3316: 3311: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3288: 3283: 3275: 3273:0-394-55948-7 3269: 3265: 3264: 3259: 3258:Schama, Simon 3253: 3245: 3243:0-399-11022-4 3239: 3235: 3234: 3226: 3220:, p. 51. 3219: 3214: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3137: 3135: 3127: 3126:Thompson 1959 3122: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3072: 3071:Thompson 1959 3067: 3060: 3056: 3053: 3048: 3032: 3028: 3022: 3015: 3010: 3002: 2996: 2992: 2991: 2983: 2976: 2971: 2964: 2963:Thompson 1959 2959: 2957: 2940: 2936: 2930: 2923: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2910: 2905: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2853: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2829: 2823: 2816: 2815: 2810: 2803: 2799: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2782: 2777: 2774: 2773: 2768: 2765: 2764: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2751: 2750: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2739: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2678:Conservatoire 2672: 2671: 2664: 2663: 2656: 2655: 2649: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2615: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2591: 2590:sans-culottes 2587: 2583: 2582:sans-culottes 2579: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2530: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2473: 2468: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2449: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2433:Saint-Antoine 2431: 2427: 2421: 2416: 2413: 2408: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2380: 2375: 2372: 2363: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2341: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2231: 2222: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2200:burst in the 2199: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2179: 2175: 2169: 2167: 2161: 2153: 2144: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2128: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2085: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2068:Joseph Fouché 2065: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2007:Public Safety 2004: 1998: 1988: 1986: 1985:sans-culottes 1982: 1981:sans-culottes 1976: 1973: 1968: 1967:sans-culottes 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1907:sans-culottes 1903: 1901: 1897: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1860:sans-culottes 1857: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1822:André Masséna 1819: 1815: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1803:Ecole de Mars 1797: 1787: 1784: 1780: 1779:sans-culottes 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1746: 1744: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1720: 1719:sans-culottes 1714: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1623: 1617: 1613: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1591:Public Safety 1588: 1581: 1580:François Rude 1577: 1576: 1571: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1541:murdered the 1540: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1482: 1474: 1470: 1464: 1459: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1439: 1429: 