Conifer - Knowledge

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number of needles of all ages present on the 36-year-old tree in 1961 was 5.25 million weighing 14.25 kg. In 1961, needles as old as 13 years remained on the tree. The ash weight of needles increased progressively with age from about 4% in first-year needles in 1961 to about 8% in needles 10 years old. In discussing the data obtained from the one 11 m tall white spruce, Fraser et al. (1964) speculated that if the photosynthate used in making apical growth in 1961 was manufactured the previous year, then the 4 million needles that were produced up to 1960 manufactured food for about 600,000 mm of apical growth or 730 g dry weight, over 12 million mm of wood for the 1961 annual ring, plus 1 million new needles, in addition to new tissue in branches, bark, and roots in 1960. Added to this would be the photosynthate to produce energy to sustain respiration over this period, an amount estimated to be about 10% of the total annual photosynthate production of a young healthy tree. On this basis, one needle produced food for about 0.19 mg dry weight of apical growth, 3 mm wood, one-quarter of a new needle, plus an unknown amount of branch wood, bark and roots.

1489: 2345: 1177: 1787: 1767: 2213: 1807: 1289: 165: 764:, and the latter order is no longer considered distinct. A more accurate subdivision would be to split the class into three orders, Pinales containing only Pinaceae, Araucariales containing Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, and Cupressales containing the remaining families (including Taxaceae), but there has not been any significant support for such a split, with the majority of opinion preferring retention of all the families within a single order Pinales, despite their antiquity and diverse 1100: 772: 130: 1327: 5406: 1310: 663: 2507:, all used in relatively large amounts. Nutrient concentrations in conifers also vary with season, age, and kind of tissue sampled, and analytical technique. The ranges of concentrations occurring in well-grown plants provide a useful guide by which to assess the adequacy of particular nutrients, and the ratios among the major nutrients are helpful guides to nutritional imbalances. 2025:. Female strobili are initiated in late summer or fall of a year, then they overwinter. Female strobili emerge followed by pollination in the following spring. Fertilization takes place in summer of the following year, only 3–4 months after pollination. Cones mature and seeds are then shed by the end of that same year. Pollination and fertilization occur in a single growing season. 1531:. Then, the first tracheids of the transition zone are formed, where the radial size of cells and the thickness of their cell walls changes considerably. Finally, latewood tracheids are formed, with small radial sizes and greater cell wall thickness. This is the basic pattern of the internal cell structure of conifer tree rings. 631:, but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. Boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow. Many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing. While 1677:. In some of these conifers (e.g. most Podocarpaceae), the cone consists of several fused scales, while in others (e.g. Taxaceae), the cone is reduced to just one seed scale or (e.g. Cephalotaxaceae) the several scales of a cone develop into individual arils, giving the appearance of a cluster of berries. 2127:

and probably shaded by larger trees. Lateral branches began to show reduced growth and some were no longer in evidence on the 36-year-old tree. Apical growth totaling about 340 m, 370 m, 420 m, 450 m, 500 m, 600 m, and 600 m was made by the tree in the years 1955 through 1961, respectively. The total

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Conifers are the largest and economically most important component group of gymnosperms, but nevertheless they comprise only one of the four groups. The division Pinophyta consists of just one class, Pinopsida, which includes both living and fossil taxa. Subdivision of the living conifers into two or

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The concentrations of nutrients in plant tissues depend on many factors, including growing conditions. Interpretation of concentrations determined by analysis is easy only when a nutrient occurs in excessively low or occasionally excessively high concentration. Values are influenced by environmental

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late in the growing season, for fear of increased danger of frost damage to succulent tissues. A presentation at the North American Forest Tree Nursery Soils Workshop at Syracuse in 1980 provided strong contrary evidence: Bob Eastman, President of the Western Maine Forest Nursery Co. stated that for

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Radiata pine was introduced to Australia in the 1870s. It is "the dominant tree species in the Australian plantation estate" – so much so that many Australians are concerned by the resulting loss of native wildlife habitat. The species is widely regarded as an environmental weed across southeastern

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Wind and animal dispersals are two major mechanisms involved in the dispersal of conifer seeds. Wind-born seed dispersal involves two processes, namely; local neighborhood dispersal and long-distance dispersal. Long-distance dispersal distances range from 11.9–33.7 kilometres (7.4–20.9 mi) from

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form in the conelet. Fertilization of the archegonia occurs by early summer of the second year, so the pollination-fertilization interval exceeds a year. After fertilization, the conelet is considered an immature cone. Maturation occurs by autumn of the second year, at which time seeds are shed. In

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leading to the development of the pollen tube. At fertilization, one of the sperm cells unites its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of an egg cell. The female cone develops two ovules, each of which contains haploid megaspores. A megasporocyte is divided by meiosis in each ovule. Each winged

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tunnel to the wood and score its surface with their feeding channels. With the onset of cooler weather, they bore into the wood, making oval entrance holes and tunnelling deeply. Feeding continues the following summer when larvae occasionally return to the surface of the wood and extend the feeding

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and white spruce in his nursery operation by fertilizing with 50–80 lb/ac (56–90 kg/ha) nitrogen in September, whereas previously winter burn had been experienced annually, often severely. Eastman also stated that the overwintering storage capacity of stock thus treated was much improved

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compounds, whereas in leaves nourished by nitrate as the sole source of nitrogen guanidine compounds were less prominent. Durzan and Steward noted that their results, drawn from determinations made in late summer, did not rule out the occurrence of different interim responses at other times of the

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The order of priority of photosynthate distribution is probably: first to apical growth and new needle formation, then to buds for the next year's growth, with the cambium in the older parts of the branches receiving sustenance last. In the white spruce studied by Fraser et al. (1964), the needles

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Swan, HSD (1960). The mineral nutrition of Canadian pulpwood species. 1. The influence of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium deficiencies on the growth and development of white spruce, black spruce, jack pine, and western hemlock seedlings grown in a controlled environment (Report).

1345: 1644:), which break up the specially adapted softer cones. Ripe cones may remain on the plant for a varied amount of time before falling to the ground; in some fire-adapted pines, the seeds may be stored in closed cones for up to 60–80 years, being released only when a fire kills the parent tree. 3156:

Shenkin, Alexander; Chandler, Chris J.; Boyd, Doreen S.; Jackson, Toby; Disney, Mathias; Majalap, Noreen; Nilus, Reuben; Foody, Giles; bin Jami, Jamiluddin; Reynolds, Glen; Wilkes, Phil; Cutler, Mark E. J.; van der Heijden, Geertje M. F.; Burslem, David F. R. P.; Coomes, David A. (2019).

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does not go through free-nuclear divisions until autumn of the third year. The conelet then overwinters again in the free-nuclear female gametophyte stage. Fertilization takes place by early summer of the fourth year and seeds mature in the cones by autumn of the fourth year.

2313:(Rose and Lindquist 1985). Borers rarely bore tunnels in living trees, although when populations are high, adult beetles feed on tender twig bark, and may damage young living trees. One of the most common and widely distributed borer species in North America is the 1850:. The microspores develop into pollen grains, which contain the male gametophytes. Large amounts of pollen are released and carried by the wind. Some pollen grains will land on a female cone for pollination. The generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two 1488: 1938:

development is completed in a single year. Conifers are classified by three reproductive cycles that refer to the completion of female strobilus development from initiation to seed maturation. All three types of reproductive cycle have a long gap between

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Lott, John N. A; Liu, Jessica C; Pennell, Kelly A; Lesage, Aude; West, M Marcia (2002). "Iron-rich particles and globoids in embryos of seeds from phyla Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, Gnetophyta, and Ginkgophyta: characteristics of early seed plants".

