France in the Middle Ages

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their father's ambitions. Philip IV for the most part ignored the Mediterranean and instead focused his foreign policy efforts on France's northern frontiers. Some of this was done at the expense of the Holy Roman Emperors, but the king's most aggressive actions were against England. Disputes over Aquitaine were a bone of contention for years and finally in 1294, war broke out. The French armies drove deep into Gascony, leading to Edward I of England joining forces with Flanders and other allies on the northern borders of France. The allied forces were soundly beaten in 1297 by a French army led by Robert of Artois and a truce was agreed to, leading to preservation of the

4302:(reigned 1226–1270). Saint Louis has often been portrayed as a one-dimensional character, a flawless example of the faith and an administrative reformer who cared for the governed ones. However, his reign was far from perfect for everyone: he made unsuccessful crusades, his expanding administrations raised opposition, and he burned Jewish books at the Pope's urging. His judgments were not often practical, although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It appears Louis had a strong sense of justice and always wanted to judge people himself before applying any sentence. This was said about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals: 3749:

included about half a dozen provostships. When appeals were instituted by the Crown, appeal of provost judgments, formerly impossible, now lay with the bailie. Moreover, in the 14th century, provosts no longer were in charge of collecting domainal revenues, except in farmed provostships, having instead yielded this responsibility to royal receivers (receveurs royaux). Raising local army contingents (ban and arrière-ban) also passed to bailies. Provosts therefore retained the sole function of inferior judges over vassals with original jurisdiction concurrent with bailies over claims against nobles and actions reserved for royal courts (

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loyalty to the Church. Those who took the side of Philip met in a large assembly in Paris along with other segments of French society criticizing the Pope, who responded by excommunicating the king and all clergy who had supported him. The following year, Philip struck back with a vengeance. Prelates loyal to the crown formed a scheme to bring Boniface to trial, and the Pope was summarily arrested at Anagni that September. He was beaten by his jailers and threatened with execution if he did not resign the papacy, but he refused. The 68-year-old Pope was released from captivity after only a few days and died several weeks later.

4178: 1621: 402: 2266:", governing assemblies, began to develop in towns. Starting sporadically in the late 10th, and increasingly in the 12th century, many towns and villages were able to gain economic, social or judicial privileges and franchises from their lords (exemptions from tolls and dues, rights to clear land or hold fairs, some judicial or administrative independence, etc.). The seigneurial reaction to expanding urbanism and enfranchisement was mixed; some lords fought against the changes, but some lords gained financial and political advantages from the communal movement and growing trade. 319: 2154:

armies (they had been able to serve in the royal armies as late as Charlemagne's reign) and participation in public assemblies and law courts—were lost through the 9th to the 10th centuries, and they were increasingly made dependents of nobles, churches and large landholders. The mid-8th century to 1000 also saw a steady increase of aristocratic and monastic control of the land, at the expense of landowning peasants. At the same time, the traditional notion of "unfree" dependents and the distinction between "unfree" and "free" tenants was eroded as the concept of

4555:. The Templars had been founded during the Crusades more than a century earlier, but now consisted of old men whose prestige was greatly diminished after the fall of the Holy Land and no longer seemed to serve any useful purpose worth their privileges. Unable to find suitable evidence of misdeeds by the Templars to justify disposing of the order, Philip had to resort to a mass meeting at Tours in 1308 to rally support. Finally in 1312, Clement V, despite his misgivings, issued a bull ordering their dissolution. The Templars' possessions were handed over to the 2185:) or granted freedom to existing cities, etc. By the end of the 15th century, serfdom was largely extinct; henceforth "free" peasants paid rents for their own lands, and the lord's demesne was worked by hired labor. This liberated the peasantry to a certain degree, but also made their lives more precarious in times of economic uncertainty. For lords who rented out more and more of their holdings for fixed rents, the initial benefits were positive, but over time they found themselves increasingly cash-strapped as inflationary pressures reduced their incomes. 292: 390: 299: 3997:(reigned 1027–1060). Like Hugh Magnus, Henry was crowned as co-ruler with his father (1027), in the Capetian tradition, but he had little power or influence as junior king while his father still lived. Henry I was crowned after Robert's death in 1031, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times. Henry I was one of the weakest kings of the Franks, and his reign saw the rise of some very powerful nobles such as William the Conqueror. Henry I's biggest source of concerns was his brother – 4930: 5440:

Jewish-Christian relations was focused primarily on the persecution that Jews faced in a prominently Christian world. In France, however, there were many examples of Jewish and Christian people working together towards a prosperity that was beneficial to both religions. They conducted business together, as well as participated in intimate social affairs. While the Jews would never fully assimilate into French culture by choice, they were accepted by the Christians in their societies.

5299: 5239: 4065:(reigned 1108–1137) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious and that is corroborated by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled religious statesman, 1479:

Kingdom and the authority of the King within his kingdom would be quite fluctuant. The lands that composed the Kingdom of France showed great geographical diversity; the northern and central parts enjoyed a temperate climate while the southern part was closer to the Mediterranean climate. While there were great differences between the northern and southern parts of the kingdom there were equally important differences depending on the distance of mountains: mainly the

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veritable independent principalities and privatizing various privileges and rights of the state. (By 1025, the area north of the Loire was dominated by six or seven of these virtually independent states.) After 1000, these counties in turn began to break down into smaller lordships, as smaller lords wrest control of local lands in the so-called "feudal revolution" and seized control over many elements of comital powers (see vassal/feudal below).

7794: 3266:" or chancellor nobles) helped in preparing and putting into legal form the king's decisions, and they formed the early elements of a true civil service and royal administration which would – because of their permanence – provide a sense of stability and continuity to the royal council, despite its many reorganizations. In their attempts at greater efficiency, the kings tried to reduce the number of counsellors or to convoke "reduced councils". 339: 1385:; the so-called "feudal revolution" of the 11th century during which ever smaller lords took control of local lands in many regions; and the appropriation by regional/local seigneurs of various administrative, fiscal and judicial rights for themselves. From the 13th century on, the state slowly regained control of a number of these lost powers. The crises of the 13th and 14th centuries led to the convening of an advisory assembly, the 4738: 4573: 66: 5350: 3881: 1247: 25: 5448:

Jewish prayer. These falsities proclaimed that a Jewish religious event included the sacrifice of a Christian child. In Blois, France, as many as 40 Jews were accused of killing a young Christian boy. They were found guilty and killed. Though Blood Libels and persecution did not define Jewish-Christian relations in the Middle-Ages in France, it had a large impact on the way the history of this time period is recited.

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continued to do without Brittany, Burgundy, and numerous lesser territories although they legislated for the whole realm. Governmental administration in France during this period became more bureaucratic and sophisticated along with the steady expansion of royal power. Even so, the Capetian kings should not be taken as arbitrary tyrants since feudal custom and tradition still acted as restraints on them.

1262: 4383:, as Duke of Aquitaine; however, the King of England was always late because he liked to stop each time he met a priest to hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III. Henry III and Louis IX then started a long contest for who was the most faithful; this evolved to the point that none ever arrived on time to the Parlement, which was then allowed to debate in their absence. 4968: 168: 3338:, who maintained a banking establishment in Paris. The royal Treasury was henceforth organized like a bank and salaries and revenues were transferred between accounts. Royal accounting officers in the field, who sent revenues to the Temple, were audited by the King's Court, which had special clerks assigned to work at the Temple. These financial specialists came to be called the 3935:. The loss of other Spanish principalities then followed, as the Spanish marches grew more and more independent. Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement being certainly to survive as king and defeating the Carolingian claimant, thus allowing him to establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful house of kings. 4709:(1322–1328). The new king faced much of the same problems as his predecessors (namely the quarrels over Flanders and Gascony). Having put an end to the chaos in southern France that his brother faced, he turned his attention to Flanders, but then a revolt broke out in Gascony over the unwelcome construction of a fortress on the border by a French vassal. The king's uncle 3698:. Provosts were entrusted with and carried out local royal power, including the collection of the Crown's domainal revenues and all taxes and duties owed the King within a provostship's jurisdiction. They were also responsible for military defense such as raising local contingents for royal armies. The provosts also administered justice though with limited jurisdiction. 4073:. Louis VI frequently summoned his vassals to the court, and those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and military campaigns mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed some royal authority on Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority. 2728:

Aquitaine, Toulouse and Barcelona. Normandy became the strongest power in the north, while Barcelona became the strongest in the south. The rulers of both fiefs eventually became kings, the former by the conquest of England, and the latter by the succession to Aragon. French suzerainty over Barcelona was only formally relinquished by Saint Louis in 1258.

2461:" for the land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the property). By the 11th century, the bonds of vassalage and the granting of fiefs had spread throughout much of French society, but it was in no ways universal in France: in the south, feudal grants of land or of rights were unknown. 2457:" in the documents) for the lifetime of the vassal, or, sometimes extending to the second or third generation. By the middle of the 10th century, feudal land grants (fee, fiefs) had largely become hereditary. The eldest son of a deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a " 3124:" (the "royal household") was used for people attached directly to the person of the king, while (in the 12th century), those who were called upon to counsel the king in his administration of the realm took the form of a specific (and separate) institution called the King's Court (Latin: the "Curia Regis", later the 1685:

controversial. Josiah Russell argued for about 80,000 in the early 14th century, although he noted that some other scholars suggested 200,000. The higher count would make it by far the largest city in western Europe; the lower count would put it behind Venice with 100,000 and Florence with 96,000. The

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Philip V (1316–1322) made peace with Flanders via a marriage compact with its count Robert III and faced continued quarrels with Edward II of England over Gascony. He made plans for a new crusade to relieve the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, but the Flanders situation remained unstable and an attempted

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In addition, Philip IV extended royal jurisdiction by treaty into the ecclesiastical territories of Vivers, Cahors, Mende, and Le Puy. With all this, the king could now assert power nearly anywhere in France, yet there was still a great deal of work yet to be done and French rulers for the time being

4483:

Of the later Capetian rulers, Philip IV was the greatest, bringing royal power to the strongest level it would attain in the Middle Ages, yet alienated a great many people and generally left France exhausted. As such, his sons were obliged to follow a more restrained course without however abandoning

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This "fragmentation of powers" was not however systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later. Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal

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and lesser seigneurs took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands,

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Traditional categories inherited from the Roman and Merovingian period (distinctions between free and unfree peasants, between tenants and peasants who owned their own land, etc.) underwent significant changes up to the 11th century. The traditional rights of "free" peasants—such as service in royal

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At the end of the Middle Ages, France was the most populous region in Europe—having overtaken Spain and Italy by 1340. In the 14th century, before the arrival of the Black Death, the total population of the area covered by modern-day France has been estimated at 16 million. The population of Paris is

4677:

In 1314, Philip IV died abruptly in a hunting accident at the age of 47 and the throne passed to his son Louis X (1314–1316). Louis's brief reign saw further unsuccessful attempts to assert control over Flanders as the king mobilized an army along the border, but supply problems caused the effort to

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was a close ally of Philip, he immediately excommunicated Peter and offered his throne to one of the French king's sons. Since Philip the Fair was already slated to inherit Navarre, the entire Spanish March seemed ripe for reconquest by France. However, Philip III's attempted crusade against Aragon,

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and sat in special sessions of the King's Court for dealing with financial business. From 1297, accounts were audited twice yearly after Midsummer Day (24 June) and Christmas. In time, what was once a simple Exchequer of Receipts developed into a central auditing agency, branched off, and eventually

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The Council had only a consultational role: the final decision was always the king's. Although jurists frequented praised (especially later in the 16th century) the advantages of consultative government (with the agreement of his counsellors, the king could more easily impose the most severe of his

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of the king, attested to as early as 1179, symbolically upholding his crown, and each original peer had a specific role, often with an attribute. Since the peers were never twelve during the coronation in early periods, due to the fact that most lay peerages were forfeited to or merged in the crown,

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did not imply the giving or receiving of landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the eighth century the giving of a landholding was becoming standard. The granting of a landholding to a vassal did not relinquish the lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands

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p. 91: "In the first place, after 1072 William was largely an absentee. Of the 170 months remaining of his reign he spent around 130 in France, returning to England only on four occasions. This was no passing phase. Absentee kings continued to spend at best half their time in England until the loss

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Small communities however, incorporated these prejudiced ideas into their beliefs, which led to some instances of blood libels which took many Jewish lives. Blood Libels consisted of accusations directed at small Jewish communities that promoted a false belief that there was a sacrificial aspect in

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After years of peace, in the 13th Century, Louis IX became obsessed with restricting Jewish activities. Eventually, after the Jewish population suffered multiple expulsions from France, the anti-Jewish rhetoric gained some popularity in small villages and towns. Jews began to face a fatal price for

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Charles was also eager to begin a new crusade in the Levant and had once plotted to become Byzantine emperor. He failed to work out an agreement with the Pope over funding the expedition however, and his attention was distracted by the events in Gascony. But in 1327, a French ambassador traveled to

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The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons, Philip IV could dictate popes and emperors. The late Capetians, although they often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier peers, were

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The orderly succession of French kings for more than 300 years, combined with an abrupt dynastic crisis in 1316 led to the adoption of a succession law that prevented the kingship from going out of the Capetian dynasty. The successive deaths of the sons of Philip IV in a short period of time led to

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If Philip's policies provoked hostility and complaints, it was because they favored no class in particular. The king's policy towards the towns remained fairly traditional, but this was not the case with the Church. When he wanted to tax French clergy to fund military campaigns, he encountered the

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Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognize Louis IX's overlordship, although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry III. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France, adding to his royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved

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in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. Although a king weak in power, Robert II's efforts were considerable. His surviving charters imply he relied heavily on the Church to rule France, much like

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The Carolingian era had seen the gradual emergence of institutions which were to condition France's development for centuries to come: the acknowledgement by the crown of the administrative authority of the realm's nobles within their territories in return for their (sometimes tenuous) loyalty and

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From the Middle Ages onward, French rulers believed their kingdoms had natural borders: the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Rhine. This was used as a pretext for an aggressive policy and repeated invasions. The belief, however, had mere basis in reality for not all of these territories were part of the

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in 987. Capet was previously "Duke of the Franks" and then became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). Hugh's lands extended little beyond the Paris basin; his political unimportance weighed against the powerful barons who elected him. Many of the king's vassals (who included for a long time the

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It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a

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that Jews in the employ of foreign Muslim rulers were using lepers to poison drinking wells. With the Pastoreux still fresh in everyone's mind, a volatile situation had formed especially as Philip V granted tolerance to Jews and even employed a number of them in his service. With the king facing

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Over time, the role of the baillages would be greatly extended as extensions of royal power, administration and justice. With the office of Great Seneschal vacant after 1191, the bailies became stationary and established themselves as powerful officials superior to provosts. A bailie's district

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The history of the monarchy is how it overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century. A number of factors contributed to the rise of the French monarchy. The dynasty established by Hugh Capet continued uninterrupted until

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as King. However, and despite the fact that the Capetian kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies than as subordinates, their royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The royal authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power.