1424: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1397: 1394: 1393:sans-culottes 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1376:Paris Commune 1373: 1367: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1351:sans-culottes 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1315: 1314:sans-culottes 1309: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1237: 1232: 1228: 1218: 1216: 1209: 1199: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1160:Paris Commune 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1139: 1135: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1011: 1008: 1007: 1001: 997: 993: 990:, 183 in the 989: 984: 982: 978: 973: 971: 966: 956: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 933: 931: 926: 921: 919: 916:IV under the 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 874: 864: 859: 857: 852: 850: 845: 844: 842: 841: 838: 827: 823: 813: 812: 806: 803: 801: 798: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 780: 779: 776: 774: 771: 767: 764: 763: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 728: 726: 725: 721: 720: 707: 705: 702: 701: 697: 695: 692: 691: 687: 685: 682: 681: 677: 672: 669: 667: 664: 663: 661: 660: 656: 654: 653:Années folles 650: 649: 645: 643: 639: 638: 634: 632: 629: 628: 623: 618: 617: 607: 605: 601: 600: 596: 594: 591: 590: 586: 584: 583:Second Empire 581: 580: 576: 574: 571: 570: 566: 564: 563:July Monarchy 561: 560: 556: 554: 551: 550: 546: 544: 541: 540: 536: 534: 531: 530: 526: 524: 521: 520: 516: 514: 511: 510: 505: 500: 499: 489: 487: 486:Bourbon kings 484: 483: 479: 477: 474: 473: 469: 467: 464: 463: 460: 459: 458:Ancien Régime 453: 448: 447: 437: 435: 431: 430: 426: 424: 420: 419: 415: 413: 410: 409: 405: 403: 399: 398: 394: 392: 389: 388: 384: 382: 379: 378: 374: 371: 367: 364: 363: 358: 353: 352: 342: 340: 337: 336: 332: 330: 327: 326: 322: 320: 317: 316: 312: 310: 307: 306: 301: 296: 295: 292: 289: 288: 284: 280: 279: 276: 270: 269: 264: 259: 258: 250: 245: 241: 238:Meeting place 236: 229: 226: 213: 200: 191: 187: 181: 177: 172: 168: 164: 159: 156: 152: 149: 145: 142: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 114: 109: 104: 100: 95: 83: 73: 70: 66: 62: 57: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 9951:Coat of arms 9941:Architecture 9913:Social class 9871:Homelessness 9856:Demographics 9810:Trade unions 9743:Central bank 9685:criminal law 9648:Human rights 9631:presidential 9475:Algerian War 9458:Contemporary 9432:Vichy France 9427:World War II 9397:Belle Époque 9330:First Empire 9232:Early Modern 9203:West Francia 8979:Phrygian cap 8924:Bastille Day 8838:Thomas Paine 8793:Edmund Burke 8788:Beaumarchais 8782:Les Lumières 8780: 8621:Joseph Fesch 8533:Pauline Léon 8503:Jacques Roux 8442: 8026: 7452:Lazare Hoche 7437:Paul Grenier 7407:Louis Desaix 7266:(8 Jul 1801) 7250:(9 Feb 1801) 7221:(3 Dec 1800) 7144:(5 Apr 1799) 6945:(6 Nov 1796) 6921:(8 Sep 1796) 6913:(4 Sep 1796) 6905:(3 Sep 1796) 6876:(5 Aug 1796) 6805:(2 Oct 1794) 6784:(1 Jun 1794) 6526:(9 Nov 1799) 6472:(4 Sep 1797) 6409:(1 Apr 1795) 6379:White Terror 6372:guillotined 6349:(5 Apr 1794) 6296: 6276:(2 Jun 1793) 6209: 6146:(3 Sep 1791) 6097: 6057:(2 Nov 1789) 6049:(5 Oct 1789) 5977:(5 May 1789) 5955: 5932:(7 Jun 1788) 5899: 5892: 5885: 5878: 5871: 5864: 5857: 5850: 5843: 5836: 5829: 5506:Hundred Days 5482:First Empire 5387:2017–present 5310: 5285: 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Retrieved 4406: 4397: 4385: 4358: 4351:Hampson 1988 4331: 4319: 4307: 4295: 4283: 4271: 4251:, p. 2. 