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is here included in the family Cupressaceae, but was widely recognized in the past and can still be found in many field guides. A new classification and linear sequence based on molecular data can be found in an article by Christenhusz et al.

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have leaves that are awl-shaped. In the majority of conifers, the leaves are arranged spirally, the exceptions being most of Cupressaceae and one genus in Podocarpaceae, where they are arranged in decussate opposite pairs or whorls of 3 (−4).

1403:(pictured), the leaf bases are twisted to present the leaves in a very flat plane for maximum light capture. Leaf size varies from 2 mm in many scale-leaved species, up to 400 mm long in the needles of some pines (e.g. Apache pine, 2448:) form, but the forms are not physiologically equivalent. Form of nitrogen affected both the total amount and relative composition of the soluble nitrogen in white spruce tissues (Durzan and Steward). Ammonium nitrogen was shown to foster 2057:

initials are formed in late summer or fall then overwinter. Female strobili emerge and receive pollen in the first year spring and become conelets. The conelet goes through another winter rest and, in the spring of the second year

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channels generally in a U-shaped configuration. During this time, small piles of frass extruded by the larvae accumulate under logs. Early in the spring of the second year following egg-laying, the larvae, about 30 mm long,

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year. Ammonium nitrogen produced significantly heavier (dry weight) seedlings with a higher nitrogen content after 5 weeks than did the same amount of nitrate nitrogen. Swan found the same effect in 105-day-old white spruce.

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The general short-term effect of nitrogen fertilization on coniferous seedlings is to stimulate shoot growth more so than root growth (Armson and Carman 1961). Over a longer period, root growth is also stimulated. Many

1693:. It is within the ovule that pollen-germination occurs. From here, a pollen tube seeks out the female gametophyte, which contains archegonia each with an egg, and if successful, fertilization occurs. The resulting 1127:

a group of extinct Carboniferous-Permian trees and clambering plants whose reproductive structures had some similarities to those of conifers. The most primitive conifers belong to the paraphyletic assemblage of

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that produce yellowish pollen through meiosis. Pollen is released and carried by the wind to female cones. Pollen grains from living pinophyte species produce pollen tubes, much like those of angiosperms. The

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period; even many of the modern genera are recognizable from fossils 60–120 million years old. Other classes and orders, now long extinct, also occur as fossils, particularly from the late Paleozoic and

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This means that if conifers are considered a division, they may be called Pinophyta or Coniferae. As a class, they may be called Pinopsida or Coniferae. As an order they may be called Pinales or Coniferae or

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Rose, A.H.; Lindquist, O.H. 1985. Insects of eastern spruces, fir and, hemlock, revised edition. Gov’t Can., Can. For. Serv., Ottawa, For. Tech. Rep. 23. 159 p. (cited in Coates et al. 1994, cited orig ed

2091:) which have pollination and fertilization events separated by a two-year interval. Female strobili initiated during late summer or autumn of a year, then overwinter until the following spring. Female 1786: 2420:(cedar) – have been the subject of selection for ornamental purposes. Plants with unusual growth habits, sizes, and colours are propagated and planted in parks and gardens throughout the world. 1413:

are in lines or patches on the leaves and can be closed when it is very dry or cold. The leaves are often dark green in colour, which may help absorb a maximum of energy from weak sunshine at high

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Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; Yang, Ying-Ying; Yang, Jun-Bo; Yang, Zhi-Yun; Hu, Yi; Ma, Hong; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Li, De-Zhu (August 2021).

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The size of mature conifers varies from less than one metre to over 100 metres in height. The world's tallest, thickest, largest, and oldest living trees are all conifers. The tallest is a

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Conifer reproduction is synchronous with seasonal changes in temperate zones. Reproductive development slows to a halt during each winter season and then resumes each spring. The male

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in the tunnel enlargement just below the wood surface. The resulting adults chew their way out in early summer, leaving round exit holes, so completing the usual 2-year life cycle.

2116:, influenced by the distribution of photosynthate from its needles and the hormonal gradients controlled by the apical meristems. External factors also influence growth and form. 1669:), the scales are soft, fleshy, sweet, and brightly colored, and are eaten by fruit-eating birds, which then pass the seeds in their droppings. These fleshy scales are (except in 693: 2321:). Adults are found in summer on newly fallen or recently felled trees chewing tiny slits in the bark in which they lay eggs. The eggs hatch in about two weeks and the tiny 2119:

Fraser recorded the development of a single white spruce tree from 1926 to 1961. Apical growth of the stem was slow from 1926 through 1936 when the tree was competing with

3862:, which have been traditionally excluded from the conifers, though recent molecular evidence suggest gnetophytes are the sister to the Pinaceae. See text for details. 2149:

32,000 pine seeds and transport the seeds as far as 12–22 km (7.5–13.7 mi) from the source. The birds store the seeds in the soil at depths of 2–3 cm (

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All living conifers are woody plants, and most are trees, the majority having a monopodial growth form (a single, straight trunk with side branches) with strong

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emerge then pollination occurs in spring of the second year then the pollinated strobili become conelets in the same year (i.e. the second year). The female

5105: 1096:(the 'gnepine' hypothesis) or as being more derived than Pinales but sister to the rest of the group. Most recent studies favor the 'gnepine' hypothesis. 701:

in plants (above the rank of family) are either formed from the name of an included family (usually the most common and/or representative), in this case

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develops which contains the embryo. The seed also contains the integument cells surrounding the embryo. This is an evolutionary characteristic of the

2779:"Phylogenomics resolves the deep phylogeny of seed plants and indicates partial convergent or homoplastic evolution between Gnetales and angiosperms" 1894:

The pollen fertilizes the female gamete (located in the female cone). Fertilization in some species does not occur until 15 months after pollination.

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Christenhusz, MJM; Reveal, J; Farjon, A; Gardner, MF; Mill, RR; Chase, MW (2011). "A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms".

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derived from conifers is of great economic value, providing about 45% of the world's annual lumber production. Other uses of the timber include the

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Fraser, DA; Belanger, L; McGuire, D; Zdrazil, Z (1964). "Total growth of the aerial parts of a white spruce tree at Chalk River, Ontario, Canada".

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Leslie, Andrew B.; Beaulieu, Jeremy; Holman, Garth; Campbell, Christopher S.; Mei, Wenbin; Raubeson, Linda R.; Mathews, Sarah (September 2018).

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factors and interactions among the 16 nutrient elements known to be essential to plants, 13 of which are obtained from the soil, including

1274:) of New Zealand, which is seldom taller than 30 cm when mature. The oldest non-clonal living tree is a Great Basin bristlecone pine ( 1806: 1519:, which have an oval or polyhedral shape with approximately identical dimensions in three directions, and strongly elongated tracheids. 1340:), and many other species with spirally arranged leaves, leaf bases are twisted to flatten their arrangement and maximize light capture. 5049: 1480:

in Pinaceae, have a distinct juvenile foliage period where the leaves are different, often markedly so, from the typical adult leaves.

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Derived from papers by A. Farjon and C. J. Quinn & R. A. Price in the Proceedings of the Fourth International Conifer Conference,

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Williams, CG; LaDeau, SL; Oren, R; Katul, GG (2006). "Modeling seed dispersal distances: implications for transgenic Pinus taeda".