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From the late 9th to the late 10th century, the nature of the noble class changed significantly. First off, the aristocracy increasingly focused on establishing strong regional bases of landholdings, on taking hereditary control of the counties and duchies, and eventually on erecting these into

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that Church property could not be confiscated without Rome's permission and all Christian rulers were subordinate to papal authority. The pope summoned French clergy to the Vatican to debate a reform of the kingdom. Once again the prelates were left divided between loyalty to their country and

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Louis IX brought the prestige of the French monarchy at its height. Even the Mongol leader Hulagu, who had been under the impression that the Pope was the ruler of all Christians, realized that the true power rested in the King of France and sought an alliance with him. His crusading ventures,

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In the 11th century, the provosts tended increasingly to make their positions hereditary and thus became more difficult to control. One of the King's great officers, the Great Seneschal, became their supervisor. In the 12th century, the office of provost was put up for bidding, and thereafter

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In 1302, expanding French royal power led to a general assembly consisting of the chief lords, both lay and ecclesiastical, and the representatives of the principal privileged towns, which were like distinct lordships. Certain precedents paved the way for this institution: representatives of

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and not a part of France. North of the Loire, the King of France at times fought or allied with one of the great principalities of Normandy, Anjou, Blois-Champagne, Flanders and Burgundy. The duke of Normandy was overlord of the duke of Brittany. South of the Loire were the principalities of

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The period after the death of Charlemagne was marked by an economic crisis caused by political instability; town life all but disappeared. However, this had changed by the 11th century. The introduction of new crops, the improvements in the climate, and the introduction of new agricultural

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In the Middle Ages, France was primarily made up of a Christian population that maintained a positive relationship with the Jewish minority. In a historical sense, Christians and Jews both made generalizations about the success of their community relations in Medieval France. The history of

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French naval expedition to the Middle East was destroyed off Genoa in 1319. At this point, peasants and soldiers originally intended to invade Flanders rose in another self-proclaimed crusade (Pastoreux) which once again turned into an assault on the nobility, tax collectors, and Jews. Pope

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From the 10th to the 11th centuries, the urban development of the country expanded (particularly on the northern coasts): new ports appeared and dukes and counts encouraged and created new towns. In other areas, urban growth was slower and centered on the monastic houses. In many regions,

4174:(junior king 1179–1180, senior king 1180–1223) marked an important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair. 2496:

system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of a "

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The Council's purview concerned all matters pertaining to government and royal administration, both in times of war and of peace. In his council, the king received ambassadors, signed treaties, appointed administrators and gave them instructions (called, from the 12th century on,

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In its origin, the feudal grant had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian

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ensured orderly successions of power. Secondly, the successors of Capet came to be recognised as members of an illustrious and ancient royal house and therefore socially superior to their politically and economically superior rivals. Thirdly, the Capetians had the support of the

3469:(created in 1390). The Crown's domainal revenues, still retained by the Court of Accounts, fell in importance and value. By 1400, the Court's role had been much reduced. However, with the gradual enlargement of the realm through conquest, the need for the court remained secure. 4524:

Philip ensured that he would never again have trouble with the Church by promoting Raymond Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, as the next Pope. The papal conclave was evenly divided between French and Italian cardinals, but the latter acquiesced and de Got became Pope

4288: 4001:– who was pushed by his mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke of Burgundy by King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward, the Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of the Franks until the end of the Duchy proper. 3319:, an "exceptional" tax could be imposed and collected; this resource was increasingly required during the protracted wars of the 14th–15th centuries and the taille became permanent in 1439, when the right to collect taxes in support of a standing army was granted to 4196:, which was probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the rise of the Capetian dynasty. During the first part of his reign Philip II tried using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II – 4960:, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 3262:, steadily increased as the technical aspects of the matters studied in the council mandated specialized counsellers. Coming from the lesser nobility or the bourgeoisie, these jurists (whose positions sometimes gave them or their heirs nobility, as the so-called " 4453:(1270–1285) and grandson Philip IV (1285–1314) followed him. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the 2407:, generally in the entourage of sworn lords, began to establish themselves in the ranks of the aristocracy (acquiring local lands, building private castles, seizing elements of justice), thereby transforming into the military noble class historians refer to as " 3156:. It was composed of a number of the king's trusted advisers but only a few traveled with the king at any time. By the later twelfth century it had become a judicial body with a few branching off to remain the king's council. By the fourteenth century the term 4491:

Flanders remained stubbornly rebellious and insubordinate. Although their count had been imprisoned by Philip, this did not prevent the Flemish burghers from rising up against French troops stationed there, inflicting a sensational defeat on them at the 1302

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a blatantly political affair, ended in disaster as an epidemic struck his army, which then was soundly defeated by Aragonese forces at Col de Panissars. The humiliated king died shortly afterwards in Perpignan, followed by Charles of Anjou and Martin IV.

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Initially, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, later popularized as the

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practicing their religious traditions. This discriminatory action promoted by the Royals, did not take hold with the general civilian populations in large cities because a large population of Christians permitted and accepted the differing Jewish faith.

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invaded the province, whereupon the former declared Edward II's claims to it null and void. Although Charles IV's sister married the English king, he still refused to return Gascony and finally came to an agreement to divide it up among the two rulers.

1538:, southern Gaul was more heavily populated and because of this more episcopal sees were present there at first while in northern France they shrank greatly in size because of the barbarian invasions and became heavily fortified to resist the invaders. 4026:, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European name, was no more fortunate than his predecessor although the kingdom did enjoy a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (1060–1108). His reign also saw the launch of the 4107:, who would become King of England as Henry II two years later. Louis VII was once a very powerful monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his equal as King of England and his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine. 2486:"). Power in this period became more personal and it would take centuries for the state to fully reimpose its control over local justice and fiscal administration (by the 15th century, much of the seigneur's legal purview had been given to the 2392:). Their access to political power in the Carolingian period might also necessitate a need for education. Their wealth and power was also evident in their lifestyle and purchase of luxury goods, and in their maintenance of an armed entourage of 3070:

The madness of Charles VI multiplied the woes of France, as the princes of the royal house split into factions in order to obtain power. France suffered another defeat at Agincourt, and the king was forced to disinherit his own son in favor of

2105:, except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and, in the south, smaller noble families. This situation began to change in the 13th century, where we find highly literate members of the French nobility like 4416:

The 13th century was to bring the crown important gains also in the south, where a papal-royal crusade against the region's Albigensian or Cathar heretics (1209) led to the incorporation into the royal domain of Lower (1229) and Upper (1271)

3493:. The jurisdiction of the Parliament of Paris covered the entire kingdom as it was in the fourteenth century, but did not automatically advance in step with the enlarging personal dominions of the kings. In 1443, following the turmoil of the 1737:; it was also the language of science, literature, law, and administration. From 1200 on, vernacular languages began to be used in administrative work and the law courts, but Latin would remain an administrative and legal language until the 2100:

While education and literacy had been important components of aristocratic service in the Carolingian period, by the 11th century and continuing into the 13th century, the lay (secular) public in France—both nobles and peasants—was largely

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of Normandy in 1204... But this absenteeism solidified rather than sapped royal government since it engendered structures both to maintain peace and extract money on the king's absence, money which was above all needed across the channel".

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The fact that the Capetians both held lands as Prince as well as in the title of King gave them a complicated status. Thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes but they also had a religious authority over

1609:). In principle, the lords of these lands owed homage to the French king for their possession, but in reality the king in Paris had little control over these lands, and this was to be confounded by the uniting of Normandy, Aquitaine and 4512:

in 1296 declaring that papal consent was necessary for this. Philip however became infuriated and issued loud arguments in defense of his actions, leaving the clergy divided over the matter. Eventually the pope withdrew his objection.

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in the Latin documents) was by no means a legally defined category. With traditions going back to the Romans; one was "noble" if he or she possessed significant land holdings, had access to the king and royal court, could receive

2180:

had lost many of the gains made in the 12th and 13th centuries) reversed this trend: landlords offered serfs their freedom in exchange for working abandoned lands, ecclesiastical and royal authorities created new "free" cities

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decisions, or he could have his most unpopular decisions blamed on his counsellors), mainstream legal opinion never held that the king was bound by the decisions of his council; the opposite was however put forward by the

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close relations to the king, including younger sons, grandsons and princes of the royal bloodline ("prince du sang") from junior branches of the family – these individuals were often suspected of political ambition and of

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of the chapter. It was only the representation of the Third Estate which was furnished by election. Originally, moreover, the latter was not called upon as a whole to seek representation in the estates. It was only the

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the queen (both as queen consort or as queen mother) – the influence of the queen lost direct political control as early as the 13th century, except in periods of regency; the queen thus only exceptionally attended the

2835:, because it linked England to France through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as kings of England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France. 3377:. Its auditors were responsible for overseeing revenue from Crown estates and checking public spending. It audited the royal household, inspectors, royal commissioners, provosts, baillifs, and seneschals. In 1307, the 2193:

Much of the Gallo-Roman urban network of cities survived (albeit much changed) into the Middle Ages as regional centers and capitals: certain cities had been chosen as centers of bishoprics by the church (for example,

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technologies created a large agricultural surplus. This was accompanied by the growth in town life, trade, and industry. The economy once again collapsed in the fourteenth century because of war, bad weather, and the

3381:

definitively removed royal funds from the Temple and placed them in the fortress of the Louvre. Thereafter, the financial specialists received accounts for audit in a room of the royal palace that became known as the

1666:", lasting from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. Part of the French population growth in this period (see below) is directly linked to this temperate weather and its effect on crops and livestock. 3081:

in 1429 and his reconciliation with the Duke of Burgundy in 1435. The French were victorious at the end of the war in 1453, and the King of France was once again the most powerful monarch in Europe, with the first

3630:

and other high clergy) who made up the Estates-General were not elected by their peers, but directly chosen and summoned by the king. In the order of the clergy, however, since certain ecclesiastical bodies, e.g.

3401:

to audit accounts, judge cases arising from accountability, and maintain registers of financial documents; it also laid out the basic composition of financial courts: three (later four) cleric masters of accounts

2345:); rural populations from the countrysides moved to the cities and burgs. This was also a period of urban building: the extension of walls around the entirety of the urban space, the vast construction of Gothic 3729:), Philip II Augustus, an able and ingenious administrator who founded many of the central institutions on which the French monarchy's system of power would be based, established itinerant justices known as 712: 4274:

as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the

3626:, to give aid and counsel. In their primitive form in the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates-General had only a limited elective element. The lay lords and the ecclesiastical lords ( 4130:

his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled with

4248:

and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive

4211:; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. The two men were once again at odds and fought each other in France until Richard was on the verge of totally defeating Philip II. 2646:. So popular was this notion, that for a long time people thought peerage had originated in the reign of Charlemagne, who was considered the model king and shining example for knighthood and nobility. 4162:

often much more influential. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and England and Holy Roman Emperor.

2968:

for the imperial throne, but the German electors were unwilling to expand French influence even further. Henry was elected King of Germany in 1308 as a compromise candidate, and became emperor in 1312.

2681:

was absorbed by the French crown, and later in the 13th century two more of the lay peerages were absorbed by the crown (Toulouse 1271, Champagne 1284), so in 1297 three new peerages were created, the

4234:. Philip of Swabia had the upper hand, but his premature death made Otto IV Holy Roman Emperor. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a wound he received fighting his own vassals in 3047:

Philip IV was the most absolutist of the medieval French kings, but his costly policies brought him into conflict with the pope and the persecution of the Templars in order to obtain their resources.

3790:

made advances along the northern and western perimeters of his kingdom. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The

4253:(1214) resulted in complete failure. The annexation of Normandy and Anjou was confirmed, the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders were captured, and the Emperor Otto IV was overthrown by Philip's ally 4188:

thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his royal domains. This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the Holy Roman Empire.

3975:– and was excommunicated because of this, he was regarded as a model of piety for monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious). The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the 2165:

From the mid-8th century on, particularly in the north, the relationship between peasants and the land became increasingly characterized by the extension of the new "bipartite estate" system (

4069:. The abbot was the son of a minor family of knights, but his political advice was extremely valuable to the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the 3643:, were also summoned to the assembly, and as these bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the physical sense, could not appear in person, their representative had to be chosen by the 4257:. Aquitaine and Gascony survived the French conquest, for the Duchess Eleanor still lived. Philip II of France was crucial in ordering Western European politics in both England and France. 3292:). The council also served as a supreme court and rendered royal justice on those matters that the king reserved for himself (so-called "justice retenue") or decided to discuss personally. 3145:

and the Provincial Estates. The Parliament of Paris – as indeed all of the sovereign courts of the realm – was itself born out of the King's Council: originally a consultative body of the

1696:

In the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but increasing persecution, and a series of expulsions in the 14th century, caused considerable suffering for French Jews;

4320:(although she did not formally use the title). Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the French barons yet she maintained her position until Louis was old enough to rule by himself. 2273:

was the largest city in the realm, and indeed one of the largest cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 200,000 or more at the end of the century. The second-largest city was

3753:). This followed a precedent established in the chief feudal courts in the 13th and 14th centuries in which summary provostship suits were distinguished from solemn bailliary sessions. 4103:

but his relationship with Eleanor did not improve. The marriage was ultimately annulled by the pope under the pretext of consanguinity and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy –

401: 3702:

provosts were farmers of revenues. The provost thus received the speculative right to collect the King's seignorial revenues within his provostship. This remained his primary role.

2469:). The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or "mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of 2433:

and benefices, including land, a practice which grew out of Late Antiquity. This practice would develop into the system of vassalage and feudalism in the Middle Ages. Originally,

2995:(1346): son of John of Bohemia, he received French education and resided in the French court for seven years. His close connection to the House of France facilitated the sale of 2700:, specifying the fief to which the peerage was attached, and the conditions under which the fief could be transmitted (e.g. only male heirs) for princes of the blood who held an 2449:

was the first to make large scale and systematic use (the practice had remained until then sporadic) of the remuneration of vassals by the concession of the usufruct of lands (a

4356:

with a massive force. Henry III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because they did not dare fight their king, who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into the

2736:. The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like 4862:. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the 3195:

The feudal aristocracy would maintain great control over the king's council up until the 14th and 15th centuries. The most important positions in the court were those of the

1507:. These rivers were settled earlier than the rest and important cities were founded on their banks but they were separated by large forests, marsh, and other rough terrains. 4949:(lost also in 1558). After victory over England, France's emergence as a powerful national monarchy was crowned by the "incorporation" of the Duchies of Burgundy (1477) and 4686:

on an extremely hot day. The king's wife was then pregnant and gave birth to a son, John, in November, but he died after a week and the throne passed to his brother Philip.

3023:

Louis VII's marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine brought the French monarchy's influence to southern France, but the annulment of their marriage brought about the rise of the

3739:

was thus the king's administrative representative in northern France responsible for the application of justice and control of the administration and local finances in his

3422:) who acted as auditors of the prests. This complement grew by 50 percent in the next two decades but was reduced to seven masters and twelve clerks in 1346. The office of 3017:

The early Capetians ruled much longer than their contemporaries, but had little power. They did not have the will, or the resources, to coerce their vassals into obedience.