4244: 4217: 4205: 4195: 4188: 4178: 4171: 4144: 4137:Hampson 1988 4117: 4108: 4099: 4090: 4081: 4072: 4063: 4054: 4045: 4036: 4027: 4018: 4009: 4000: 3991: 3983: 3978: 3969: 3960: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3915:. Retrieved 3906: 3897: 3885: 3873: 3861:. Retrieved 3852: 3843: 3831: 3819: 3812:Hampson 1988 3807: 3800:Hampson 1988 3795: 3783: 3771: 3759: 3747: 3735: 3723: 3711: 3684: 3672: 3660: 3648: 3636: 3624: 3612: 3600: 3573:. Retrieved 3553: 3541: 3519:Mathiez 1929 3514: 3507:Mathiez 1929 3502: 3495:Hampson 1988 3490: 3483:Mathiez 1929 3478: 3471:Mathiez 1929 3466: 3454: 3442: 3430: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3367: 3355: 3343: 3331: 3322: 3310: 3294: 3287:Kennedy 1988 3282: 3262: 3252: 3232: 3225: 3213: 3201:. Retrieved 3192: 3183: 3158: 3154: 3148: 3141:Hampson 1988 3121: 3088: 3084: 3078: 3066: 3047: 3035:. Retrieved 3021: 3009: 2989: 2982: 2970: 2943:. Retrieved 2939:the original 2929: 2889: 2852: 2837:The Mountain 2822: 2814:sans-culotte 2812: 2808: 2802: 2756:The Mountain 2730: 2726: 2647: 2644: 2630: 2626: 2612:White Terror 2609: 2594: 2592:was issued. 2589: 2581: 2575: 2571: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2547: 2527: 2524: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2478: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2440: 2429: 2423: 2411: 2409: 2404: 2382: 2370: 2368: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2338: 2335: 2326: 2316: 2314: 2298:White Terror 2279: 2274: 2267: 2250: 2247:Prairial Law 2243: 2228: 2208: 2182: 2170: 2162: 2158: 2129: 2119:Cap Francais 2108: 2087: 2053: 2038: 2034: 2023: 2000: 1984: 1980: 1977: 1966: 1964: 1906: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1859: 1853: 1843: 1833: 1830: 1814:Lazare Hoche 1807: 1802: 1799: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1750: 1747: 1740: 1731:sans-culotte 1730: 1724: 1718: 1715: 1696:on 27 July, 1663: 1654: 1651: 1629: 1627: 1620: 1616:Jacques Roux 1609: 1602:sans-culotte 1601: 1599: 1584: 1573: 1559: 1555: 1543:sans-culotte 1542: 1536: 1496:Valenciennes 1485: 1477: 1446: 1442: 1434: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1392: 1387: 1369: 1350: 1330: 1328: 1323: 1310: 1282: 1262: 1258: 1242: 1211: 1172: 1164:Jacobin Club 1144:conservative 1141: 1138:The Mountain 1087: 1078: 1068: 1051:the Mountain 1048: 1039:Thermidorian 1024: 1012: 1006:départements 996:Thomas Paine 985: 974: 962: 947:. After the 934: 922: 877: 875: 872: 825: 783:Christianity 671:Vichy France 622:20th century 604:Belle Époque 543:First Empire 456: 452:Early modern 402:West Francia 391:Carolingians 381:Merovingians 199:The Mountain 194: 43: 10061:WikiProject 9876:Immigration 9866:Health care 9728:Agriculture 9680:enforcement 9437:Free France 9406:World War I 9353:Restoration 9340:Late Modern 9210:Middle Ages 9185:Middle Ages 9170:Celtic Gaul 8848:Abbé Sieyès 8833:Montesquieu 8749:Social Club 8691:Jean Chouan 8581:Louis XVIII 8358:Roger