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has commonly though inaccurately been applied to cone-bearing trees as well. The male cone and unfertilized female cone are called

801:). The seven most distinct families are linked in the box above right and phylogenetic diagram left. In other interpretations, the 1701:, which along with the female gametophyte (nutritional material for the growing embryo) and its surrounding integument, becomes a 6307: 5447: 2755: 1689:

male gametophytes (pollen grains) are carried by wind to a female cone and are drawn into a tiny opening on the ovule called the

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egg will give rise to the embryo, and a seed is produced. The female cone then opens, releasing the seeds which grow to a young

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conditions, their anatomical characteristics record growth rate changes produced by these changing conditions. The microscopic

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Moran, V. C.; Hoffmann, J. H.; Donnelly, D.; van Wilgen, B. W.; Zimmermann, H. G. (4–14 July 1999). Spencer, Neal R. (ed.).

6312: 1296: 1132:", which were small trees, and probably originated in dry upland habitats. The range of conifers expanded during the Early 3922: 4005: 1554: 1550: 1546: 4079: 3675: 2063:

summary, the one-year and the two-year cycles differ mainly in the duration of the pollination-fertilization interval.

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family), or are descriptive. A descriptive name in widespread use for the conifers (at whatever rank is chosen) is

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eras. Fossil conifers included many diverse forms, the most dramatically distinct from modern conifers being some

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more orders has been proposed from time to time. The most commonly seen in the past was a split into two orders,

1565:. The cones take from four months to three years to reach maturity, and vary in size from 2 to 600 millimetres ( 4208: 4198: 4181: 4072: 3600: 3299:

Ledig, F. Thomas; Porterfield, Richard L. (1982). "Tree Improvement in Western Conifers: Economic Aspects".

1863:. Three of the four cells break down leaving only a single surviving cell which will develop into a female 1476:, shedding their leaves in autumn. The seedlings of many conifers, including most of the Cupressaceae, and 2704:"Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms" 2344: 5440: 3634: 1612:, and when mature the scales usually spread open allowing the seeds to fall out and be dispersed by the 1176: 2146: 1846:

on separate male and female cones. In the male cones, microspores are produced from microsporocytes by

729: 3883: 3800:. Syracuse, New York: Environment Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, USDA For. Serv. pp. 291–295. 3048:

Condamine, Fabien L.; Silvestro, Daniele; Koppelhus, Eva B.; Antonelli, Alexandre (17 November 2020).

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The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow.

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of many conifers are long, thin and have a needle-like appearance, but others, including most of the

616:. As of 2002, Pinophyta contained seven families, 60 to 65 genera, and more than 600 living species. 3956:

Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Conifers: A Comprehensive Guide to Cultivars and Species

3911: 1140:) to lowlands due to increasing aridity. Walchian conifers were gradually replaced by more advanced 6394: 4064: 2382: 1352: 1267: 1262: 31: 17: 3543: 2289:

and southwestern Australia and the removal of individual plants beyond plantations is encouraged.

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conifers with no woody stems. Major fossil orders of conifers or conifer-like plants include the

1705:. Eventually, the seed may fall to the ground and, if conditions permit, grow into a new plant. 1523:

make up more than 90% of timber volume. The tracheids of earlywood formed at the beginning of a

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and other conifers are so productive, and perhaps also has bearing on observed sex-ratio bias.

1260:), 11.42 metres in diameter. The largest tree by three-dimensional volume is a giant sequoia ( 3917: 2685:"An herbaceous fossil conifer: Gymnospermous ruderals in the evolution of Mesozoic vegetation" 6343: 5897: 5547: 4176: 2112:

The growth and form of a forest tree are the result of activity in the primary and secondary

5414: 3755: 5562: 5409: 5155: 3743: 3475: 3429: 3170: 3061: 2953: 2896: 2839: 2715: 2282: 1442:, usually remaining on the plant for several (2–40) years before falling, but five genera ( 1389: 1318: 1231: 1152:

era. Modern groups of conifers emerged from the Voltziales during the Late Permian through

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Woodlands Res. Index Number 116. Montreal QC: Pulp Paper Res. Instit. Can. Tech. Rep. 168.

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constituted 17.5% of the over-day weight. Undoubtedly, the proportions change with time.

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and turnover, the immense conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial

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and plastic from chemically treated wood pulp. Some conifers also provide foods such as

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belong within the conifers despite their distinct appearances, either placing them as a

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According to the ICN, it is possible to use a name formed by replacing the termination

346: 159: 1120:), over 300 million years ago. Conifers are thought to be most closely related to the 6384: 5684: 5316: 5217: 5205: 5028: 4742: 4562: 4493: 4483: 4413: 4203: 4166: 4154: 4144: 3926: 3671: 3445: 3328: 3316: 3198: 3097: 3079: 3030: 2989: 2971: 2922: 2914: 2857: 2808: 2751: 2739: 2731: 2703: 2684: 2608: 1637: 1405: 780: 757: 324: 3495: 2869: 1249: 805:

may be better included within the Taxaceae, and some authors additionally recognize

5960: 5839: 5731: 5674: 5614: 5609: 5537: 5522: 5229: 5223: 5187: 4870: 4732: 4617: 4518: 4118: 4017: 3751: 3708: 3483: 3437: 3402: 3308: 3188: 3178: 3087: 3069: 3020: 3009:"An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record" 2979: 2961: 2904: 2847: 2798: 2790: 2723: 2665: 2638: 2362: 2357: 2278: 2225: 2081: 1773: 1204: 623:

important. They are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the

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Eastman, B (28 July – 1 August 1980). "The Western Maine Forest Nursery Company".

6133: 6038: 6000: 5955: 5887: 5644: 5604: 5589: 5482: 5321: 5304: 5211: 4737: 4720: 4503: 4462: 4330: 4320: 4300: 3948: 3934: 3587: 3217:"100 metres and growing: Australia's tallest tree leaves all others in the shade" 2940:

Nowak, Hendrik; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Kustatscher, Evelyn (23 January 2019).

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Biological Control of Alien, Invasive Pine Trees (Pinus species) in South Africa

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Judd, W.S; Campbell, C.S.; Kellogg, E.A.; Stevens, P.F.; Donoghue, M.J. (2002).

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are a serious environmental issue causing problems for pastoral farming and for

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Conifers are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the

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are significantly smaller at around 100 metres.) The thickest (that is, the

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McFee, WW; Stone, EL (1968). "Ammonium and nitrate as nitrogen sources for

3449: 3101: 3034: 2993: 2926: 2812: 2794: 2743: 2339: 2273: 2262: 2096: 2045: 2020: 2010: 1740: 1660: 1605: 1540: 1422: 1368: 1348: 1089: 972: 806: 761: 636: 605: 577: 373: 268: 241: 3050:"The rise of angiosperms pushed conifers to decline during global cooling" 809:

as distinct from Podocarpaceae (in which it is included here). The family

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Ran, Jin-Hua; Shen, Ting-Ting; Wang, Ming-Ming; Wang, Xiao-Quan (2018).