3921:. The new dynasty was in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century 2169:), in which peasants (who were bound to the land) held tenant holdings from a lord or monastery (for which they paid rent), but were also required to work the lord's own " 3599:, he receive the counsel from the three estates in this serious crisis. The letters summoning the assembly of 1302 are published by M. Georges Picot in his collection of 1392:

From the 12th and 13th centuries on, France was at the center of a vibrant cultural production that extended across much of western Europe, including the transition from

4645: 4496:. Eventually however, the king began a new offensive into Flanders and a peace was finally agreed to in 1305 which however still failed to placate the Flemish townsmen. 4926:. Subsequently, captured by the Burgundians and sold to their English allies, her execution for heresy in 1431 redoubled her value as the embodiment of France's cause. 3426:

was created by the Ordinance of 1381, and a second lay Chief Baron was appointed in 1400. Clerks of court were eventually added to the court's composition. Examiners (

3171:

The composition of the King's Council changed constantly over the centuries and according to the needs and desires of the king. Medieval councils frequently excluded:

4617: 646: 4088:

in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him considerable power. However, the couple disagreed over the burning of more than a thousand people in

3442:. Lastly, the Ordinance of 26 February 1464 named the Court of Accounts as the "sovereign, primary, supreme, and sole court of last resort in all things financial". 3358:

to render their final accounts. The King's Court's general secretariat had members who specialized in finance and accountancy and could receive accounts. A number of

8579: 2871:

was composed almost entirely of Frankish Princes. As time went on the power of the King was expanded by conquests, seizures and successful feudal political battles.

6788: 4467:

After taking the throne, Philip III felt obliged to continue his father's apparently solid diplomacy despite circumstances having changed. In 1282, the misrule of

4624: 4352:

had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at

1662:

The weather in France and Europe in the Middle Ages was significantly milder than during the periods preceding or following it. Historians refer to this as the "

8359: 3686:

were the first-level judges created by the Capetian monarchy around the 11th century who administered the scattered parts of the royal domain. Provosts replaced

3390:, and they began to be collectively identified under the same name, although still only a subcommission of the King's Court, consisting of about sixteen people. 4995:(actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the 7257: 6302:

Hallam & Everard, p. 64: "Then, in 1151, Henry Plantagenet paid homage for the duchy to Louis VII in Paris, homage he repeated as king of England in 1156.

3564:

1499/1515). All of them were administrative capitals of regions with strong historical traditions of independence before they were incorporated into France.

2301:. In addition to these, there also existed zones with an extended urban network of medium to small cities, as in the south and the Mediterranean coast (from 7623: 3966:– was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks, met 4631: 7759: 5418: 3690:

wherever a viscounty had not been made a fief, and it is likely that the provost position imitated and was styled after the corresponding ecclesiastical

3137:

In addition to the King's Council, the consultative governing of the country also depended on other intermittent and permanent institutions, such as the

1290: 2173:"; in the north, some of these estates could be quite substantial. This system remained a standard part of lord-tenant relations into the 12th century. 5390: 4613: 3445:

While gaining in stability in the later 14th century, the court lost its central role in royal finances. First, currency was moved to a separate body (

3030:

Philip II made the French king the foremost power within his own kingdom, destroying Angevin power in France through the conquest of Normandy and Anjou

4718:

Constantinople and found the Byzantine Empire beset by civil wars. The following year, Charles IV died, ending any plans for crusades in the region.

2438:

and their income; the granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in case of disloyalty or death.

5315: 3872:

military support, a phenomenon readily visible in the rise of the Capetians and foreshadowed to some extent by the Carolingians' own rise to power.

2867:, which favoured a strong central government in France. This alliance with the Church was one of the great enduring legacies of the Capetians. The 5397: 6610: 4084:

over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to the French king. Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and

3852:

were subsequently to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the two families, the accession (987) of

4334:

The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc.

2429:

The Merovingians and Carolingians maintained relations of power with their aristocracy through the use of clientele systems and the granting of

1510:

Before the Romans conquered Gaul, the Gauls lived in villages organised in wider tribes. The Romans referred to the smallest of these groups as

7272: 4702:

potential disaster no matter what side he took, his health began to fail from stress and he succumbed at the start of 1322, only 29 years old.

2211: 5796:

Over the course of the 13th century, one historian (G. Sivery) estimates that the percentage dropped from 90% to 85%.. Bourin-Derruau, p. 75.

4307:

For it would be against God and contrary to right and justice if he compelled any man to seek absolution when the clergy were doing him wrong.

2974:(1310): son of Emperor Henry VII, he became of King of Bohemia by marriage. John was raised in Paris, and died fighting for the French in the 8685: 8251: 3350:

issued a decree ordering all mayors, burghesses, and town councilmen to appear before the King's sovereign auditors of the Exchequer (French

2055: 1113: 5404: 3735:("bailiff") based on medieval fiscal and tax divisions which had been used by earlier sovereign princes (such as the Duke of Normandy). The 7349: 1890:

on, the Franks expanded their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl languages found around

4810: 1530:

were often taken as a basis for the imperial administration and would survive up to the middle-ages when their capitals became centres of

4516:

In 1301, fresh trouble erupted when the Bishop of Pamiers was accused by the King of heresy and treason, leading to another protest from

5276: 4782: 4638: 3925:

accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support.

130: 6820: 5386: 5007:. Henry V failed to outlive Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the dual monarchy of England and France. 4895:

in 1415 against a France now bitterly divided between rival Armagnac and Burgundian factions of the royal house was to lead to his son

4759: 4594: 3990:– as King of the Franks at age 10 to secure the succession, but Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died fighting him in 1025. 3664:, who were frequently the municipal officials of the town, but deputies were often elected for the purpose. The country districts, the 2795:

Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe. The

193: 83: 38: 102: 8024: 6778: 4214:

Adding to their battles in France, the Kings of France and England were trying to install their respective allies at the head of the

2403:

Secondly, from the 9th century on, military ability was increasingly seen as conferring special status, and professional soldiers or

4941:, duke of Burgundy, removed the greatest obstacle to French recovery, leading to the recapture of Paris (1436), Normandy (1450) and 2771:

kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the

4789: 3149:, later (in the thirteenth century) endowed with judicial functions, the Parliament was separated from the King's Council in 1254. 1934:

The Middle Ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects spoken in France. From the 4th to 7th centuries,

1541:

Discussion of the size of France in the Middle Ages is complicated by distinctions between lands personally held by the king (the "

2533:

for secular. Peerages attached to fiefs were transmissible or inheritable with the fief, and these fiefs are often designated as

7850: 7169: 5360: 4705:

Having failed to produce a son that survived infancy, Philip was succeeded by his brother (and the youngest of Philip IV's sons)

2117:(sometimes referred to as Joinville). Similarly, due to the outpouring of French vernacular literature from the 12th century on ( 1898:(the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the 1283: 109: 4488:. As part of the peace arrangement, Edward married Philip's sister and the son and daughter of both kings were slated to marry. 4379:, Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's attending the French 1635:

undertook a massive French expansion in the 13th century, but most of these acquisitions were lost both by the royal system of "

8399: 8384: 8301: 5270: 4910:

France's humiliation was abruptly reversed in 1429 by the appearance of a restorationist movement embodied by the peasant maid

3057:

Philip VI was an initially promising ruler, having brought Flanders into submission early in his reign. At the outbreak of the

3931:

called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even if Hugh intended to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting

2473:

in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later: counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as

8152: 7227: 6442: 4914:

from Domremy la Pucelle, who claimed the guidance of divine voices for the campaign which rapidly ended the English siege of

4796: 3596: 3196: 3114:, etc.) before making important decisions. In the early Middle Ages, the entourage around the king was sometimes called the 2223: 933: 5553: 2050:. Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until the 8887: 8783: 6893: 4884: 4880: 4053:

of 1066, making himself and his heirs the King's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown).

2838:

An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French knights founded and ruled the

116: 3295:

Council meetings, initially irregular, took on a regular schedule which became daily from the middle of the 15th century.

2819:

successfully carved lands outside France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the

8892: 8506: 8269: 7925: 7915: 7683: 7658: 7598: 6897: 6603: 4867: 3020:

Louis VI began an aggressive policy of demanding obedience from his vassals in the Ile-de-France backed by military force

2989:(1342): son of Charles I of Hungary, eventually became King of Poland in addition to the realms inherited from his father 2666:

delegates were chosen by the king, mainly from the princes of the blood. In later periods peers also held up by poles a

2207: 2199: 2195: 1051: 547: 332: 5411: 4778: 1569:, the French kingdom was more or less a fiction. The "domaine royal" of the Capetians was limited to the regions around 8354: 7774: 6814: 6810: 6698: 6583: 6569: 6555: 6493: 6480: 6191: 4324: 4004: 2227: 2219: 2215: 1326:(987–1328), including their struggles with the virtually independent principalities (duchies and counties, such as the 1276: 5026:(1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. 4508:. The pope had received a number of complaints from French and English clergy over lay taxes and thus issued the bull 98: 8326: 8311: 7817: 7779: 7309: 7091: 6783: 6713: 6694: 6541: 6524: 6507: 6466: 6428: 4829: 4664: 3005:, Duke of Burgundy (1363): with his appanage of Burgundy and his marriage to the heiress of Flanders, he founded the 2203: 1212: 664: 229: 211: 149: 52: 4767: 4602: 1738: 1693:

slowed recovery. It would be the mid-16th century before the population recovered to mid-fourteenth century levels.

8594: 8435: 8389: 6732: 6721: 6717: 6690: 4254: 1165: 2341:

increased in size and many were able to gain privileges and franchises including transformation into free cities (

7277: 6670: 6666: 6619: 5646:"Population in Europe:, in Carlo M. Cipolla, ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. I: The Middle Ages 3932: 1469: 1425: 1234: 952: 5250: 3897:

kings of England) ruled over territories far greater than his own. He was recorded to be recognised king by the

8614: 8189: 7643: 7583: 7555: 7314: 6741: 6662: 6596: 6387: 5557:

of the 14th and 15th centuries. Some of the earliest painters lived in the Later Middle Ages in France such as

5375: 5324: 4763: 4598: 3928: 2992: 389: 87: 44: 4364:

remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The

2564: 2022:

invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves mostly in what would come to be called

8537: 8157: 8098: 8093: 7729: 7560: 6749: 6745: 6246:

Cour souveraine, principale, première et singulière du dernier ressort en tout le fait du compte des finances

2957: 1699: 1229: 1222: 1207: 1195: 1180: 982: 8179: 5593:

culture flourished after the 12th century, exemplified by famous personages of the High Middle Ages such as

3817:

Rivers and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror. In 843 Viking invaders murdered the

8865: 8604: 8083: 7920: 7177: 7173: 7044: 3967: 3061:

France was the foremost power in Western Europe, but this did not prevent his overwhelming defeat at Crécy.

2150:

In the Middle Ages in France, the vast majority of the population—between 80 and 90 percent—were peasants.

1837: 1314:(roughly, from the 10th century to the middle of the 15th century) was marked by the fragmentation of the 905: 8722: 8442: 8316: 8306: 8054: 7895: 7843: 7739: 6709: 5547: 4803: 4227: 3077:

Charles VII was apathetic during the early years of his reign, but his fortunes changed with the rise of

2788: 2707:

The number of lay peerages increased over time from 7 in 1297 to 26 in 1400, 21 in 1505, and 24 in 1588.

1741:(1539) prescribed the use of French in all judicial acts, notarized contracts, and official legislation. 1202: 5470:

The rural economy was based on the manor; in urban areas economic activity was organized around guilds.

2492:, leaving them only affairs concerning seigneurial dues and duties, and small affairs of local justice) 338: 8633: 8554: 8321: 8231: 8210: 7910: 7900: 7890: 7734: 7724: 7688: 7530: 7432: 7087: 6825: 6768: 6658: 5493: 5457: 5031: 4434: 4207:

Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during the

3998: 3288: 3208: 2909: 2639: 2042:

and its dialects. They also contributed many words to French related to sailing and farming. After the

1429: 1217: 1185: 1160: 720: 692: 123: 5667: 4110:(Henry had inherited the Duchy of Normandy through his mother, Mathilda of England, and the County of 1639:" (the giving of regions to members of the royal family to be administered) and through losses in the 8813: 8569: 8484: 8457: 8374: 8169: 7457: 7220: 7143: 6973: 6830: 5311: 5019: 4976: 4493: 3224: 3165: 2720: 2110: 1413: 729: 183: 8394: 8364: 7969: 7708: 6737: 6727: 6704: 6681: 6653: 5541: 5371: 5320: 4748: 4583: 4429:(1300) was less successful, ending two years later in the rout of his knights by the forces of the 4343: 4177: 4070: 3603:. During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several times to give him aid by granting 3573: 3024: 3006: 2879:

Vassals and cadets of the King of France made several foreign acquisitions during the Middle Ages:

2756:, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate 1744:

The vast majority of the population, however, spoke a variety of vernacular languages derived from

1386: 748: 499: 291: 3227:(created in 1311). Certain kings were unable to reduce the importance of the feudal aristocracy ( 2500:" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century. 8650: 8532: 8479: 8425: 8379: 8068: 7412: 7382: 7109: 7075: 5523: 4752: 4587: 4551:

One of the more bizarre episodes of Philip's reign was his involvement in the destruction of the

4335: 4123: 2951: 2899: 1393: 1190: 1170: 863: 76: 7022: 4529:. Thus, Philip successfully installed an obedient French puppet in the papacy that was moved to 895: 8755: 8717: 8675: 8660: 8452: 8274: 8174: 7836: 7769: 7525: 7299: 7162: 7158: 7070: 6937: 5536: 4339: 3976: 3906: 3212: 3160:

was no longer used. However, it had served as a predecessor to later sovereign assemblies; the

3064:

John II brought the French monarchy at its lowest with another overwhelming defeat in Poitiers.

2928:, Count of Barcelona (1164): first Count of Barcelona to become King of Aragon in his own right 2177: 1679: 1620: 1417: 1175: 1123: 1002: 6181: 5539:

were diligently written and illustrated within this period, some notable examples include the

4999:, as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. In 1420 3330:

To oversee the Kingdom's revenues and expenditure, the French King first relied solely on the

8680: 8670: 8462: 8286: 8194: 8129: 7588: 7480: 7437: 5602: 5511: 5220: 5027: 4992: 4919: 4866:

of 1337–1453. The following century was to see devastating warfare and peasant revolts (the

4863: 4851: 4727: 4464:

in 1271 from his uncle and married his son and heir to the heiress of Champagne and Navarre.

4409:. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. He died in the Eighth Crusade and 4223: 3987: 3595:

which led to the States-General of 1302; the king of France desired that, in addition to the

3498: 3494: 3490: 3324: 3320: 3310: 3275: 3138: 3058: 2980: 2931: 2883: 2824: 2051: 2047: 1761: 1690: 1675: 1644: 1640: 1543: 1473: 1421: 1355: 1133: 1060: 1022: 962: 537: 362: 5367: 5011:

succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily.