Ducos 8328:Paul Barras 8295:Montagnards 8225:Abbé Sieyès 8028:monarchiens 7836:Netherlands 7765:(Hungarian) 7713:(Hungarian) 7629:French Navy 7555: [ 7477:Jean Lannes 7334:French Army 7112:(1798–1802) 7083:(1798–1800) 7067:(1798–1801) 6797:Chouannerie 6758:(Pyrenees) 6623: [ 6590:Chouannerie 6382:(Fall 1794) 6370:Robespierre 5521:Restoration 5445:(1792–1804) 5343: [ 5326: [ 5312:Alain Poher 5301: [ 5287:Alain Poher 5252: [ 5235: [ 5221:(1947–1958) 5204: [ 5187: [ 5180:Paul Doumer 5170: [ 5153: [ 5136: [ 5119: [ 5102: [ 5085: [ 5068: [ 5061:Félix Faure 5051: [ 5034: [ 5027:Sadi Carnot 5017: [ 5010:Jules Grévy 5000: [ 4983: [ 4969:(1870–1940) 4952: [ 4938:(1848–1852) 4417:12 December 4378:Soboul 1974 4222:Soboul 1974 3917:12 December 3863:12 December 3836:Soboul 1974 3776:Soboul 1974 3728:Soboul 1974 3575:12 December 3459:Soboul 1974 3435:Soboul 1974 3408:Soboul 1974 3396:Soboul 1974 3384:Soboul 1974 3336:Soboul 1974 3315:Soboul 2005 3203:12 December 2922:Anchel 1911 2845:La Montagne 2568:Vendémiaire 2533:Vendémiaire 2211:Robespierre 2155:9 Thermidor 2137:Robespierre 1960:Philippeaux 1759:Vandermonde 1694:Robespierre 1512:Piedmontese 1187:departments 1027:legislative 736:Health care 666:Free France 553:Restoration 357:Middle Ages 329:Celtic Gaul 272:History of 251:(1793–1795) 246:(1792–1793) 121:Established 10077:Categories 10004:Philosophy 9989:Literature 9901:secularism 9697:Parliament 9492:2005 riots 9442:Liberation 9308:Revolution 9175:Roman Gaul 9160:Prehistory 9116:Journalism 8737:Cordeliers 8651:Talleyrand 8576:Louis XVII 8438:Hébertists 8192:Jean Debry 8022:Feuillants 7651:Opposition 7547:Michel Ney 6969:(Dec 1796) 6577:Thionville 6480:(Dec 1797) 6453:(May 1796) 6445:5 Oct 1795 6422:Directoire 6302:(painting) 6205:(Sep 1792) 6189:(Jun 1792) 6022:Great Fear 5961:(Jan 1789) 5852:Revolution 5713:Barrot (2) 5708:Barrot (1) 5664:Thiers (2) 5639:Thiers (1) 5634:de Broglie 5530:Talleyrand 4868:65 (1998). 4390:Furet 1996 4336:Furet 1996 4210:Furet 1996 3932:Furet 1996 3890:Greer 1935 3878:Furet 1996 3605:Furet 1996 3593:Furet 1996 3534:Furet 1996 3360:Furet 1996 3161:(3): 2–3. 3037:18 October 3014:Dupuy 2005 2975:Furet 1996 2945:17 October 2901:References 2881:Marseilles 2718:Guadeloupe 2714:Martinique 2605:Saint Roch 2564:Lepeletier 2322:Physiocrat 2215:Saint-Just 1956:Desmoulins 1919:Saint-Just 1884:Desmoulins 1872:Dantonists 1846:Hébertists 1763:Berthollet 1674:Saint-Just 1587:committees 1456:See also: 1250:Saint-Just 1196:federalism 1168:Cordeliers 1100:, who had 1057:) and the 884:) was the 372:settlement 339:Roman Gaul 309:Prehistory 108:Unicameral 9861:Education 9815:Transport 9665:Judiciary 9626:Elections 9580:Mountains 9538:Geography 9284:Louis XIV 9074:Overviews 8571:Louis XVI 8566:Charles X 8217:The Plain 8128:Girondins 8068:Lafayette 7729:(Walloon) 7711:Pál Kray 7687:(Walloon) 7229:(1800–02) 7080:Quasi-War 6539:Consulate 6425:(1795–99) 5880:Consulate 5873:Directory 5755:(1852–70) 5703:Cavaignac 5686:(1848–52) 5669:Soult (3) 5659:Soult (2) 5614:Soult (1) 5582:(1830–48) 5570:Mortemart 5560:Martignac 5540:Dessolles 5523:(1814–30) 5484:(1804–14) 5377:2012–2017 5367:2007–2012 5357:1995–2007 5340:1981–1995 5323:1974–1981 5315:(interim) 5298:1969–1974 5290:(interim) 5280:1959–1969 