1624:), the cones disintegrate to release the seeds, and in others (e.g. the 1492:

A thin transverse section showing the internal structure of conifer wood

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Conifers from hotter areas with high sunlight levels (e.g. Turkish pine

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suggests that this interpretation leaves the Pinales without Taxales as

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in Podocarpaceae, have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves. Others such as

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Although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are

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Tree browser for conifer families and genera via the Catalogue of Life

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A number of conifers originally introduced for forestry have become

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When the plant is mature, it produces cones and the cycle continues.

6356: 6286: 6238: 6173: 6153: 6148: 6123: 6103: 6078: 6043: 6033: 6028: 5859: 5834: 5814: 5474: 5336: 4769: 4752: 4188: 4053: 4028: 2516: 2484: 2449: 2433: 2352: 2142: 2113: 2092: 1991: 1876: 1709: 1656: 1629: 1593: 1468: 1414: 1344: 1309: 1292: 1153: 1149: 1016: 875: 831: 721: 702: 644: 613: 301: 292: 273: 120: 95: 90: 75: 70: 60: 6273: 3261:. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand updated 1-Mar-09. 2939: 2683:

Rothwell, G.W; Grauvogel-Stamm, Léa; Mapes, Gene (February 2000).

1144:

or "transition" conifers. Conifers were largely unaffected by the

1112:

The earliest conifers appear in the fossil record during the Late

6178: 6158: 5854: 5829: 5819: 5809: 5765: 5702: 4992: 4791: 4248: 2496: 2441: 2393: 1872: 1867:

gametophyte. The female gametophytes grow to produce two or more

1855: 1851: 1847: 1751: 1665: 1377: 1133: 1129: 1093: 753: 749: 671: 662: 620: 589: 585: 287: 282: 110: 85: 3923:

World list of conifer species from Conifer Database by A. Farjon

2193:, but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. 6018: 6010: 5879: 3581:"Fauna conservation in Australian plantation forests: a review" 3541: 2655: 2607:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. 2504: 2376: 2302: 2217: 1967: 1902: 1898: 1884: 1747: 1736: 1724:, respectively. After fertilization, the female cone is termed 1698: 1694: 1621: 1383: 1295:: needle-like leaves and vegetative buds of Coast Douglas fir ( 1244:, allegedly grew to a height of 140 metres, the tallest living 1216: 1212: 855: 818: 724:, by the appropriate termination, in the case of this division 694:

International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

667: 647: 609: 569: 384: 152: 148: 138: 4683: 3798:

Proc. of the North American Forest Tree Nursery Soils Workshop

3466:; Linhart, Y (1990). "The evolution of bird-dispersed pines". 2277:) and radiata pine have been declared invasive species. These 1238:), with a height of 115.55 metres (although one mountain ash, 5927: 5799: 5275: 4688: 4386: 4100: 2474:

15 years he has been successful in avoiding winter “burn” to

2453: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2370: 2322: 2310: 2186: 2124: 2002: 1979: 1961: 1955: 1756: 1444: 1410: 1220: 1208: 1184: 698: 651: 624: 601: 593: 565: 176: 3691:

Durzan, DJ; Steward, FC (1967). "The nitrogen metabolism of

3553:

The X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds

3392: 3006: 2682: 5965: 5457: 5060: 4779: 2327: 2120: 2070: 1909: 1702: 1674: 1633: 1625: 1613: 1609: 1364: 835: 720:

in the name of an included family, in this case preferably

706: 697:(ICN), which state (Article 16.1) that the names of higher 597: 561: 525: 519: 513: 507: 486: 450: 444: 438: 432: 420: 4388: 3785:. Ottawa ON: Ont. Dep. Lands & Forests, Timber Branch. 3288:(4th ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. xix. 3155: 2602: 2586:"Pinidae (conifers) description – The Gymnosperm Database" 1891:. (Male and female cones usually occur on the same plant.) 1792:

Taxaceae: the fleshy aril that surrounds each seed in the

1561:. Conifer seeds develop inside a protective cone called a 1266:), with a volume 1486.9 cubic metres. The smallest is the 821:

record extending back about 300 million years to the

495: 474: 408: 5455: 2701: 2532: 2306: 1871:, each of which contains an egg. Upon fertilization, the 1641: 1617: 1375:, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. Some, notably 691:

The division name Pinophyta conforms to the rules of the

581: 501: 480: 414: 399: 3283: 2297:

At least 20 species of roundheaded borers of the family

1887:

that is carried in the wind to the female cone. This is

666:

A coniferous forest pictured in the coat of arms of the

3419: 3159:"The World's Tallest Tropical Tree in Three Dimensions" 2783:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1922:

Seed germinates and seedling grows into a mature plant.

1426:) often have yellower-green leaves, while others (e.g. 1397:

In many species with spirally arranged leaves, such as

4102: 1438:

light. In the great majority of genera the leaves are

2361:, a northern European species, in the North American 688:(to bear), meaning "the one that bears (a) cone(s)". 516: 498: 483: 477: 471: 468: 441: 435: 411: 405: 2627: 522: 504: 492: 447: 429: 417: 396: 304:(traditionally excluded but cladistically included) 1842:. These spores develop on separate male and female 1219:infection of wounds. Fossilized resin hardens into 489: 426: 402: 4910: 2469:managers were long reluctant to apply nitrogenous 4859: 4583: 3918:300 million-year-old conifer in Illinois – 4/2007 2689:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1834:, generating two different types of spores: male 794:, with 65–70 genera and over 600 living species ( 6376: 5742:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms 4412: 3298: 3284:Dallimore, W; Jackson, AB; Harrison, SG (1967). 1434:) may develop blue or silvery leaves to reflect 5091: 3054:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2776: 5041: 4690: 3462: 1919:Mature seed drops out of cone onto the ground. 1883:To fertilize the ovum, the male cone releases 5441: 4232: 4080: 3999: 3877:Eckenwalder, James Emory (3 September 2008). 3690: 1929: 1527:have large radial sizes and smaller, thinner 3810: 3780: 3507: 3505: 1156:. Conifers underwent a major decline in the 3876: 3699:Lamb. as influenced by mineral nutrition". 3590:, May 2007, D.B. Lindenmayer and R.J. Hobbs 3114: 3000: 2649: 2180: 2135: 643:. Conifers are of great economic value for 5448: 5434: 5405: 4087: 4073: 4006: 3992: 3725: 2605:Plant systematics, a phylogenetic approach 2554: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2099:in the conelet develop so slowly that the 817:The conifers are an ancient group, with a 128: 4959: 4708: 3502: 3241: 3192: 3182: 3091: 3073: 3024: 2983: 2965: 2908: 2876: 2851: 2802: 2558:Campbell, Reece, "Phylum Coniferophyta". 2201: 1511:of conifer wood consists of two types of 3517:Department of Conservation (New Zealand) 3368: 3366: 3364: 3115:Enright, Neal J; Hill, Robert S (1990). 2423: 2343: 2211: 1487: 1363:Since most conifers are evergreens, the 1343: 1325: 1308: 1287: 1207:. Many conifers have distinctly scented 1175: 1098: 1084:Multiple studies also indicate that the 770: 661: 537:. The division contains a single extant 5473: 3795: 3756:10.2136/sssaj1968.03615995003200060045x 3513:"South Island wilding conifer strategy" 3388: 3386: 3384: 3286:A handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae 2828:"The Kew Review: Conifers of the World" 2545: 2173: in) under conditions which favor 1211:, secreted to protect the tree against 1148:, and were dominant land plants of the 14: 6390:Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances 6377: 5701: 4013: 3962:DendroPress: Conifers Around the World 3665: 3659: 3574: 3256: 3163:Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 2825: 2510: 2141:the source. Birds of the crow family, 1800:) is a highly modified seed cone scale 1680:The male cones have structures called 1632:) the nut-like seeds are dispersed by 1483: 854:(possibly more closely related to the 787:There were seven families of conifers 6220: 6219: 5429: 4682: 4068: 3987: 3762: 3372: 3361: 3292: 2456:and lead to a large increase of free 1897:A fertilized female gamete (called a 1250:tree with the greatest trunk diameter 756:(the rest), but recent research into 657: 6336:75616c7d-4a77-4834-9340-fce3a4f4373e 3815:(7th ed.). New York: Macmillan. 3804: 3789: 3774: 3768: 3649: 3607:. keyserver.lucidcentral.org. 2016. 3381: 2882: 2758:from the original on 10 January 2022 775:Phylogeny of the Pinophyta based on 3783:Forest tree nursery soil management 3719: 3684: 3562:from the original on 6 October 2016 2596: 2107: 2069:: Three of the conifer species are 1859:pollen grain is a four celled male 1772:Pinaceae: unopened female cones of 383:. Scientifically, they make up the 24: 3813:The Nature and Properties of Soils 3668:A handbook of the world's conifers 3244:Conifers: morphology and variation 25: 6406: 3905: 3891:from the original on 23 July 2020 3858:This depends on the placement of 3611:from the original on 19 June 2017 3265:from the original on 1 March 2010 3131:"STATE FOREST OF THE WATTS RIVER" 2578: 1146:Permian–Triassic extinction event 229:Subclasses, orders, and families 27:Group of cone-bearing seed plants 5404: 3967: 3117:Ecology of the southern conifers 1805: 1785: 1765: 1754:drive that perhaps explains why 1316:: awl-like leaves of Cook pine ( 736:above family. Both are allowed. 464: 392: 163: 53: 3914:at the Tree of Life Web Project 3869: 3827:"Coniferous Wood - an overview" 3819: 3811:Buckman, HO; Brady, NC (1969). 3781:Armson, KA; Carman, RD (1961). 3623: 3593: 3535: 3456: 3413: 3377:. Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger. 3335: 3277: 3250: 3235: 3209: 3149: 3123: 3108: 3041: 2933: 2826:Farjon, Aljos (26 March 2018). 2819: 2770: 1735:It was found recently that the 1534: 1160:corresponding to the explosive 680:is a Latin word, a compound of 5415:Current definitions of Plantae 3852: 3119:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian. 2695: 2676: 2621: 2565: 2562:. 7th ed. 2005. Print. p. 595. 2333: 1417:or under forest canopy shade. 1171: 13: 1: 3670:. Brill Academic Publishers. 2883:Feng, Zhuo (September 2017). 2538: 2067:Three-year reproductive cycle 1825: 795: 788: 2531:, the latter used to flavor 2292: 1107: 7: 2029:Two-year reproductive cycle 1951:One year reproductive cycle 1812:Pinaceae: pollen cone of a 1195:of the Northland Region of 730:descriptive botanical names 10: 6411: 3013:American Journal of Botany 2967:10.1038/s41467-018-07945-w 2728:10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4 2631:Canadian Journal of Botany 2337: 2232:, including radiata pine ( 2216:A Monterey pine forest in 2205: 2196: 1930:Female reproductive cycles 1739:of conifers transfers the 1538: 1283: 732:" may also be used at any 29: 6228: 6191: 6009: 5926: 5878: 5763: 5754: 5697: 5469: 5465: 5460:phyla/divisions by domain 5387: 5303: 5262: 5151: 5136: 5087: 5078: 5037: 5017: 5006: 4955: 4946: 4906: 4891: 4887: 4847: 4843: 4778: 4751: 4719: 4704: 4700: 4678: 4626: 4610: 4592: 4546: 4542: 4476: 4455: 4443: 4439: 4408: 4379: 4357: 4339: 4287: 4267: 4247: 4243: 4228: 4112: 4024: 3736:Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc 3375:Embryology of gymnosperms 3242:Vidakovic, Mirko (1991). 2910:10.1016/j.cub.2017.07.041 2853:10.1007/s12225-018-9738-5 2670:10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3 1014: 1007: 992: 985: 970: 963: 948: 941: 917: 902: 895: 888: 873: 866: 560:. The great majority are 352: 345: 233: 228: 160:Scientific classification 158: 136: 127: 41: 2885:"Late Palaeozoic plants" 2383:Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 2181:Distribution and habitat 2136:Seed-dispersal mechanism 1357:Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 1272:Lepidothamnus laxifolius 1263:Sequoiadendron giganteum 32:Conifer (disambiguation) 5670:Thermodesulfobacteriota 3884:Encyclopædia Britannica 3422:Ecological Applications 3184:10.3389/ffgc.2019.00032 3075:10.1073/pnas.2005571117 2031:: The genera includes 3666:Farjon, Aljos (2010). 3519:. 2001. Archived from 2795:10.1098/rspb.2018.1012 2365: 2319:Monochamus scutellatus 2252:) and European larch ( 2221: 2202:As an invasive species 2049:) and most species of 1493: 1360: 1341: 1323: 1306: 1200: 1104: 784: 674: 6344:Paleobiology Database 5898:Neocallimastigomycota 3313:10.1093/jof/80.10.653 2946:Nature Communications 2424:Conditions for growth 2347: 2250:Pseudotsuga mensiezii 2215: 1953:: The genera include 1712:, the terminology of 1491: 1381:in Araucariaceae and 1347: 1329: 1312: 1298:Pseudotsuga menziesii 1291: 1191:) tree alive, in the 1179: 1102: 850:and perhaps also the 774: 665: 5563:Coprothermobacterota 5410:List of plant orders 5290:Pinopsida (conifers) 5276:Cycadopsida (cycads) 5268:(living gymnosperms) 4765:Leiosporocerotopsida 4484:Nephroselmidophyceae 3468:Evolutionary Ecology 2592:on 20 February 2016. 2386:(Lawson's cypress), 2301:feed on the wood of 1390:Araucaria columnaris 1319:Araucaria columnaris 1280:), 4,700 years old. 1236:Sequoia sempervirens 752:(Taxaceae only) and 633:tropical rainforests 30:For other uses, see 5118:Archaeopteridopsida 4851:Polysporangiophytes 4575:Klebsormidiophyceae 4558:Mesostigmatophyceae 4504:Chlorodendrophyceae 4468:Pyramimonadophyceae 4422:Prasinodermophyceae 4316:Compsopogonophyceae 3748:1968SSASJ..32..879M 3480:1990EvEco...4..185T 3434:2006EcoAp..16..117W 3301:Journal of Forestry 3257:Wassilieff, Maggy. 3175:2019FrFGC...2...32S 3066:2020PNAS..11728867C 3060:(46): 28867–28875. 