4126:

led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the Duke of

2596:

A few years later and before 1228 three peers were added to make the total of twelve peers:

1689:

killed an estimated one-third of the population from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent

8705: 8246: 8184: 8073: 7964: 7807: 7749: 7545: 7452: 7422: 7407: 7213: 7117: 6928: 5558: 5189: 5157: 5127: 5115: 4850:

the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son was

4843: 4706: 4556: 4450: 4410: 4376: 4349: 4267: 4197: 4119: 4085: 4042: 4034:, which heavily involved his family although he personally did not support the expedition. 4016: 3947: 3584: 3580: 3240: 3204: 2947: 2941: 2925: 2905: 2772: 1663: 1614: 1347: 1012: 738: 324: 189: 3374: 1928: 8: 8788: 8745: 8665: 8619: 8496: 8489: 8469: 8430: 8342: 8134: 8103: 8078: 8044: 7946: 7941: 7693: 7673: 7653: 7618: 7550: 7462: 7329: 7013: 7008: 6997: 6977: 6947: 5581:, were active during Ars antiqua period, arguably the most famous being the 12th-century 5288: 5209: 5183: 5171: 5133: 5109: 5103: 5079: 5043: 5023: 4896: 4892: 4855: 4537: 4472: 4422: 4387: 4276: 4235: 4181: 4171: 4151: 4136: 4104: 4077: 4008: 3963: 3588: 3486: 3378: 3267: 3259: 3244: 3232: 3220: 3216: 3200: 3044:

Philip III inherited Toulouse and married his son to the heiress of Navarre and Champagne

3034: 2961: 2937: 2915: 2843: 2590: 2548: 2519: 2137:

poetry, etc.), French eventually became the "international language of the aristocracy".

2106: 1935: 1730: 1632: 1625: 1606: 1409: 1405: 1397: 1363: 1335: 972: 881: 820: 810: 6844: 5641: 4678:

break down. Louis died in the summer of 1316 at only 26 of an unknown illness (possibly

3622:: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant subsidies or to advise 1866: 1853: 1334:

regions), and the creation and extension of administrative/state control (notably under

446: 8700: 8645: 8599: 8447: 8413: 7997: 7797: 7633: 7608: 7510: 7387: 7339: 7334: 7324: 7262: 7139: 7038: 7003: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6959: 6955: 6918: 6889: 6836: 6686: 5504: 5202: 5151: 5121: 5097: 5091: 5039: 5000: 4888: 4342:

in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to

4313: 4299: 4291: 4250: 4140: 4062: 4023: 3972: 3830: 3777: 3691: 3636: 3592: 3394: 3347: 3248: 3215:(Grand Butler), before being supplanted of these functions by the Chamber of Accounts ( 3130:)), although by the middle of the 13th century distinctions between "hôtel du roi" and 3072: 2986: 2828: 2610: 2584: 2559: 2349:(starting in the 12th century), urban fortresses, castles (such as Philip II Augustus' 2243: 2159: 1883: 1648: 1602: 1562: 1339: 1315: 474: 6951: 5015: 4956:

The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the

4095:

King Louis VII was deeply horrified by the event and sought penitence by going to the

2975: 2514:

Medieval French kings conferred the dignity of peerage upon certain of his preëminent

2262:) with limited privileges were established by local lords. In the late 11th century, " 8846: 8828: 8823: 8808: 8793: 8732: 8695: 8609: 8542: 8520: 8501: 8369: 8296: 8119: 8019: 7905: 7885: 7862: 7793: 7535: 7505: 7495: 7485: 7402: 7392: 7377: 7244: 7189: 7154: 7150: 7128: 7105: 7101: 7034: 7030: 6969: 6933: 6923: 6913: 6908: 6885: 6579: 6565: 6551: 6537: 6520: 6503: 6489: 6476: 6462: 6438: 6424: 6393: 6383: 6187: 5578: 5177: 5139: 5085: 4972: 4938: 4859: 4710: 4454: 4215: 4115: 4089: 4041:

invaders as the Duchy of Normandy in 911, became a source of particular concern when

3994: 3955: 3762: 3705:

To monitor the performance and curtail abuses of the prévôts or their equivalent (in

3695: 3549: 3411: 3304: 3236: 3228: 2965: 2816: 2724: 2678: 2634: 2605: 2579: 2574: 2554: 2509: 2126: 2114: 1989:) in southwestern France, though the language gradually lost ground to the expanding 1829: 1825: 1766: 1712: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1457: 1441: 1307: 942: 841: 701: 467: 436: 406:

The Kingdom of France in 1190. The bright green area was controlled by the so-called

178: 6423:. Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1999. 3203:(chief military officer of the realm; established by King Philip I in 1060) and the 1966:

in more recent centuries, and they gave their name to the peninsula they inhabited:

1327: 8760: 8712: 8584: 8559: 8049: 7754: 7703: 7698: 7638: 7603: 7515: 7472: 7442: 7364: 7282: 7252: 7124: 7113: 7083: 7062: 6943: 6848: 6799: 6793: 6773: 6648: 5562: 5500: 5145: 5063: 5004: 4988: 4900: 4698: 4468: 4271: 4244:, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the 4219: 4155: 4139:

to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the

3865: 3857: 3818: 3795: 3791: 3263: 3164:

which was a judiciary body, the Chamber of Accounts which was a financial body and

2716: 2690: 2263: 2239: 2120: 2006: 1990: 1907: 1875: 1749: 1720: 1435: 915: 542: 524: 442: 8222: 8061: 3607:. Over time subsidies came to be the most frequent motive for their convocation. 2780: 2031: 1895: 1534:. These religious provinces would survive until the French revolution. During the 1082: 887: 566: 8855: 8818: 8803: 8798: 8740: 8655: 8215: 7956: 7764: 7678: 7648: 7372: 7289: 7185: 7097: 6965: 6588: 5598: 5165: 5051: 5035: 4679: 4552: 4402: 4391: 4346:, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France. 4241: 4132: 4111: 4081: 4050: 3980: 3922: 3861: 3660:, the privileged towns, which were called upon. They were represented by elected 3335: 3052: 3002: 2971: 2864: 2839: 2832: 2820: 2682: 2671: 2569: 2362: 2235: 2231: 2062: 2043: 2010: 1994: 1978: 1963: 1951: 1924: 1919:

for "yes", was the language group spoken in the south of France and northeastern

1871: 1753: 1734: 1343: 1331: 1071: 454: 450: 371: 310: 8201: 2944:, conquered the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, proclaimed himself King of Albania 2230:, etc.), others as seats of local (county, duchy) administrative power (such as 1362:

in 1348), which laid the seeds for a more centralized and expanded state in the

1033: 8778: 8773: 8765: 8589: 8547: 8124: 7668: 7613: 7567: 7520: 7500: 7344: 7267: 7181: 7135: 6803: 5566: 5067: 4530: 4406: 4365: 4312:

Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France. His mother –

4193: 4100: 3652: 3466: 3153: 3126: 3106:

The kings of France traditionally always sought the advice of their entourage (

3101: 2919: 2847: 2776: 2768: 2749: 2697: 2624:, and the number twelve is sometimes said to have been chosen to mirror the 12 2600: 2446: 2066: 1982: 1726: 1566: 1488: 1453: 1351: 1323: 1266: 852: 486: 407: 305: 1801:, "that is it" – were spoken primarily in northern France, the 8881: 8860: 8690: 8474: 8162: 7427: 6840: 6536:

Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 4. Editions du Seuil.

6519:

Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 5. Editions du Seuil.

6461:

Series: Nouvelle histoire de la France médiévale, tome 3. Editions du Seuil.

6331: 5489: 4541: 4517: 4505: 4357: 4328: 4231: 4208: 4200:– and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of 4143:

in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of

4027: 4012: 3810: 3121: 3116: 3083: 2999:, an imperial fief, in 1349, and its eventual transfer into the French crown. 2890: 2868: 2859: 2686: 2526: 2458: 2035: 1974: 1899: 1861: 1531: 1251: 992: 617: 6397: 4929: 4694:

denounced the uprising and Philip was forced to send troops to break it up.

4460:

Philip III continued the steady expansion of the royal domain. He inherited

4449:

After Louis IX died of bubonic plague crusading in Tunisia in 1270, his son

3334:. However, by the mid-12th century, the Crown entrusted its finances to the 2934:, Count of Champagne (1234): inherited the Kingdom of Navarre from his uncle 1997:

influenced the emerging Latin-based language spoken in the area between the

1369:

Up to the 12th century, the period saw the elaboration and extension of the

8574: 8279: 8236: 8036: 8007: 7593: 7490: 7294: 6903: 5668:"ENERGY AND POPULATION IN EUROPE The Medieval Growth (10th-14th Centuries)" 4395: 3849: 3837:

were settled in an area on either side of the Seine River, downstream from

3799: 3745:(in the south of France, the equivalent post was "sénéchal, sénéchaussé"). 3191:

the "grands" – the most powerful members of the church and of the nobility.

2964:

while Count of Luxembourg. Philip IV advanced the candidacy of his brother

2800: 2715:

France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages. At the time,

2658: 2479: 1745: 1535: 1319: 1100: 831: 651: 597: 592: 432: 298: 6487:

Strong of Body, Brave and Noble": Chivalry and Society in Medieval France.

5298: 4270:(the future Louis VIII, reigned 1223–1226) was involved in the subsequent 3717: 3521:

outside of Paris; its jurisdiction extended over most of southern France.

3481:, born out of the king's council in 1307, and sitting inside the medieval 2842:. An example of the legacy left in the Middle East by these nobles is the 1628:, at the time of his accession (1180) and at the time of his death (1223). 1373:

economic system (including the attachment of peasants to the land through

8241: 8144: 7989: 7744: 7447: 7354: 7236: 5570: 5464: 4996: 4984: 4957: 4911: 4261: 4066: 4038: 3951: 3943: 3938: 3910: 3783: 3682: 3188:

the crown prince (the "dauphin") – if he was of age to attend the council

3078: 3013:

The power of the French monarchy grew at a slower rate at the beginning:

3009:, the most powerful dynasty of the Middle Ages which is not of royal rank 2808: 2764: 2757: 2696:

Thus, beginning in 1297 the practice started of creating new peerages by

2643: 2629: 2338: 2314: 2255: 2166: 2090: 2016: 1955: 1686: 1549: 1370: 1359: 1311: 1095: 511: 5238: 4540:, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285–1314). This king signed the 3821:, and a few years after that, they burned the Church of Saint Martin at 3529: 2996: 2134: 1449: 8750: 7979: 7319: 7205: 7018: 5590: 5485: 5073: 4961: 4682:) after consuming a large quantity of chilled wine following a game of 4353: 4154:. This style became standard for most European cathedrals built in the 3889: 3853: 3583:

there had been assemblies of nobles and ecclesiastics in which the two

3579:

principal towns had several times been convoked by the king, and under

2896:

Norman knights settled in Sicily, which was raised to a kingdom in 1130

2812: 2753: 2662: 2525:

Peerage was attached to a specific territorial jurisdiction, either an

2497: 2466: 2130: 1716: 1554: 1445: 1401: 768: 5586: 4915: 4394:

became a very famous gothic building, and he is also credited for the

4192:

Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called

3373:

In or around 1303, the Paris Court of Accounts was established in the

2748:

enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The

2278: 2269:

The 13th to 14th centuries were a period of significant urbanization.

8088: 7628: 7397: 6578:

Series: Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages. Routledge, 1995.

4872: 4847: 4691: 4545: 4526: 4476: 4418: 4380: 4369: 4096: 4031: 3741: 3640: 3623: 3619: 3604: 3502: 3478: 3363: 3161: 3142: 2804: 2745: 2733: 2667: 2474: 2470: 2346: 2306: 2039: 1582: 1378: 479: 343: 5582: 5349: 5030:(reigned 1422–1461) established the first French standing army, the 4737: 4572: 4471:

in Sicily compelled the island's populace to rebel in favor of King

1832:. Modern linguists typically add a third group within France around 1797: 65: 7663: 7540: 7417: 6548:

France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc.

6378:

Hallo, William W; Ruderman, David B; Stanislawski, Michael (1984).

5594: 5574: 4950: 4461: 4438: 4430: 4426: 4245: 4185: 4127: 3954:

and marked an important step in the cultural rebirth following the

3856:, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established on the throne the 3842: 3806: 3711: 3706: 3687: 3615: 3557: 3545: 3533: 3514: 2851: 2741: 2737: 2454: 2381: 2318: 2310: 2302: 2286: 2247: 2102: 2023: 2002: 1967: 1959: 1939: 1887: 1879: 1652: 1484: 612: 6164:

The Struggle for Mastery. The Penguin history of Britain 1066–1284

6151:

France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc

5723:

Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1978, pp. 55–58.

4967: 4279:. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains. 3880: 3610:

The Estates-General included representatives of the First Estate (

3313:", or lands that belonged to him directly. In times of need, the 1820: 1807: 1794: 1496: 1346:(1328–1589), including the protracted dynastic crisis against the 8002: 7870: 7304: 6880: 5519: 5515: 4942: 4899:'s recognition as king in Paris seven years later under the 1420 4150:

Abbot Suger's vision of construction became what is now known as

4144: 4046: 3918: 3902: 3773: 3648: 3541: 3537: 3454: 2796: 2701: 2625: 2442: 2170: 2155: 2027: 2019: 1998: 1847: 1656: 1636: 1610: 1574: 1518: 1504: 1374: 795: 7828: 5773:

Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages.

4401:

The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the

4165: 4118:, and in 1152, he had married France's newly divorced ex-queen, 3528:

were created in various provinces of France in the Middle Ages:

3152:

The King's Court functioned as an advisory body under the early

2250:) cities were seats of both episcopal and administrative power. 2176:

The economic and demographic crises of the 14th–15th centuries (

8291: 7859: 5047: 4953:(1532), which had previously been independent European states. 4946: 4923: 4846:

in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under

4683: 4562: 4559:

and their remaining members imprisoned or executed for heresy.

4317: 4294:

saw France's cultural expansion in the Western Christian world.

4201: 4080:(junior king 1131–1137, senior king 1137–1180) enjoyed greater 3787: 3731: 3627: 3611: 3482: 3315: 3255: 3111: 3107: 3067:

Charles V recovered most of the territories lost during the war

2893:

led to the creation of a Frankish kingdom in the Levant in 1099

2515: 2488: 2434: 2420: 2408: 2366: 2350: 2334: 2326: 2118: 2074: 1558: 1491:. France had important rivers that were used as waterways: the 1433: 1382: 799: 251: 6435:

The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000.

5642:"Medieval Sourcebook: Tables on Population in Medieval Europe" 5046:(1453) was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet 1748:, the common spoken language of the Western Roman Empire. The 602: 344:

Two variants of the Oriflamme, the battle standard of the king

7026: 4904: 3914: 3898: 3893: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3822: 3814: 3632: 3561: 3553: 3355: 2693:, to compensate for the three peerages that had disappeared. 2385: 2330: 2298: 2294: 2282: 2277:; the other major cities (with populations over 10,000) were 2274: 2270: 1993:

during a period spanning most of the Early Middle Ages. This

1947: 1943: 1920: 1891: 1816: 1790: 1757: 1570: 1512: 1500: 1492: 1381:

system of political rights and obligations between lords and

419: 5499:

For the literature of Southern France written in one of the

5484:

For the literature of Northern France written in one of the

3805:

Viking advances were allowed to escalate, and their dreaded

2983:, Count of Évreux (1328): became King of Navarre by marriage 1729:

was the primary medium of scholarly exchange as well as the

1547:") and lands held in homage by another lord. The notion of 8564: 7974: 6183:

Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society: To 1789

6041: 6039: 5775:

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1991, p. 429.