5249:1954–1959 5245:René Coty 5232:1947–1954 5201:1932–1940 5184:1931–1932 5167:1924–1931 5150:1920–1924 5116:1913–1920 5099:1906–1913 5082:1899–1906 5065:1895–1899 5048:1894–1895 5031:1887–1894 5014:1879–1887 4997:1873–1879 4980:1871–1873 4949:1848–1851 4264:Rude 1988 3175:150197641 3113:154416704 2832:Girondins 2749:Girondist 2706:Sonthonax 2696:the 1793 2577:muscadins 2430:faubourgs 2405:faubourgs 2348:assignats 2340:assignats 2271:Fructidor 2147:Thermidor 2026:Vergniaud 1952:Delacroix 1880:Delacroix 1868:Bouchotte 1866:, filled 1848:although 1504:Perpignan 1331:appelants 1208:The Plain 1202:The Plain 1191:districts 1183:provinces 1148:democrats 1134:Girondins 1106:Dumouriez 1098:Austrians 1090:Prussians 1059:Girondins 1055:the Plain 1031:executive 959:Elections 925:Louis XVI 880:(French: 805:Territory 698:1946–1958 688:1944–1946 678:1940–1944 657:1920–1929 646:1919–1939 635:1870–1940 608:1871–1914 597:1870–1940 587:1852–1870 577:1848–1852 567:1830–1848 557:1814–1830 547:1804–1814 537:1792–1804 527:1791–1792 517:1789–1799 490:1589–1792 480:1515–1589 470:1498–1515 438:1328–1498 225:The Plain 212:Girondins 161:Structure 129:Disbanded 10051:Category 9984:Language 9896:Religion 9841:Abortion 9795:Taxation 9692:Military 9653:Intersex 9643:Politics 9609:Politics 9411:Interwar 9106:Economic 9101:Language 9086:Timeline 8931:Panthéon 8919:Muscadin 8914:Marianne 8853:Voltaire 8732:Jacobins 8725:Factions 8265:Mirabeau 7721:(French) 6615:Jemappes 6599:Dauphiné 6082:Nobility 5894:Journals 5887:Glossary 5866:Republic 5838:Timeline 5772:Ollivier 5718:Hautpoul 5649:Molé (2) 5644:Molé (1) 5604:Laffitte 5565:Polignac 5491:Napoleon 4411:Archived 3911:Archived 3857:Archived 3566:Archived 3260:(1989). 3197:Archived 3055:Archived 3031:Archived 2828:Jacobins 2736:See also 2710:Polverel 2690:Pluviôse 2639:Panthéon 2637:(1913), 2501:Messidor 2426:Prairial 2385:Germinal 2302:Lyonnais 2141:Napoleon 1834:en masse 1771:Fourcroy 1655:assignat 1630:sections 1551:Normandy 1500:Pyrenees 1473:Brussels 1471:, 1793, 1409:rights. 1166:and the 1083:Varennes 1018:and the 914:Brumaire 800:Taxation 778:Religion 773:Politics 766:Consorts 761:Monarchs 756:Military 751:Medicine 427:987–1328 416:987–1792 370:Frankish 368:and the 291:Timeline 263:a series 261:Part of 10042:Outline 10024:Theatre 10019:Symbols 9979:Gardens 9969:Fashion 9961:Cuisine 9928:Culture 9918:Welfare 9891:Poverty 9829:Society 9805:Tourism 9765:Exports 9738:Banking 9716:Economy 9675:history 9570:Islands 9565:Borders 9198:Francia 9152:Ancient 9130:Regions 9081:History 9066:History 8813:Diderot 8559:Figures 8444:Enragés 8150:Father 7861:Prussia 7793:Britain 7742:(Saxon) 7700:(Swiss) 7667:Austria 5728:Faucher 5629:Mortier 5555:Villèle 5545:Decazes 4484:(ed.). 4474:: 4456:Sources 3105:1878003 2641:, Paris 2397:Billaud 2327:maximum 2317:Maximum 2286:Carrier 2255:Billaud 2219:Couthon 2078:Slavery 2030:Brissot 1941:Proli, 1939:émigrés 1937:to the 1911:Ventôse 1892:effort. 1855:enragés 1743:autarky 1737:Economy 1670:Couthon 1643:Maximum 1614:, with 1611:enragés 1520:Corsica 1506:in the 1290:Couthon 1271:at the 1152:Gironde 1108:at the 888:of the 793:Judaism 731:Economy 710:present 406:843–987 395:751–987 385:481–751 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