2958:2019NatCo..10..384N 2901:2017CBio...27.R905F 2844:2018KewBu..73....8F 2720:2021NatPl...7.1015S 2521:production of paper 2511:Economic importance 2430:can absorb nitrogen 2368:Conifers – notably 2315:whitespotted sawyer 2238:), lodgepole pine ( 2191:Northern Hemisphere 1901:) develops into an 1499:are records of the 1484:Tree ring structure 1258:Taxodium mucronatum 629:Northern Hemisphere 568:. Examples include 564:, though a few are 5893:Blastocladiomycota 5309:(flowering plants) 5230:Lyginopteridopsida 5023:Eophyllophytopsida 4976:Zosterophyllopsida 4914:Paratracheophytes* 4692:sensu strictissimo 4602:Coleochaetophyceae 4585:Phragmoplastophyta 4427:Palmophyllophyceae 4349:Glaucocystophyceae 4311:Stylonematophyceae 4306:Porphyridiophyceae 4095:Classification of 3947:2019-12-20 at the 3933:2017-06-19 at the 3695:(Moench) Voss and 3605:Weeds of Australia 3586:2017-08-08 at the 3488:10.1007/BF02214330 3223:. 11 December 2018 3137:. 22 February 1872 2789:(1881): 20181012. 2573:Acta Horticulturae 2366: 2222: 1728:, which undergoes 1545:Most conifers are 1494: 1361: 1351:: scale leaves of 1342: 1324: 1307: 1241:Eucalyptus regnans 1201: 1162:adaptive radiation 1105: 785: 728:. Alternatively, " 675: 658:Names and taxonomy 6372: 6371: 6222:Taxon identifiers 6213: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6187: 6186: 5750: 5749: 5693: 5692: 5685:Verrucomicrobiota 5423: 5422: 5383: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5371: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5317:Basal angiosperms 5218:Gigantopteridales 5167:seed plant groups 5165:and other extinct 5132: 5131: 5106:Noeggerathiopsida 5074: 5073: 5029:Trimerophytopsida 5002: 5001: 4942: 4941: 4898:(vascular plants) 4863:Protracheophytes* 4839: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4802:Andreaeobryopsida 4743:Jungermanniopsida 4674: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4658: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4563:Chlorokybophyceae 4538: 4537: 4534: 4533: 4494:Chloropicophyceae 4435: 4434: 4414:Prasinodermophyta 4375: 4374: 4062: 4061: 3927:Catalogue of Life 3523:on 14 August 2011 3373:Singh, H (1978). 3026:10.1002/ajb2.1143 2895:(17): R905–R909. 2265:, maritime pine ( 1697:develops into an 1406:Pinus engelmannii 1254:Montezuma cypress 1189:Agathis australis 1130:walchian conifers 1081: 1080: 1072: 1071: 1063: 1062: 1054: 1053: 1045: 1044: 1036: 1035: 1027: 1026: 930: 929: 458:), also known as 367: 366: 325:Cheirolepidiaceae 16:(Redirected from 6402: 6365: 6364: 6352: 6351: 6339: 6338: 6329: 6328: 6316: 6315: 6303: 6302: 6290: 6289: 6277: 6276: 6264: 6263: 6262: 6249: 6248: 6247: 6217: 6216: 5961:Anthocerotophyta 5840:Hemimastigophora 5761: 5760: 5732:Nitrososphaerota 5699: 5698: 5675:Thermomicrobiota 5615:Kiritimatiellota 5610:Ignavibacteriota 5575:Deferribacterota 5538:Campylobacterota 5523:Bdellovibrionota 5471: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5450: 5443: 5436: 5427: 5426: 5408: 5407: 5322:Core angiosperms 5310: 5269: 5264:Acrogymnospermae 5242:Peltaspermopsida 5224:Glossopteridales 5206:Corystospermales 5188:Callistophytales 5168: 5160: 5154: 5149: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5112:Aneurophytopsida 5094: 5089: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5081: 5039: 5038: 5015: 5014: 5011: 4970:Barinophytopsida 4957: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4949: 4913: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4889: 4888: 4871:Horneophytopsida 4862: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4845: 4844: 4785: 4770:Anthocerotopsida 4758: 4753:Anthocerotophyta 4733:Haplomitriopsida 4726: 4717: 4716: 4713: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4694: 4680: 4679: 4633: 4624: 4623: 4618:Zygnematophyceae 4608: 4607: 4590: 4589: 4581: 4580: 4551: 4544: 4543: 4519:Trebouxiophyceae 4489:Picocystophyceae 4453: 4452: 4449: 4441: 4440: 4410: 4409: 4406: 4405: 4402: 4392: 4294: 4245: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4237: 4230: 4229: 4141: 4121: 4106: 4089: 4082: 4075: 4066: 4065: 4008: 4001: 3994: 3985: 3984: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3863: 3856: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3778: 3772: 3771: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3663: 3657: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3633:. Archived from 3627: 3621: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3597: 3591: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3561: 3550: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3509: 3500: 3499: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3390: 3379: 3378: 3370: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3345:. Archived from 3339: 3333: 3332: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3281: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3230: 3228: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3196: 3186: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3077: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3028: 3019:(9): 1531–1544. 3004: 2998: 2997: 2987: 2969: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2912: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2855: 2823: 2817: 2816: 2806: 2774: 2768: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2714:(8): 1015–1025. 2699: 2693: 2692: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2588:. Archived from 2582: 2576: 2569: 2563: 2556: 2479:(Eastman 1980). 2363:Red Butte Garden 2358:Pinus sylvestris 2279:wilding conifers 2271:), patula pine ( 2226:invasive species 2172: 2171: 2167: 2164: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2108:Tree development 2082:Pinus leiophylla 1809: 1789: 1778:Abies lasiocarpa 1769: 1714:flowering plants 1647:In the families 1616:. In some (e.g. 1608:, the cones are 1589: in) long. 1588: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1574: 1573: 1569: 1371:and some of the 1353:Lawson's cypress 1215:infestation and 1205:apical dominance 1166:flowering plants 1010: 1009: 988: 987: 966: 965: 944: 943: 898: 897: 891: 890: 869: 868: 862: 861: 800: 797: 793: 790: 558:secondary growth 532: 531: 528: 527: 524: 521: 518: 515: 510: 509: 506: 503: 500: 497: 494: 491: 488: 485: 482: 479: 476: 473: 470: 457: 456: 453: 452: 449: 446: 443: 440: 437: 434: 431: 428: 423: 422: 419: 416: 413: 410: 407: 404: 401: 398: 168: 167: 132: 115: 52: 45:Temporal range: 39: 38: 21: 6410: 6409: 6405: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6395:Plant divisions 6375: 6374: 6373: 6368: 6360: 6355: 6347: 6342: 6334: 6332: 6324: 6319: 6311: 6306: 6298: 6293: 6285: 6280: 6272: 6267: 6258: 6257: 6252: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6224: 6214: 6205: 6183: 6134:Gnathostomulida 6039:Xenacoelomorpha 6005: 6001:Flowering plant 5956:Marchantiophyta 5922: 5888:Chytridiomycota 5874: 5746: 5689: 5645:Planctomycetota 5605:Gemmatimonadota 5590:Elusimicrobiota 5483:Acidobacteriota 5461: 5454: 5424: 5419: 5343: 5308: 5307: 5299: 5267: 5266: 5258: 5212:Czekanowskiales 5166: 5164: 5162: 5161: 5158: 5152: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5128: 5092: 5079: 5070: 5042:Moniliformopses 5033: 5007: 4998: 4948:Eutracheophytes 4947: 4938: 4911: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4883: 4860: 4848: 4831: 4822:Polytrichopsida 4817:Tetraphidopsida 4783: 4782: 4774: 4756: 4755: 4747: 4738:Marchantiopsida 4724: 4723: 4721:Marchantiophyta 4709: 4696: 4642: 4631: 4630: 4622: 4606: 4579: 4547: 4530: 4472: 4463:Mamiellophyceae 4444: 4431: 4400: 4394: 4384: 4383: 4371: 4353: 4335: 4331:Florideophyceae 4321:Rhodellophyceae 4301:Cyanidiophyceae 4292: 4291: 4283: 4263: 4233: 4224: 4223: 4139: 4117: 4108: 4093: 4063: 4058: 4044:Sciadopityaceae 4020: 4012: 3974: 3972: 3968:Knee, Michael. 3949:Wayback Machine 3935:Wayback Machine 3908: 3903: 3894: 3892: 3872: 3867: 3866: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3847: 3837: 3835: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3809: 3805: 3794: 3790: 3779: 3775: 3767: 3763: 3724: 3720: 3713:10.1139/b67-077 3697:Pinus banksiana 3689: 3685: 3678: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3650: 3640: 3638: 3637:on 24 June 2015 3629: 3628: 3624: 3614: 3612: 3601:"Pinus radiata" 3599: 3598: 3594: 3588:Wayback Machine 3579: 3575: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3548: 3540: 3536: 3526: 3524: 3511: 3510: 3503: 3461: 3457: 3442:10.1890/04-1901 3418: 3414: 3407:10.1139/b64-017 3391: 3382: 3371: 3362: 3352: 3350: 3341: 3340: 3336: 3307:(10): 653–657. 3297: 3293: 3282: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3255: 3251: 3240: 3236: 3226: 3224: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3154: 3150: 3140: 3138: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3113: 3109: 3046: 3042: 3005: 3001: 2938: 2934: 2889:Current Biology 2881: 2877: 2824: 2820: 2775: 2771: 2761: 2759: 2700: 2696: 2681: 2677: 2654: 2650: 2643:10.1139/b02-083 2626: 2622: 2615: 2601: 2597: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2546: 2541: 2529:juniper berries 2513: 2447: 2439: 2426: 2342: 2336: 2295: 2210: 2208:Wilding conifer 2204: 2199: 2183: 2169: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2150: 2138: 2110: 2088:Pinus torreyana 1932: 1854:sperm cells by 1828: 1821: 1818:Larix kaempferi 1810: 1801: 1790: 1781: 1770: 1653:Cephalotaxaceae 1602:Sciadopityaceae 1585: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1566: 1559:wind-pollinated 1549:, but some are 1543: 1537: 1486: 1286: 1174: 1158:Late Cretaceous 1110: 1082: 1073: 1064: 1055: 1046: 1037: 1028: 995:Cephalotaxaceae 951:Sciadopityaceae 931: 852:Czekanowskiales 807:Phyllocladaceae 803:Cephalotaxaceae 798: 791: 713:(Art 16 Ex 2). 