4945:(1453), reducing England's foothold to a small area around 4287: 3888:

The history of medieval France starts with the election of

3802:, roughly corresponding to the territory of modern France. 3644: 2886:, Duke of Normandy (1066): conquered the Kingdom of England 2530: 2424: 2389: 2322: 2290: 1886:

spoken by the earliest Frankish invaders. From the time of

1833: 1578: 1480: 758: 6179: 3950:

monastery, was the centre of monastic life revival in the

3438:) appointed by the King were created to act alongside the 2551:

who had the distinction of anointing and crowning the king

6377: 4964:

returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50% or more.

4122:, who ruled much of southwest France. After defeating a 3414:") audit accounts. They were assisted by eleven clerks ( 3309:

The king was expected to survive on the revenues of the "

3184:

On the other hand, medieval councils generally included:

2069:, Italian and Spanish. There are words for luxury goods ( 6380:

Heritage: civilization and the Jews : source reader

6036: 5577:

in the Later Middle Ages. A group of composers from the

3449:), then the increasingly regular "extraordinary" taxes ( 3037:, which brought northern France to war against the south 2522:(1137–1180) to have created the French system of peers. 5741:

Baugh, Cable, "A History of the English Language, 104."

5689: 5687: 5282: 4444: 2638:(see below). Parallels may also be seen with mythical 1769:

into three groups by their respective words for "yes":

5626: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5014:

Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the

3993:

The next King of the Franks was Robert II's next son,

3868:

offshoots was to rule France for more than 800 years.

2918:(1154): ruled England and much of Western France (The 1811:, "that" – in southern France, and the 1651:

gain control of most of modern-day France (except for

5573:

musical style was common in the High Middle Ages and

4721: 4614:"France" "Louis X" OR "Philip V" OR "Charles IV" 4323:

In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long-lasting

4056: 1581:. The great majority of French territory was part of 6534:

Temps d'équilibres, temps de ruptures: XIIIe siècle.

6285: 6283: 6281: 6279: 6277: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6145: 6143: 6141: 5713: 5684: 4386:

Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as

4092:

during the conflict against the Count of Champagne.

3971:

his father did. Although he lived with a mistress –

3601:

Documents inédits pour servir à l'histoire de France

1962:

in northwest France. Their dialect evolved into the

1958:

invasions of England, and established themselves in

6336:. Vol. VIII. New York: Robert Appleton Company 6235:(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1922), p. 72 5615: 5057: 3587:deliberated separately. It was the dispute between 2767:kings had nothing more than a royal title when the 2518:, both clerical and lay. Some historians consider 1954:, both for reasons of trade and of flight from the 90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6618: 6517:Temps de crises, temps d'espoirs: XIVe-XVe siècle. 3027:, the most formidable rival of the French monarchy 2874: 2061:Also around this time period, many words from the 6312: 6310: 6308: 6268: 6138: 6135:Such is the view of, for example, François Velde. 5510:For the literature written in the "langue d'oïl" 5387:"Medieval France" Jewish-Christian relations 4903:, reducing Valois rule to the lands south of the 4099:. He later involved the Kingdom of France in the 3875: 1322:(843–987); the expansion of royal control by the 257: 8879: 4298:France became a truly centralised kingdom under 3393:The Vivier-en-Brie Ordinance of 1320, issued by 2779:they held their personal fiefdom, best known as 1366:and the creation of a sense of French identity. 1081: 5966: 5964: 5535:Art was a large staple of the medieval France. 3286:), elaborated on the laws of the realm (called 2710: 2478:obligations to use the lord's mill, etc. (what 2356: 6564:Editions Longman. 2nd edition: Pearson, 2001. 6305: 6233:Medieval France: A Companion to French Studies 5909: 5907: 5897: 5895: 5867: 5865: 5783: 5781: 3211:who managed the Royal Treasury along with the 3120:; later the expression "hôtel du roi" or the " 2371:In the Carolingian period, the "aristocracy" ( 2113:(sometimes referred to as Villehardouin), and 2046:in 1066, the Normans' language developed into 7844: 7221: 6604: 5771:Bumke, Joachim. Translated by Thomas Dunlap. 4166:Philip II Augustus and Louis VIII (1180–1226) 1931:, have relatively little Frankish influence. 1659:, and parts of eastern and northern France). 1284: 8220: 8199: 8059: 6261:1993:412f, discusses the institution of the 6175: 6173: 5961: 5376:introducing citations to additional sources 4937:Reconciliation in 1435 between the king and 4563:Louis X, Philip V and Charles IV (1314–1328) 2902:(1131): became King of Jerusalem by marriage 2414: 1864:group in the north of France, consisting of 1358:(1337–1453) (compounded by the catastrophic 359: 6057: 5904: 5892: 5862: 5778: 4766:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4699:a rumor began spreading through the country 4601:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4135:'s lengthy quarrel with Philip II, allowed 3794:of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire, and 3258:(or "légistes"), generally educated by the 2674:over the king during much of the ceremony. 1389:, and also to an effective end to serfdom. 1342:) in the 13th century; and the rise of the 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 7851: 7837: 7228: 7214: 6611: 6597: 6560:Elizabeth M. Hallam & Judith Everard. 6373: 6371: 6369: 5753: 5306:This Jewish-Christian Relations in France 5229: 4282: 4076:Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, 4037:The area around the lower Seine, ceded to 2065:entered French, mainly indirectly through 1771:Nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil 1291: 1277: 400: 388: 6218: 6216: 6214: 6212: 6170: 5451: 4830:Learn how and when to remove this message 4665:Learn how and when to remove this message 4536:More administrative reforms were made by 2940:, Count of Anjou (1266): youngest son of 2704:. By 1328 all apanagists would be peers. 2396:(men who had sworn oaths to serve them). 2140: 2005:, eventually resulting in the dialect of 1706: 230:Learn how and when to remove this message 212:Learn how and when to remove this message 150:Learn how and when to remove this message 7235: 5488:languages ("langues d'oïl") and (later) 5366:Relevant discussion may be found on the 5277:List of Ancien Régime dioceses of France 5198:interlude (between Charles VI and VII): 5034:, and defeated the Plantagenets once at 4966: 4928: 4286: 4176: 4003: 3937: 3879: 3668:, were not represented. Even within the 2912:, and founder of the Kingdom of Portugal 1911:, consisting of the languages which use 1846: 1619: 6366: 4881:first phase of the conflict (1337–1360) 3362:were commissioned to sit as the King's 3090: 2616:These twelve peerages are known as the 2058:had spread throughout English society. 8880: 6209: 5271:History of Roman Catholicism in France 4922:'s coronation in the historic city of 3884:France at the Coronation of Hugh Capet 3782:During the later years of the elderly 3243:), while others were more successful ( 1805:languages – from Latin 1605:and other territories (for a map, see 16:France from the 10th to 15th centuries 7832: 7209: 6592: 6459:L'ordre seigneurial: XIe-XIIe siècle. 6421:Les origines franques: Ve-IXe siècles 6330:Gigot, Francis E. (1910). "Judaism". 6329: 5639: 3892:(940–996) by an assembly summoned in 3767: 3675: 3597:Great Officers of the Crown of France 3406:) to act as chief auditors and three 3197:Great Officers of the Crown of France 1553:inherited from the Roman province of 6413: 5343: 5292: 5283:Jewish-Christian Relations in France 5233: 5054:remained ruled by the Plantagenets. 5038:(1429) and again, using cannons, at 4764:adding citations to reliable sources 4731: 4599:adding citations to reliable sources 4566: 4445:Philip III and Philip IV (1270–1314) 4264:and made Paris a city for scholars. 3756: 3343:specialized into a full-time court. 306:Royal banner of the Capetian dynasty 161: 88:adding citations to reliable sources 59: 18: 7813: 7258:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 6502:. New York: HarperPerennial, 1993. 6500:The Civilization of the Middle Ages 6448: 6259:The Civilization of the Middle Ages 5719:McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones, 5018:(1421), the humiliating defeats of 5003:was made heir to Charles VI by the 4983:The tensions between the Houses of 4457:, which cost him his life in 1285. 4331:was strongly hit by these strikes. 4226:, then Richard Lionheart supported 3461:) became the responsibility of the 2188: 13: 7350:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 6180:Marvin Perry; et al. (2008). 5721:Atlas of World Population History. 5554:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry 4722:The Hundred Years' War (1328–1453) 4218:. If Philip II Augustus supported 4057:Louis VI and Louis VII (1108–1180) 4045:took possession of the kingdom of 3672:, the franchise was quite narrow. 3567: 3254:Over the centuries, the number of 2752:, as they were descended from the 1977:, a non-Celtic people who spoke a 1840:", whose modern word for "yes" is 1725:During the Middle Ages in France, 1643:. Only in the 15th century would 325:Coat of arms of the King of France 311:Royal banner of the Valois dynasty 14: 8904: 7858: 7780:Historiography in the Middle Ages 6186:. Cengage Learning. p. 235. 5708:Medieval Regions and Their Cities 5695:Medieval Regions and Their Cities 4325:strike at the University of Paris 4011:, a French knight, leader of the 3298: 3095: 2384:for service (such as being named 1824:, "thus" – on the 34:This article has multiple issues. 7812: 7803: 7802: 7792: 6576:Medieval France: An Encyclopedia 6291:Medieval France: An Encyclopedia 5530: 5359:relies largely or entirely on a 5348: 5297: 5237: 5058:List of kings during this period 4868:English peasants' revolt of 1381 4779:"France" Hundred Years' War 4736: 4571: 3825:, and in 845 the Vikings sacked 3715:, in parts of northern France a 3410:empowered to hear and adjudge (" 3207:. Other positions included the 2246:). In many cases (such as with 1981:-related language inhabited the 1815:languages – from 1789:languages – from 1565:, and by the early years of the 1557:was not fully maintained by the 1260: 1245: 711: 669: 644: 337: 331: 317: 297: 290: 192:has been specified. Please help 166: 64: 23: 7278:Christianity in the Middle Ages 7273:Decline of Hellenistic religion 6408: 6357: 6348: 6323: 6296: 6251: 6238: 6225: 6200: 6156: 6129: 6120: 6111: 6102: 6093: 6084: 6075: 6066: 6048: 6027: 6018: 6009: 6000: 5991: 5982: 5973: 5952: 5943: 5934: 5925: 5916: 5883: 5874: 5853: 5844: 5835: 5826: 5817: 5808: 5799: 5790: 5765: 4971:The capture of the French king 2875:French power in the Middle Ages 2846:' enlargement by the Counts of 2544:By 1216 there were nine peers: 2038:remained heavily influenced by 1470:Territorial evolution of France 1426:Renaissance of the 12th century 75:needs additional citations for 42:or discuss these issues on the 8190:Government of National Defense 7556:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 6620:European Middle Ages by region 6475:2nd edition: Routledge, 1989. 5744: 5735: 5726: 5700: 5660: 5633: 5630:Hallam & Everard, pp. 1–2. 4991:climaxed during the so-called 4372:, was founded in these times. 4368:, which would evolve into the 3876:The First Capetians (940–1108) 2993:Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor 1739:Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts 1456:(such as the flowering of the 1: 8099:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 8094:War of the Spanish Succession 7730:Disability in the Middle Ages 7403:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 7335:Rise of the Venetian Republic 6485:Constance Brittain Bouchard. 6363:Hallam & Everard, p. 264. 6354:Hallam & Everard, p. 265. 5608: 5478: 4891:'s shattering victory at the 4336:Count Raymond VII of Toulouse 4316:– was the effective power as 3942:A view of the remains of the 3472: 3430:) were created to assist the 3408:maîtres-lais familiers du Roi 3270:had a council of 12 members. 2958:Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor 2954:, King of Hungary and Croatia 1700:History of the Jews in France 1669: 1624:The territorial conquests of 1430:secular vernacular literature 1408:(such as the universities of 572: 394:The Kingdom of France in 1000 271: 7045:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 4204:and removed him from power. 3986:Robert II crowned his son – 2711:Monarchy and regional powers 2661:, during the liturgy of the 2529:for episcopal peerages or a 2357:Aristocracy, nobles, knights 1463: 7: 8888:Former monarchies of Europe 6045:Cantor (1993), pp. 198–199. 5310:to comply with Knowledge's 5221:Charles VII the Well Served 4854:), so the throne passed to 3979:(beginning in 989) and the 3968:Holy Roman Emperor Henry II 3033:Louis VIII embarked on the 2789:Roman Catholicism in France 2653:played a role in the royal 2587:also called Duke of Guyenne 2443:8th-century Frankish empire 2145: 2054:, by which time the use of 1973:Attested since the time of 1923:. These languages, such as 1424:(1235)) and the so-called " 281:(France of the Middle Ages) 99:"France in the Middle Ages" 10: 8909: 8893:Medieval history of France 8580:French subdivisions by GDP 8327:2022 presidential election 8312:2017 presidential election 7531:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 5949:Bourin-Derruau, p.122-125. 5494:Medieval French literature 5473: 5458:Economic history of France 5455: 5286: 5268: 4725: 4435:Battle of the Golden Spurs 3771: 3760: 3571: 3302: 3099: 3041:however, were unsuccessful 2910:Robert I, Duke of Burgundy 2908:(1139): great-grandson of 2640:Knights of the Round Table 2507: 2503: 2418: 2360: 2353:around 1200) and bridges. 2044:Norman conquest of England 1710: 1673: 1467: 8841: 8731: 8641: 8632: 8528: 8519: 8421: 8412: 8350: 8341: 8262: 8143: 8112: 8084:Second Hundred Years' War 8035: 7988: 7955: 7934: 7926:Liberalism and radicalism 7878: 7869: 7788: 7717: 7576: 7471: 7458:Mongol invasion of Europe 7363: 7243: 7144:Principality of Chernigov 7053: 6974:Principality of Catalonia 6871: 6862: 6759: 6639: 6626: 6562:Capetian France 987–1328. 6333:The Catholic Encyclopedia 4377:King Henry III of England 4350:King Henry III of England 3929:Count Borell of Barcelona 3833:(898–922), Normans under 3225:Surintendant des finances 2482:called collectively the " 2415:Vassalage and feudal land 2111:Geoffrey of Villehardouin 2056:French-influenced English 1838:Franco-Provençal language 1626:Philip Augustus of France 623: 611: 585: 581: 563: 534: 521: 517: 507: 495: 485: 473: 463: 425: 415: 399: 387: 360: 352: 286: 266: 246: 8355:Administrative divisions 7123:Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 6529:Monique Bourin-Derruau. 6231:Arthur Augustus Tilley, 5958:Bourin-Derruau, p.115-8. 5940:Bourin-Derruau, p.121-2. 5548:Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux 5542:Hours of Philip the Bold 5327:may contain suggestions. 5308:may need to be rewritten 4883:were partly reversed in 4375:After his conflict with 4260:Philip Augustus founded 3574:Estates General (France) 3489:, still the site of the 3434:. Other court officers ( 3007:House of Valois-Burgundy 2831:and immortalised in the 2212:Carcassonne and Narbonne 1377:); the extension of the 1070: 1032: 862: 851: 830: 8575:Franc (former currency) 8180:Coup of 2 December 1851 8153:Long nineteenth century 7413:Investiture Controversy 7383:Second Bulgarian Empire 7054:Central, Eastern Europe 6760:Central, Eastern Europe 6550:Wiley-Blackwell. 1993. 6289:William W. Kibler, ed. 5710:, pp. 44, 64, 148, 150. 5537:Illuminated manuscripts 5524:Anglo-Norman literature 5230:Religion and the Church 5032:Compagnies d'ordonnance 4344:Count Alfonso of Poitou 4283:Saint Louis (1226–1270) 2952:Capetian House of Anjou 2119: 2034:spoken there, although 1938:-speaking peoples from 1516:and the widest ones as 1434: 1394:Romanesque architecture 379:"Mountjoy Saint Denis!" 258: 252: 8595:Science and technology 8252:Provisional Government 8221: 8200: 8060: 7770:Post-classical history 7526:Fall of Constantinople 7433:Capet–Plantagenet feud 7300:First Bulgarian Empire 6938:Burgundian Netherlands 6779:Bosnia and Herzegovina 6454:Dominique Barthélemy. 6206:Bourin-Derruau, p.186. 6063:Cantor (1993), p. 200. 5569:. While in music, the 5452:Economy and technology 5140:Louis X the Quarreller 4980: 4934: 4885:the second (1369–1396) 4544:, and established the 4486:status quo ante bellum 4310: 4295: 4189: 4020: 3977:Peace and Truce of God 3959: 3885: 3829:. During the reign of 3614:), Second Estate (the 3223:) and the position of 2900:Fulk V, Count of Anjou 2858:1328, and the laws of 2178:agricultural expansion 2141:Society and government 1857: 1707:Languages and literacy 1680:Demographics of France 1629: 1412:(recognized in 1150), 906:Valois-Angoulême kings 6815:Late Medieval Kingdom 6811:High Medieval Kingdom 5603:Raimbaut de Vaqueiras 5512:Anglo-Norman language 5213:and France, 1422–1453 5146:John I the Posthumous 4970: 4932: 4879:French losses in the 4852:Edward III of England 4304: 4290: 4224:House of Hohenstaufen 4180: 4007: 3941: 3883: 3841:, that was to become 3618:), and Third Estate ( 3499:Charles VII of France 3491:Paris Hall of Justice 3321:Charles VII of France 2981:Philip III of Navarre 2960:: became a vassal of 2950:(1301): scion of the 2932:Theobald I of Navarre 2884:William the Conqueror 2825:William the Conqueror 2419:Further information: 2361:Further information: 2083:alcool, bougie, coton 1950:travelled across the 1882:, were influenced by 1850: 1762:De vulgari eloquentia 1676:Medieval demographics 1623: 1617:in the 12th century. 1474:Crown lands of France 1428:"; a growing body of 1406:medieval universities 1354:, culminating in the 426:Common languages 363:Montjoie Saint Denis! 8400:World Heritage Sites 8317:Coronavirus pandemic 7750:Medieval reenactment 7546:Renaissance Humanism 7453:Medieval Warm Period 7423:Republic of Florence 7237:European Middle Ages 7023:Caliphate of Córdoba 6929:Republic of Florence 5760:La Chanson de Roland 5640:Josiah C., Russell. 5559:Jacquemart de Hesdin 5372:improve this article 4876:of 1358 in France). 4760:improve this section 4595:improve this section 4557:Knights Hospitallers 4120:Eleanor of Aquitaine 4086:Eleanor of Aquitaine 4017:Kingdom of Jerusalem 4009:Godefroy de Bouillon 3999:Robert I of Burgundy 3809:were sailing up the 3509:by establishing the 3447:Chambre des monnaies 3091:Royal administration 2948:Charles I of Hungary 2942:Louis VIII of France 2926:Alfonso II of Aragon 2906:Afonso I of Portugal 2773:Crown of Charlemagne 2317:) and in the north ( 2162:) came to dominate. 1836:, the "Arpitan" or " 1664:Medieval Warm Period 1404:; the foundation of 1348:House of Plantagenet 1114:Provisional Republic 896:Valois-Orléans kings 523:• Beginning of 194:improve this article 182:to meet Knowledge's 84:improve this article 8538:Automotive industry 8322:2021 labor protests 8079:Peace of Westphalia 7947:History of Normandy 7942:History of Brittany 7463:Kingdom of Portugal 7330:Old Church Slavonic 7315:Anglo-Saxon England 7014:Lordship of Ireland 7009:Kingdom of Scotland 6998:Kingdom of Portugal 6978:Kingdom of Valencia 6948:Kingdom of Asturias 6318:Gothic Architecture 6054:Lebecq, pp.196–197. 5289:Antisemitic canards 5210:Henry VI of England 5172:Philip VI of Valois 5158:Charles IV the Fair 5148:, five days in 1316 5128:Philip III the Bold 5116:Louis VIII the Lion 5104:Louis VII the Young 5044:Battle of Castillon 4893:battle of Agincourt 4473:Peter III of Aragon 4388:Gothic architecture 4338:finally signed the 4277:Albigensian Crusade 4152:Gothic architecture 4015:and founder of the 3933:Charles of Lorraine 3479:Parliament of Paris 3388:Chambre des comptes 3260:université de Paris 3217:Chambre des comptes 3035:Albigensian Crusade 2962:Philip IV of France 2938:Charles I of Naples 2916:Henry II of England 2889:The success of the 2844:Krak des Chevaliers 2723:were states of the 2549:Archbishop of Reims 2107:Guillaume de Lorris 2095:algèbre, algorithme 1731:liturgical language 1615:Plantagenet dynasty 1607:Provinces of France 1398:Gothic architecture 1364:early modern period 576: 15th century 275: 15th century 8605:Telecommunications 8307:2015 Paris attacks 8170:Revolution of 1848 7998:Visigothic Kingdom 7644:In popular culture 7609:Crusading movement 7481:Hundred Years' War 7340:Civitas Schinesghe 7325:Carolingian Empire 7310:Kingdom of Croatia 7263:Barbarian kingdoms 7174:Grand Principality 7092:Kingdom of Croatia 7039:Emirate of Granada 7004:Kingdom of England 6988:Kingdom of Navarre 6982:Kingdom of Majorca 6960:Kingdom of Galicia 6956:Kingdom of Castile 6919:Republic of Venice 6890:Kingdom of Bohemia 6498:Norman F. Cantor. 6257:Norman F. Cantor, 6081:Wickham, p. 522-3. 5505:Occitan literature 5314:, as explained at 5249:. You can help by 5203:Henry V of England 5190:Charles VI the Mad 5184:Charles V the Wise 5134:Philip IV the Fair 5110:Philip II Augustus 4993:Hundred Years' War 4981: 4935: 4864:Hundred Years' War 4728:Hundred Years' War 4546:Parlement of Paris 4504:objection of Pope 4494:Battle of Courtrai 4314:Blanche of Castile 4296: 4251:Battle of Bouvines 4190: 4172:Philip II Augustus 4141:Battle of Bouvines 4021: 3973:Bertha of Burgundy 3960: 3886: 3831:Charles the Simple 3778:Carolingian Empire 3768:Carolingian legacy 3696:cathedral chapters 3676:Prévôts, baillages 3593:Pope Boniface VIII 3495:Hundred Years' War 3440:maîtres ordinaires 3420:clercs des comptes 3325:Hundred Years' War 3219:, created by King 3086:since Roman times. 3073:Henry V of England 3059:Hundred Years' War 2987:Louis I of Hungary 2829:Battle of Hastings 2591:Count of Champagne 2560:Bishop of Beauvais 2537:(for duchies) and 2160:History of serfdom 2052:Hundred Years' War 1884:Germanic languages 1858: 1830:Iberian peninsulas 1691:Hundred Years' War 1641:Hundred Years' War 1633:Philip II Augustus 1630: 1603:County of Flanders 1595:Comté of Champagne 1563:Carolingian Empire 1452:poetry, etc.) and 1356:Hundred Years' War 1336:Philip II Augustus 1316:Carolingian Empire 1267:History portal 763: until 50 BC 538:Hundred Years' War 259:Royaulme de France 8875: 8874: 8837: 8836: 8628: 8627: 8515: 8514: 8507:Political parties 8443:Foreign relations 8408: 8407: 8337: 8336: 8120:French Revolution 8074:Thirty Years' War 8055:Absolute monarchy 8020:Kingdom of France 7916:Foreign relations 7896:Political history 7826: 7825: 7735:Basic topics list 7536:Swiss mercenaries 7486:Wars of the Roses 7393:Kingdom of Poland 7378:Holy Roman Empire 7245:Early Middle Ages 7203: 7202: 7199: 7198: 7155:Novgorod Republic 7129:Kingdom of Bosnia 7067:Bulgarian Empire 6970:Kingdom of Aragon 6934:Duchy of Burgundy 6924:Republic of Genoa 6914:Kingdom of Naples 6909:Kingdom of Sicily 6898:Swiss Confederacy 6886:Holy Roman Empire 6858: 6857: 6443:978-0-14-311742-1 6419:Stéphane Lebecq. 6414:Early Middle Ages 6033:Wickham, 519–520. 5750:see Wickham, 415. 5648:. Collins/Fontana 5579:Notre-Dame school 5501:Occitan languages 5437: 5436: 5422: 5342: 5341: 5312:quality standards 5267: 5266: 5152:Philip V the Tall 4939:Philippe the Good 4860:Charles of Valois 4840: 4839: 4832: 4814: 4711:Charles of Valois 4675: 4674: 4667: 4649: 4455:Aragonese Crusade 4272:English civil war 4216:Holy Roman Empire 4198:Richard Lionheart 4116:Geoffrey of Anjou 4114:from his father, 4105:Henry Fitzempress 3956:Early Middle Ages 3763:Kingdom of France 3757:Political history 3721:, in the south a 3412:oyer and terminer 3384:Camera compotorum 3375:Palais de la Cité 3340:Curia in Compotis 3305:Court of Finances 3134:were less clear. 2966:Charles of Valois 2817:House of Toulouse 2725:Holy Roman Empire 2691:Duchy of Brittany 2679:Duchy of Normandy 2611:Count of Toulouse 2606:Count of Flanders 2585:Duke of Aquitaine 2565:Bishop of Châlons 2555:Bishop of Langres 2510:Peerage of France 2484:seigneurie banale 2127:chivalric romance 2115:Jean de Joinville 1767:Romance languages 1765:, classified the 1713:History of French 1599:Duchy of Burgundy 1591:Duchy of Brittany 1587:Duchy of Normandy 1458:Notre Dame school 1442:chivalric romance 1308:Kingdom of France 1301: 1300: 1252:France portal 1145: 1144: 1042: 1041: 953:Kingdom of France 943:French Revolution 934:Long 19th century 924: 923: 872: 871: 842:Kingdom of France 777: 776: 685: 684: 681: 680: 677: 676: 665:Kingdom of France 657: 656: 543:Capetians deposed 468:Roman Catholicism 248:Kingdom of France 240: 239: 232: 222: 221: 214: 184:quality standards 175:This article may 160: 159: 152: 134: 57: 8900: 8639: 8638: 8555:Economic history 8526: 8525: 8419: 8418: 8348: 8347: 8226: 8205: 8104:Seven Years' War 8069:Wars of Religion 8065: 8050:House of Bourbon 8045:Early modern era 8025:Fundamental laws 7901:Military history 7876: 7875: 7853: 7846: 7839: 7830: 7829: 7816: 7815: 7806: 7805: 7796: 7755:Medieval studies 7599:Church and State 7473:Late Middle Ages 7365:High Middle Ages 7283:Christianization 7253:Migration Period 7230: 7223: 7216: 7207: 7206: 7125:Banate of Bosnia 7063:Byzantine Empire 6944:Crown of Castile 6894:Kingdom of Italy 6869: 6868: 6637: 6636: 6613: 6606: 6599: 6590: 6589: 6574:William Kibler. 6532: 6515: 6512:Alain Demurger. 6457: 6449:High Middle Ages 6402: 6401: 6375: 6364: 6361: 6355: 6352: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6341: 6327: 6321: 6314: 6303: 6300: 6294: 6287: 6266: 6255: 6249: 6242: 6236: 6229: 6223: 6220: 6207: 6204: 6198: 6197: 6177: 6168: 6162:David Carpenter 6160: 6154: 6147: 6136: 6133: 6127: 6124: 6118: 6115: 6109: 6106: 6100: 6099:Wickham, p. 518. 6097: 6091: 6088: 6082: 6079: 6073: 6070: 6064: 6061: 6055: 6052: 6046: 6043: 6034: 6031: 6025: 6022: 6016: 6013: 6007: 6004: 5998: 5995: 5989: 5986: 5980: 5977: 5971: 5968: 5959: 5956: 5950: 5947: 5941: 5938: 5932: 5929: 5923: 5920: 5914: 5911: 5902: 5899: 5890: 5887: 5881: 5878: 5872: 5869: 5860: 5857: 5851: 5848: 5842: 5839: 5833: 5830: 5824: 5821: 5815: 5812: 5806: 5805:Wickham, 529-30. 5803: 5797: 5794: 5788: 5785: 5776: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5748: 5742: 5739: 5733: 5730: 5724: 5717: 5711: 5706:Josiah Russell, 5704: 5698: 5693:Josiah Russell, 5691: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5677: 5672: 5664: 5658: 5657: 5655: 5653: 5637: 5631: 5628: 5563:Jean de Beaumetz 5432: 5429: 5423: 5421: 5380: 5352: 5344: 5337: 5334: 5328: 5301: 5293: 5262: 5259: 5241: 5234: 5178:John II the Good 5098:Louis VI the Fat 5080:Robert the Pious 5064:Capetian Dynasty 5005:Treaty of Troyes 4901:Treaty of Troyes 4835: 4828: 4824: 4821: 4815: 4813: 4772: 4740: 4732: 4670: 4663: 4659: 4656: 4650: 4648: 4607: 4575: 4567: 4469:Charles of Anjou 4230:, member of the 4222:, member of the 4220:Philip of Swabia 4156:late Middle Ages 3964:Robert the Pious 3858:Capetian dynasty 3819:Bishop of Nantes 3796:Charles the Bald 3792:Treaty of Verdun 3352:gens des comptes 3264:noblesse de robe 3213:Grand Bouteiller 3199:, headed by the 3051:the rise of the 2827:, following the 2683:County of Artois 2635:Chanson de geste 2580:Duke of Burgundy 2575:Duke of Normandy 2541:(for counties). 2189:Cities and towns 2124: 2121:chanson de geste 2087:alchimie, hasard 2081:), trade goods ( 1987:Aquitania Tertia 1750:medieval Italian 1721:Occitan language 1567:Direct Capetians 1559:Frankish kingdom 1439: 1436:chanson de geste 1293: 1286: 1279: 1265: 1264: 1263: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1141: 1057: 1056: 939: 938: 892: 891: 853:Direct Capetians 792: 791: 735: 734: 715: 705: 687: 686: 673: 672: 661: 660: 648: 647: 641: 640: 625: 624: 577: 574: 551: 525:Capetian dynasty 447:Franco-Provençal 404: 392: 380: 375: 367: 366: 341: 335: 329: 321: 301: 294: 282: 276: 273: 261: 255: 253:Reaume de France 244: 243: 235: 228: 217: 210: 206: 203: 197: 170: 169: 162: 155: 148: 144: 141: 135: 133: 92: 68: 60: 49: 27: 26: 19: 8908: 8907: 8903: 8902: 8901: 8899: 8898: 8897: 8878: 8877: 8876: 8871: 8870: 8851: 8833: 8814:Public holidays 8727: 8686:Life expectancy 8624: 8511: 8404: 8333: 8302:Great Recession 8275:Fourth Republic 8270:1900 to present 8258: 8175:Second Republic 8139: 8108: 8031: 7984: 7951: 7930: 7865: 7857: 7827: 7822: 7784: 7765:Neo-medievalism 7713: 7649:Itinerant court 7572: 7467: 7388:Georgian Empire 7373:Norman Conquest 7359: 7305:Frankish Empire 7239: 7234: 7204: 7195: 7140:Kingdom of Rus' 7098:Crusader states 7055: 7049: 6966:Crown of Aragon 6952:Kingdom of León 6881:Frankish Empire 6874:Northern Europe 6873: 6864: 6854: 6761: 6755: 6642:Northern Europe 6641: 6633:political units 6632: 6630: 6628: 6622: 6617: 6530: 6513: 6473:Feudal Society. 6455: 6451: 6437:Penguin: 2009. 6433:Chris Wickham. 6416: 6411: 6406: 6405: 6390: 6376: 6367: 6362: 6358: 6353: 6349: 6339: 6337: 6328: 6324: 6315: 6306: 6301: 6297: 6288: 6269: 6256: 6252: 6243: 6239: 6230: 6226: 6221: 6210: 6205: 6201: 6194: 6178: 6171: 6161: 6157: 6148: 6139: 6134: 6130: 6125: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6089: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6058: 6053: 6049: 6044: 6037: 6032: 6028: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6010: 6005: 6001: 5996: 5992: 5987: 5983: 5978: 5974: 5969: 5962: 5957: 5953: 5948: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5930: 5926: 5922:Hallam, p. 140. 5921: 5917: 5912: 5905: 5900: 5893: 5889:Hallam, pp.1–2. 5888: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5870: 5863: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5845: 5841:Wickham, 537-8. 5840: 5836: 5832:Wickham, 534-5. 5831: 5827: 5822: 5818: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5800: 5795: 5791: 5786: 5779: 5770: 5766: 5758: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5731: 5727: 5718: 5714: 5705: 5701: 5692: 5685: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5666: 5665: 5661: 5651: 5649: 5638: 5634: 5629: 5616: 5611: 5599:Bertran de Born 5533: 5481: 5476: 5460: 5454: 5433: 5427: 5424: 5381: 5379: 5365: 5353: 5338: 5332: 5329: 5319: 5302: 5291: 5285: 5273: 5263: 5257: 5254: 5247:needs expansion 5232: 5166:House of Valois 5060: 5052:Channel Islands 5016:Battle of Baugé 4836: 4825: 4819: 4816: 4773: 4771: 4757: 4741: 4730: 4724: 4680:gastroenteritis 4671: 4660: 4654: 4651: 4608: 4606: 4592: 4576: 4565: 4553:Knights Templar 4510:Clericis lacios 4447: 4403:Seventh Crusade 4392:Sainte-Chapelle 4340:Treaty of Paris 4285: 4168: 4133:John of England 4082:moral authority 4059: 4051:Norman Conquest 3981:Cluniac Reforms 3923:counts of Blois 3878: 3860:which with its 3780: 3772:Main articles: 3770: 3765: 3759: 3678: 3589:Philip the Fair 3576: 3570: 3568:Estates General 3475: 3397:, required the 3336:Knights Templar 3307: 3301: 3209:Grand Chambrier 3104: 3098: 3093: 3053:House of Valois 3025:Angevin dynasty 3003:Philip the Bold 2976:Battle of Crécy 2972:John of Bohemia 2877: 2840:Crusader states 2833:Bayeux Tapestry 2821:Norman Conquest 2713: 2672:cloth of honour 2622:pairie ancienne 2618:ancient peerage 2570:Bishop of Noyon 2512: 2506: 2427: 2417: 2369: 2363:French nobility 2359: 2343:villes franches 2191: 2148: 2143: 2079:camphre, safran 2063:Arabic language 1964:Breton language 1952:English Channel 1773:("For some say 1735:Catholic Church 1723: 1711:Main articles: 1709: 1682: 1674:Main articles: 1672: 1503:as well as the 1476: 1468:Main articles: 1466: 1460:of polyphony). 1432:(including the 1387:Estates General 1344:House of Valois 1303: 1297: 1261: 1259: 1246: 1244: 1239: 1147: 1146: 1139: 1124:Fourth Republic 1105: 1072:Interwar period 1054: 1044: 1043: 1003:Second Republic 936: 926: 925: 884: 874: 873: 789: 779: 778: 732: 703: 696: 670: 645: 607: 575: 569: 556: 552: 545: 540: 527: 502: 500:Estates General 480:Feudal monarchy 459: 411: 395: 383: 378: 369: 348: 347: 346: 342: 327: 322: 314: 313: 308: 302: 295: 280: 279: 274: 262: 256: 249: 236: 225: 224: 223: 218: 207: 201: 198: 187: 171: 167: 156: 145: 139: 136: 93: 91: 81: 69: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8906: 8896: 8895: 8890: 8873: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8852: 8850: 8849: 8843: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8835: 8834: 8832: 8831: 8826: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8770:Cultural icons 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8737: 8735: 8729: 8728: 8726: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8709: 8708: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8642: 8636: 8630: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8623: 8622: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8590:Stock exchange 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8551: 8550: 8540: 8535: 8529: 8523: 8517: 8516: 8513: 8512: 8510: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8493: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8472: 8467: 8466: 8465: 8460: 8450: 8445: 8440: 8439: 8438: 8428: 8422: 8416: 8410: 8409: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8390:National parks 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8365:Climate change 8362: 8357: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8338: 8335: 8334: 8332: 8331: 8330: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8287:Fifth Republic 8284: 8283: 8282: 8272: 8266: 8264: 8260: 8259: 8257: 8256: 8255: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8229: 8228: 8227: 8213: 8208: 8207: 8206: 8195:Third Republic 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8166: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8149: 8147: 8141: 8140: 8138: 8137: 8132: 8130:First Republic 8127: 8125:Napoleonic era 8122: 8116: 8114: 8110: 8109: 8107: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8041: 8039: 8033: 8032: 8030: 8029: 8028: 8027: 8017: 8012: 8011: 8010: 8000: 7994: 7992: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7970:Greek colonies 7967: 7961: 7959: 7953: 7952: 7950: 7949: 7944: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7931: 7929: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7882: 7880: 7873: 7867: 7866: 7856: 7855: 7848: 7841: 7833: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7820: 7810: 7800: 7789: 7786: 7785: 7783: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7760:Misconceptions 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7721: 7719: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7580: 7578: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7568:Little Ice Age 7565: 7564: 7563: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7521:Western Schism 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7477: 7475: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7369: 7367: 7361: 7360: 7358: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7275: 7270: 7268:Late antiquity 7265: 7260: 7255: 7249: 7247: 7241: 7240: 7233: 7232: 7225: 7218: 7210: 7201: 7200: 7197: 7196: 7194: 7193: 7166: 7151:Rus' Khaganate 7147: 7132: 7121: 7095: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7073: 7065: 7059: 7057: 7051: 7050: 7048: 7047: 7042: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6990: 6985: 6963: 6941: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6883: 6877: 6875: 6866: 6860: 6859: 6856: 6855: 6853: 6852: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6807: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6765: 6763: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6707: 6702: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6656: 6651: 6645: 6643: 6634: 6624: 6623: 6616: 6615: 6608: 6601: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6584:978-0824044442 6572: 6570:978-0582404281 6558: 6556:978-0631189459 6546:Georges Duby. 6544: 6527: 6510: 6496: 6494:978-0801485480 6483: 6481:978-0226059785 6469: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6445: 6431: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6388: 6365: 6356: 6347: 6322: 6304: 6295: 6267: 6250: 6237: 6224: 6222:Kibler, p. 255 6208: 6199: 6193:978-0547147420 6192: 6169: 6155: 6149:Georges Duby, 6137: 6128: 6119: 6110: 6101: 6092: 6083: 6074: 6065: 6056: 6047: 6035: 6026: 6017: 6008: 5999: 5990: 5981: 5972: 5960: 5951: 5942: 5933: 5931:Hallam, p.142. 5924: 5915: 5903: 5891: 5882: 5880:Cantor, 484-5. 5873: 5861: 5852: 5850:Cantor, 481-2. 5843: 5834: 5825: 5816: 5807: 5798: 5789: 5777: 5764: 5752: 5743: 5734: 5725: 5712: 5699: 5683: 5659: 5632: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605:among others. 5567:Colart de Laon 5532: 5529: 5528: 5527: 5508: 5497: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5456:Main article: 5453: 5450: 5435: 5434: 5370:. Please help 5356: 5354: 5347: 5340: 5339: 5305: 5303: 5296: 5284: 5281: 5280: 5279: 5269:Main article: 5265: 5264: 5244: 5242: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5216: 5215: 5214: 5206: 5187: 5181: 5175: 5163: 5162: 5161: 5155: 5149: 5143: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5122:Saint Louis IX 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5068:House of Capet 5059: 5056: 4933:France in 1435 4907:River Valley. 4838: 4837: 4744: 4742: 4735: 4726:Main article: 4723: 4720: 4673: 4672: 4579: 4577: 4570: 4564: 4561: 4446: 4443: 4433:cities at the 4425:'s seizure of 4407:Eighth Crusade 4366:Conseil du Roi 4284: 4281: 4194:Angevin Empire 4184:victorious at 4167: 4164: 4101:Second Crusade 4078:King Louis VII 4058: 4055: 4030:to regain the 3944:Abbey of Cluny 3917:, Spanish and 3877: 3874: 3769: 3766: 3761:Main article: 3758: 3755: 3677: 3674: 3572:Main article: 3569: 3566: 3524:Several other 3487:Île de la Cité 3474: 3471: 3467:Cour des aides 3404:maîtres-clercs 3368:comptes du Roi 3303:Main article: 3300: 3299:Royal finances 3297: 3278:of 1355–1358. 