660: 512: 467: 463: 425: 395: 391: 372:are a group of 313:Welwitschiaceae 264:Sciadopityaceae 162: 123: 114: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 47: 46: 43: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6408: 6398: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6353: 6340: 6330: 6317: 6304: 6291: 6278: 6265: 6250: 6234: 6232: 6226: 6225: 6211: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6199: 6197: 6194:Incertae sedis 6189: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6139:Micrognathozoa 6136: 6131: 6129:Acanthocephala 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6015: 6013: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5971:Lycopodiophyta 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5932: 5930: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5884: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5785:Ancyromonadida 5782: 5777: 5771: 5769: 5758: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5739: 5737:Thermoproteota 5734: 5729: 5722: 5715: 5707: 5705: 5695: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5650:Pseudomonadota 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5625:Mycoplasmatota 5622: 5620:Lentisphaerota 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5600:Fusobacteriota 5597: 5595:Fibrobacterota 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5498:Armatimonadota 5495: 5490: 5488:Actinomycetota 5485: 5479: 5477: 5463: 5462: 5453: 5452: 5445: 5438: 5430: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5402: 5396: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5373: 5372: 5369: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5319: 5313: 5311: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5278: 5272: 5270: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5256: 5250: 5248:Pentoxylopsida 5244: 5238: 5232: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5182:Calamopityales 5178: 5171: 5169: 5146: 5139:Spermatophytes 5134: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5127: 5126: 5120: 5114: 5108: 5101: 5099: 5096:Progymnosperms 5082: 5076: 5075: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5068: 5061:Polypodiopsida 5058: 5056:Cladoxylopsida 5052: 5045: 5043: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5025: 5018: 5012: 5009:Euphyllophytes 5004: 5003: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4981:Lycopodiopsida 4978: 4972: 4965: 4963: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4922:Cooksoniopsida 4917: 4915: 4901: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4881: 4873: 4866: 4864: 4854: 4841: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4812:Oedipodiopsida 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4788: 4786: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4772: 4767: 4761: 4759: 4749: 4748: 4746: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4729: 4727: 4714: 4698: 4697: 4676: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4647: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4634: 4621: 4620: 4614: 4612: 4605: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4587: 4578: 4577: 4572: 4565: 4560: 4554: 4552: 4540: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4480: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4470: 4465: 4459: 4457: 4456:Prasinophytina 4450: 4437: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4429: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4403: 4377: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4369: 4363: 4361: 4359:incertae sedis 4355: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4345: 4343: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4297: 4295: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4273: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4261: 4253: 4251: 4238: 4235:Archaeplastida 4226: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4220: 4219: 4218: 4217: 4214:Mesomycetozoea 4211: 4206: 4196: 4186: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4163: 4162: 4150:Diaphoretickes 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4114: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4097:Archaeplastida 4092: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4069: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4025: 4022: 4021: 4011: 4010: 4003: 3996: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3965: 3959: 3952: 3938: 3920: 3915: 3907: 3906:External links 3904: 3902: 3901: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3865: 3864: 3850: 3849: 3846: 3845: 3818: 3803: 3788: 3773: 3761: 3742:(6): 879–884. 3728:Pinus radiata 3718: 3707:(5): 695–710. 3683: 3677:978-9004177185 3676: 3658: 3648: 3622: 3592: 3573: 3534: 3501: 3474:(3): 185–219. 3455: 3428:(1): 117–124. 3412: 3401:(2): 159–179. 3380: 3360: 3349:on 27 May 2015 3334: 3291: 3276: 3249: 3234: 3208: 3148: 3122: 3107: 3040: 2999: 2932: 2875: 2818: 2769: 2694: 2675: 2648: 2637:(9): 954–961. 2620: 2613: 2595: 2577: 2564: 2543: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2512: 2509: 2445: 2437: 2432:in either the 2425: 2422: 2335: 2332: 2294: 2291: 2268:Pinus pinaster 2206:Main article: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2182: 2179: 2137: 2134: 2109: 2106: 2040:Sequoiadendron 1931: 1928: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1906: 1895: 1892: 1827: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1814:Japanese larch 1811: 1804: 1802: 1791: 1784: 1782: 1771: 1764: 1732:(maturation). 1682:microsporangia 1539:Main article: 1536: 1533: 1525:growing season 1485: 1482: 1359:); scale in mm 1285: 1282: 1277:Pinus longaeva 1193:Waipoua Forest 1183:, the biggest 1173: 1170: 1109: 1106: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1070: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1061: 1060: 1057: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1043: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1002: 999: 998: 991: 986: 984: 981: 980: 977: 976: 969: 964: 962: 959: 958: 955: 954: 947: 942: 940: 937: 936: 933: 932: 928: 927: 924: 923: 916: 913: 912: 909: 908: 901: 896: 894: 889: 887: 884: 883: 880: 879: 872: 867: 865: 860: 781:molecular data 659: 656: 379:, a subset of 365: 364: 363: 362: 359: 356: 350: 349: 343: 342: 341: 340: 334: 328: 322: 321: 320: 315: 310: 299: 298: 297: 296: 295: 280: 279: 278: 277: 276: 271: 266: 256: 255: 254: 249: 231: 230: 226: 225: 220: 216: 215: 210: 206: 205: 200: 193: 192: 187: 180: 179: 174: 170: 169: 156: 155: 137:Large conifer 134: 133: 125: 124: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 44: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6407: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6363: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6331: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6270: 6266: 6261: 6255: 6251: 6246: 6240: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6218: 6204: 6203: 6198: 6196: 6195: 6190: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6012: 6008: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5929: 5925: 5919: 5918:Basidiomycota 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5903:Glomeromycota 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5865:Stramenopiles 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5790:Apusomonadida 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5727: 5726:Nanoarchaeota 5723: 5720: 5716: 5713: 5712:Euryarchaeota 5709: 5708: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5660:Spirochaetota 5658: 5656: 5655:Rhodothermota 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5585:Dictyoglomota 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5570: 5569:Cyanobacteria 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5558:Chrysiogenota 5556: 5554: 5553:Chloroflexota 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5533:Calditrichota 5531: 5529: 5528:Caldisericota 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5503:Atribacterota 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5459: 5451: 5446: 5444: 5439: 5437: 5432: 5431: 5428: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5403: 5401: 5397: 5394: 5390: 5389: 5386: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5306: 5302: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5284: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5265: 5261: 5255: 5251: 5249: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5237: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5225: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5213: 