3276:States General 3193: 3192: 3189: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3166:King's Council 3154:Capetian kings 3139:States General 3127:Conseil du Roi 3102:Conseil du Roi 3100:Main article: 3097: 3096:King's Council 3094: 3092: 3089: 3088: 3087: 3075: 3068: 3065: 3062: 3055: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3028: 3021: 3018: 3011: 3010: 3000: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2969: 2955: 2945: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2920:Angevin Empire 2913: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2887: 2876: 2873: 2777:Count of Paris 2712: 2709: 2698:letters patent 2687:Duchy of Anjou 2614: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2601:Bishop of Laon 2594: 2593: 2588: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2567: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2508:Main article: 2505: 2502: 2447:Charles Martel 2416: 2413: 2358: 2355: 2190: 2187: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2071:élixir, orange 2067:Medieval Latin 1983:Novempopulania 1727:Medieval Latin 1708: 1705: 1671: 1668: 1489:Massif Central 1465: 1462: 1454:medieval music 1352:Angevin Empire 1324:House of Capet 1299: 1298: 1296: 1295: 1288: 1281: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1241: 1240: 1238: 1237: 1232: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1142: 1136: 1134:Fifth Republic 1130: 1129: 1126: 1120: 1119: 1116: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1061:Third Republic 1055: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1023:Third Republic 1019: 1018: 1015: 1009: 1008: 1005: 999: 998: 995: 989: 988: 985: 979: 978: 975: 969: 968: 965: 963:First Republic 959: 958: 955: 949: 948: 945: 937: 932: 931: 928: 927: 922: 921: 918: 912: 911: 908: 902: 901: 898: 885: 880: 879: 876: 875: 870: 869: 866: 859: 858: 855: 848: 847: 844: 838: 837: 834: 827: 826: 823: 817: 816: 813: 807: 806: 803: 790: 785: 784: 781: 780: 775: 774: 773:50 BC – 486 AD 771: 765: 764: 761: 755: 754: 753:600 BC – 49 BC 751: 749:Greek colonies 745: 744: 741: 733: 728: 727: 724: 723: 717: 716: 708: 707: 698: 697: 690: 683: 682: 679: 678: 675: 674: 667: 658: 655: 654: 649: 637: 636: 631: 621: 620: 615: 609: 608: 606: 605: 600: 595: 589: 587: 583: 582: 579: 578: 570: 564: 561: 560: 553: 535: 532: 531: 528: 522: 519: 518: 515: 514: 509: 508:Historical era 505: 504: 497: 493: 492: 489: 487:King of France 483: 482: 477: 471: 470: 465: 461: 460: 458: 457: 440: 429: 427: 423: 422: 417: 413: 412: 408:Angevin Empire 405: 397: 396: 393: 385: 384: 382: 381: 376: 356: 350: 349: 330: 323: 316: 315: 303: 296: 289: 288: 287: 284: 283: 278: 277: 267: 264: 263: 250: 247: 238: 237: 220: 219: 190:cleanup reason 174: 172: 165: 158: 157: 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8905: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8885: 8883: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8848: 8845: 8844: 8840: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8738: 8736: 8734: 8730: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8651:Birth control 8649: 8647: 8644: 8643: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8631: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8549: 8546: 8545: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8518: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8477: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8455: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8437: 8434: 8433: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8426:Constitutions 8424: 8423: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8411: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8352: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8340: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8289: 8288: 8285: 8281: 8278: 8277: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8267: 8265: 8261: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8234: 8233: 8230: 8225: 8224: 8223:Années folles 8219: 8218: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8204: 8203: 8198: 8197: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8185:Second Empire 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8167: 8164: 8163:July Monarchy 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8150: 8148: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8117: 8115: 8111: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8064: 8063: 8062:Ancien Régime 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8042: 8040: 8038: 8034: 8026: 8023: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7991: 7987: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7962: 7960: 7958: 7954: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7933: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7861: 7854: 7849: 7847: 7842: 7840: 7835: 7834: 7831: 7819: 7811: 7809: 7801: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7790: 7787: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7716: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7581: 7579: 7575: 7569: 7566: 7562: 7559: 7558: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7478: 7476: 7474: 7470: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7428:Scholasticism 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7368: 7366: 7362: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7290:Rise of Islam 7288: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7248: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7231: 7226: 7224: 7219: 7217: 7212: 7211: 7208: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7152: 7148: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7068: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7056:and Near East 7052: 7046: 7043: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6964: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6942: 6939: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6878: 6876: 6870: 6867: 6861: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6762:and Near East 6758: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6646: 6644: 6638: 6635: 6625: 6621: 6614: 6609: 6607: 6602: 6600: 6595: 6594: 6591: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6543: 6542:2-02-012220-0 6539: 6535: 6528: 6526: 6525:2-02-012221-9 6522: 6518: 6511: 6509: 6508:0-06-092553-1 6505: 6501: 6497: 6495: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6468: 6467:2-02-011554-9 6464: 6460: 6453: 6452: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6430: 6429:2-02-011552-2 6426: 6422: 6418: 6417: 6399: 6395: 6391: 6385: 6381: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6360: 6351: 6335: 6334: 6326: 6319: 6316:Paul Frankl, 6313: 6311: 6309: 6299: 6292: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6280: 6278: 6276: 6274: 6272: 6264: 6260: 6254: 6247: 6241: 6234: 6228: 6219: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6203: 6195: 6189: 6185: 6184: 6176: 6174: 6165: 6159: 6152: 6146: 6144: 6142: 6132: 6126:Hallam, p.17. 6123: 6117:Wickham, 523. 6114: 6108:Wickham, 522. 6105: 6096: 6090:Wickham, 518. 6087: 6078: 6072:Hallam, p.56. 6069: 6060: 6051: 6042: 6040: 6030: 6024:Wickham, 444. 6021: 6015:Wickham, 443. 6012: 6006:Wickham, 442. 6003: 5997:Wickham, 441. 5994: 5988:Wickham, 450. 5985: 5979:Wickham, 415. 5976: 5970:Wickham, 520. 5967: 5965: 5955: 5946: 5937: 5928: 5919: 5910: 5908: 5898: 5896: 5886: 5877: 5868: 5866: 5856: 5847: 5838: 5829: 5823:Wickham, 538. 5820: 5814:Wickham, 515. 5811: 5802: 5793: 5784: 5782: 5774: 5768: 5761: 5756: 5747: 5738: 5729: 5722: 5716: 5709: 5703: 5696: 5690: 5688: 5669: 5663: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5614: 5606: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5543: 5538: 5531:Art and music 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5495: 5491: 5490:Middle French 5487: 5483: 5482: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5459: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5431: 5420: 5417: 5413: 5410: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: – 5388: 5384: 5383:Find sources: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5361:single source 5357:This section 5355: 5351: 5346: 5345: 5336: 5326: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5304: 5300: 5295: 5294: 5290: 5278: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5261: 5252: 5248: 5245:This section 5243: 5240: 5236: 5235: 5222: 5219: 5212: 5211: 5207: 5205: 5204: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5185: 5182: 5179: 5176: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5159: 5156: 5153: 5150: 5147: 5144: 5141: 5138: 5135: 5132: 5129: 5126: 5123: 5120: 5117: 5114: 5111: 5108: 5105: 5102: 5099: 5096: 5093: 5090: 5087: 5084: 5081: 5078: 5075: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5065: 5062: 5061: 5055: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5012: 5008: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4978: 4974: 4969: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4954: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4931: 4927: 4925: 4921: 4918:and ended in 4917: 4913: 4908: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4877: 4875: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4842:The death of 4834: 4831: 4823: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4791: 4788: 4784: 4781: – 4780: 4776: 4775:Find sources: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4745:This section 4743: 4739: 4734: 4733: 4729: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4708: 4703: 4700: 4695: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4669: 4666: 4658: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4619: 4616: – 4615: 4611: 4610:Find sources: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4580:This section 4578: 4574: 4569: 4568: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4547: 4543: 4542:Auld Alliance 4539: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4522: 4519: 4518:Boniface VIII 4514: 4511: 4507: 4506:Boniface VIII 4501: 4497: 4495: 4489: 4487: 4481: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4463: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4413:became king. 4412: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4361: 4359: 4358:Saintonge War 4355: 4351: 4347: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4330: 4329:Latin Quarter 4326: 4321: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4301: 4293: 4289: 4280: 4278: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4263: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4247: 4243: 4242:John Lackland 4239: 4237: 4233: 4232:House of Welf 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4212: 4210: 4209:Third Crusade 4205: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4173: 4170:The reign of 4163: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4074: 4072: 4071:robber barons 4068: 4064: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4028:First Crusade 4025: 4024:King Philip I 4018: 4014: 4013:First Crusade 4010: 4006: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3989: 3984: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3962:Hugh's son – 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3882: 3873: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3786:'s rule, the 3785: 3779: 3775: 3764: 3754: 3752: 3746: 3744: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3714: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3684: 3673: 3671: 3670:bonnes villes 3667: 3663: 3659: 3658:bonnes villes 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3608: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3391: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3326: 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2782: 2781:Île-de-France 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2598: 2597: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2571: 2568: 2566: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2527:episcopal see 2523: 2521: 2517: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2493: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2426: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2186: 2184: 2183:villefranches 2179: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2163: 2161: 2157: 2151: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2122: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2085:), sciences ( 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2036:Norman French 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1975:Julius Caesar 1971: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1909: 1903: 1901: 1900:lingua franca 1897: 1896:Île-de-France 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1868: 1867:langues d'oïl 1863: 1862:Gallo-Romance 1856: 1855: 1854:langues d'oïl 1849: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1799: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1781:, others say 1780: 1777:, others say 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1704: 1702: 1701: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1681: 1677: 1667: 1665: 1660: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1551: 1546: 1545: 1544:domaine royal 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1520: 1515: 1514: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1475: 1471: 1461: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1438: 1437: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1294: 1289: 1287: 1282: 1280: 1275: 1274: 1272: 1271: 1268: 1257: 1253: 1243: 1242: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1156: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1093: 1091: 1090: 1086: 1084: 1083:Années folles 1080: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1047: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1030: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1016: 1014: 1013:Second Empire 1011: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 996: 994: 993:July Monarchy 991: 990: 986: 984: 981: 980: 976: 974: 971: 970: 966: 964: 961: 960: 956: 954: 951: 950: 946: 944: 941: 940: 935: 930: 929: 919: 917: 916:Bourbon kings 914: 913: 909: 907: 904: 903: 899: 897: 894: 893: 890: 889: 888:Ancien Régime 883: 878: 877: 867: 865: 861: 860: 856: 854: 850: 849: 845: 843: 840: 839: 835: 833: 829: 828: 824: 822: 819: 818: 814: 812: 809: 808: 804: 801: 797: 794: 793: 788: 783: 782: 772: 770: 767: 766: 762: 760: 757: 756: 752: 750: 747: 746: 742: 740: 737: 736: 731: 726: 725: 722: 719: 718: 714: 710: 709: 706: 700: 699: 694: 689: 688: 668: 666: 663: 662: 659: 653: 650: 643: 642: 639: 638: 635: 632: 630: 627: 626: 622: 619: 616: 614: 613:ISO 3166 code 610: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 590: 588: 584: 580: 571: 568: 567:Ancien Régime 562: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 533: 529: 526: 520: 516: 513: 510: 506: 501: 498: 494: 490: 488: 484: 481: 478: 476: 472: 469: 466: 462: 456: 452: 448: 444: 441: 438: 434: 431: 430: 428: 424: 421: 418: 414: 409: 403: 398: 391: 386: 377: 373: 364: 358: 357: 355: 351: 345: 340: 334: 326: 320: 312: 307: 300: 293: 285: 269: 268: 265: 260: 254: 245: 242: 234: 231: 216: 213: 205: 195: 191: 185: 181: 180: 173: 164: 163: 154: 151: 143: 132: 129: 125: 122: 118: 115: 111: 108: 104: 101: – 100: 96: 95:Find sources: 89: 85: 79: 78: 73:This article 71: 67: 62: 61: 56: 54: 47: 46: 41: 40: 35: 30: 21: 20: 8756:Coat of arms 8746:Architecture 8718:Social class 8676:Homelessness 8661:Demographics 8615:Trade unions 8548:Central bank 8490:criminal law 8453:Human rights 8436:presidential 8280:Algerian War 8263:Contemporary 8237:Vichy France 8232:World War II 8202:Belle Époque 8135:First Empire 8037:Early Modern 8014: 8008:West Francia 7589:Architecture 7561:Great Famine 7551:Universities 7491:Hussite Wars 7408:Great Schism 7295:Papal States 7170:Principality 6904:Papal States 6676: 6629:histories of 6575: 6561: 6547: 6533: 6516: 6499: 6486: 6472: 6471:Marc Bloch. 6458: 6434: 6420: 6409:Bibliography 6379: 6359: 6350: 6338:. Retrieved 6332: 6325: 6317: 6298: 6290: 6262: 6258: 6253: 6245: 6240: 6232: 6227: 6202: 6182: 6163: 6158: 6150: 6131: 6122: 6113: 6104: 6095: 6086: 6077: 6068: 6059: 6050: 6029: 6020: 6011: 6002: 5993: 5984: 5975: 5954: 5945: 5936: 5927: 5918: 5913:Hallam, p 9. 5901:Hallam, p 8. 5885: 5876: 5871:Cantor, 484. 5859:Cantor, 483. 5855: 5846: 5837: 5828: 5819: 5810: 5801: 5792: 5787:Cantor, 466. 5772: 5767: 5759: 5755: 5746: 5737: 5732:Cantor, 344. 5728: 5720: 5715: 5707: 5702: 5694: 5674:. Retrieved 5662: 5650:. Retrieved 5645: 5635: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5469: 5461: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5425: 5415: 5408: 5401: 5394: 5382: 5358: 5330: 5321:You can help 5307: 5255: 5251:adding to it 5246: 5208: 5201: 5195: 5192:, 1380–1422 5042:(1450). The 5013: 5009: 4982: 4955: 4936: 4909: 4878: 4871: 4841: 4826: 4817: 4807: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4774: 4758:Please help 4746: 4716: 4704: 4696: 4688: 4676: 4661: 4652: 4642: 4635: 4628: 4621: 4609: 4593:Please help 4581: 4550: 4535: 4523: 4515: 4509: 4502: 4498: 4490: 4485: 4482: 4466: 4459: 4448: 4441:(Courtrai). 4415: 4400: 4396:Morgan Bible 4385: 4374: 4362: 4348: 4333: 4322: 4311: 4306: 4305: 4297: 4268:Prince Louis 4266: 4262:the Sorbonne 4259: 4255:Frederick II 4240: 4213: 4206: 4191: 4169: 4160: 4149: 4109: 4094: 4075: 4060: 4043:Duke William 4039:Scandinavian 4036: 4022: 3992: 3985: 3961: 3927: 3887: 3870: 3850:Carolingians 3847: 3804: 3800:West Francia 3781: 3750: 3747: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3700: 3681: 3679: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3609: 3600: 3577: 3525: 3523: 3518: 3517:, the first 3510: 3506: 3483:royal palace 3476: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3416:petis clercs 3415: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3392: 3387: 3383: 3372: 3367: 3360:maîtres lais 3359: 3351: 3345: 3339: 3331: 3329: 3314: 3308: 3294: 3287: 3283: 3280: 3272: 3253: 3194: 3183: 3170: 3157: 3151: 3146: 3136: 3131: 3125: 3115: 3105: 3012: 2878: 2856: 2837: 2801:Plantagenets 2794: 2785: 2762: 2730: 2714: 2706: 2695: 2677:In 1204 the 2676: 2659:consecration 2654: 2650: 2648: 2633: 2621: 2617: 2615: 2595: 2543: 2539:pairie-comté 2538: 2535:pairie-duché 2534: 2524: 2513: 2494: 2487: 2483: 2480:Georges Duby 2463: 2451:beneficatium 2450: 2440: 2430: 2428: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2342: 2339:Market towns 2309:, including 2268: 2259: 2256:market towns 2252: 2192: 2182: 2175: 2164: 2152: 2149: 2099: 2094: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2070: 2060: 2048:Anglo-Norman 2032:langue d'oïl 2030:took up the 2017:Scandinavian 2015: 1995:Proto-Basque 1986: 1972: 1933: 1916: 1912: 1906: 1904: 1865: 1859: 1852: 1851:The area of 1841: 1819: 1812: 1806: 1802: 1793: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1760: 1746:vulgar Latin 1743: 1724: 1697: 1695: 1683: 1661: 1631: 1548: 1542: 1540: 1536:Roman Empire 1527: 1523: 1517: 1511: 1509: 1477: 1420:(1229), and 1391: 1368: 1320:West Francia 1305: 1302: 1255: 1213:Christianity 1101:Vichy France 1052:20th century 1034:Belle Époque 973:First Empire 886: 882:Early modern 832:West Francia 821:Carolingians 811:Merovingians 786: 652:West Francia 634:Succeeded by 633: 628: 557: 503:(since 1302) 354:Motto: 353: 241: 226: 208: 199: 176: 146: 137: 127: 120: 113: 106: 94: 82:Please help 77:verification 74: 50: 43: 37: 36:Please help 33: 8866:WikiProject 8681:Immigration 8671:Health care 8533:Agriculture 8485:enforcement 8242:Free France 8211:World War I 8158:Restoration 8145:Late Modern 8015:Middle Ages 7990:Middle Ages 7975:Celtic Gaul 7818:WikiProject 7745:Medievalism 7584:Agriculture 7448:Manorialism 7443:Communalism 7438:Monasticism 7355:Reconquista 7345:Kievan Rus' 7136:Kievan Rus' 6872:Western and 6865:territories 6789:Czech lands 6640:Western and 6531:(in French) 6514:(in French) 6456:(in French) 6382:. Praeger. 6244:In French: 5676:23 February 5571:Ars antiqua 5514:during the 5465:Black Death 5428:August 2021 5223:, 1422–1461 5186:, 1364–1380 5180:, 1350–1364 5174:, 1328–1350 5160:, 1322–1328 5154:, 1316–1322 5142:, 1314–1316 5136:, 1285–1314 5130:, 1270–1285 5124:, 1226–1270 5118:, 1223–1226 5112:, 1180–1223 5106:, 1137–1180 5100:, 1108–1137 5094:, 1060–1108 5088:, 1027–1060 5028:Charles VII 5022:(1356) and 4997:Black Death 4985:Plantagenet 4958:Black Death 4920:Charles VII 4912:Joan of Arc 4292:Saint Louis 4067:Abbot Suger 4061:It is from 3988:Hugh Magnus 3952:Middle Ages 3948:Benedictine 3911:Aquitanians 3798:ruled over 3784:Charlemagne 3436:conseillers 3428:correcteurs 3348:Saint Louis 3332:Curia Regis 3323:during the 3289:ordonnances 3158:curia regis 3147:Curia Regis 3132:curia regis 3079:Joan of Arc 2809:Hautevilles 2765:Carolingian 2758:Carolingian 2644:King Arthur 2630:Charlemagne 2315:Montpellier 2167:manorialism 2091:mathematics 1956:Anglo-Saxon 1908:langue d'oc 1687:Black Death 1645:Charles VII 1550:res publica 1414:Montpellier 1371:seigneurial 1360:Black Death 1312:Middle Ages 1166:Health care 1096:Free France 983:Restoration 787:Middle Ages 759:Celtic Gaul 702:History of 629:Preceded by 512:Middle Ages 496:Legislature 439:(official), 328:(from 1376) 196:if you can. 8882:Categories 8809:Philosophy 8794:Literature 8706:secularism 8502:Parliament 8297:2005 riots 8247:Liberation 8113:Revolution 7980:Roman Gaul 7965:Prehistory 7921:Journalism 7740:Land terms 7694:Technology 7674:Philosophy 7654:Literature 7619:Demography 7320:Viking Age 7031:Almoravids 7019:al-Andalus 6992:Portugal ( 6835:Anatolia ( 6389:0030004799 5609:References 5591:Troubadour 5486:Old French 5479:Literature 5398:newspapers 5287:See also: 5082:, 996–1027 5074:Hugh Capet 4962:hearth tax 4844:Charles IV 4790:newspapers 4707:Charles IV 4625:newspapers 4475:. 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