5209: 5207: 5203: 5201: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5177: 5176:Bennettitales 5173: 5172: 5170: 5157: 5156:Pteridosperms 5150: 5147: 5143:(seed plants) 5140: 5135: 5125: 5124:Protopityales 5121: 5119: 5115: 5113: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5077: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5030: 5026: 5024: 5020: 5019: 5016: 5013: 5010: 5005: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4971: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4951: 4945: 4935: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4918: 4916: 4909: 4905: 4902: 4895: 4894:Tracheophytes 4890: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4874: 4872: 4868: 4867: 4865: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4846: 4842: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4807:Andreaeopsida 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4781: 4777: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4760: 4754: 4750: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4693: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4632:(land plants) 4629: 4625: 4619: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4582: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4545: 4541: 4525: 4524:Chlorophyceae 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4511: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4499:Pedinophyceae 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4477:Chlorophytina 4475: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4454: 4451: 4448: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4398: 4393: 4391: 4382: 4381:Viridiplantae 4378: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4356: 4350: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4338: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4326:Bangiophyceae 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4290: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4275: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4191: 4190: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4177:Stramenopiles 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4140:(major groups 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4120: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4085: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4039:Podocarpaceae 4037: 4035: 4034:Araucariaceae 4032: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4023: 4019: 4016: 4009: 4004: 4002: 3997: 3995: 3990: 3989: 3986: 3971: 3970:"Gymnosperms" 3966: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3939: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3913: 3910: 3909: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3874: 3861: 3855: 3851: 3834: 3833: 3832:ScienceDirect 3828: 3822: 3814: 3807: 3799: 3792: 3784: 3777: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3687: 3679: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3652: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3589: 3585: 3582: 3577: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3546: 3538: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3506: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3459: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3416: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3376: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3348: 3344: 3343:"Gymnosperms" 3338: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3295: 3287: 3280: 3264: 3260: 3253: 3245: 3238: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3152: 3136: 3132: 3126: 3118: 3111: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3036: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2879: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2814: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2708:Nature Plants 2705: 2698: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2616: 2614:0-87893-403-0 2610: 2606: 2599: 2591: 2587: 2581: 2574: 2568: 2561: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2544: 2536: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2508: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2480: 2477: 2476:Norway spruce 2472: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2435: 2431: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2412: 2407: 2406: 2401: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2379: 2378: 2373: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2331: 2329: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2290: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2255:Larix decidua 2251: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2237: 2236: 2235:Pinus radiata 2231: 2227: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2178: 2176: 2148: 2144: 2133: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2115: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2089: 2084: 2083: 2078: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2035: 2034:Widdringtonia 2030: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1995: 1993: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1977: 1975: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1963: 1958: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1946: 1945:fertilization 1942: 1937: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1914:Spermatophyta 1911: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1881: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1865:multicellular 1862: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1832:heterosporous 1830:Conifers are 1819: 1815: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1798:Taxus baccata 1795: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1774:subalpine fir 1768: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1741:mitochondrial 1738: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1722:female flower 1719: 1715: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1667: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1649:Podocarpaceae 1645: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1628:that produce 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598:Araucariaceae 1595: 1590: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1542: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1505:environmental 1502: 1498: 1490: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1470: 1465: 1464: 1459: 1458: 1457:Glyptostrobus 1453: 1452: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1432:Picea pungens 1429: 1425: 1424: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1401: 1400:Abies grandis 1395: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1385: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1373:Podocarpaceae 1370: 1366: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1339: 1335: 1334: 1333:Abies grandis 1328: 1321: 1320: 1315: 1314:Araucariaceae 1311: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1264: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1232:coast redwood 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1118:Pennsylvanian 1115: 1114:Carboniferous 1101: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1077: 1076: 1068: 1067: 1059: 1058: 1050: 1049: 1041: 1040: 1032: 1031: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1012: 1011: 1005: 1004: 1001: 1000: 997: 996: 990: 989: 983: 982: 979: 978: 975: 974: 968: 967: 961: 960: 957: 956: 953: 952: 946: 945: 939: 938: 935: 934: 926: 925: 922: 921: 920:Podocarpaceae 915: 914: 911: 910: 907: 906: 905:Araucariaceae 900: 899: 893: 892: 886: 885: 882: 881: 878: 877: 871: 870: 864: 863: 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 844:Vojnovskyales 841: 837: 833: 828: 827:Carboniferous 824: 820: 815: 812: 808: 804: 782: 778: 773: 769: 767: 763: 759: 758:DNA sequences 755: 751: 745: 743: 737: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 695: 689: 687: 683: 679: 673: 669: 668:Kainuu region 664: 655: 653: 649: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 552: 549:conifers are 548: 544: 540: 536: 530: 461: 460:Coniferophyta 455: 389: 386: 382: 378: 375: 371: 360: 357: 355:Coniferophyta 354: 353: 351: 348: 344: 338: 335: 332: 329: 326: 323: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 305: 303: 300: 294: 291: 290: 289: 286: 285: 284: 281: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 261: 260: 257: 253: 252:Podocarpaceae 250: 248: 247:Araucariaceae 245: 244: 243: 240: 239: 238: 235: 234: 232: 227: 224: 221: 218: 217: 214: 211: 208: 207: 204: 201: 198: 195: 194: 191: 190:Tracheophytes 188: 185: 182: 181: 178: 175: 172: 171: 166: 161: 157: 154: 150: 146: 145: 140: 135: 131: 126: 122: 118: 117:Carboniferous 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 51: 40: 37: 33: 19: 6229: 6200: 6192: 6114:Orthonectida 6109:Gastrotricha 6084:Nematomorpha 6059:Chaetognatha 6049:Hemichordate 5976:Pteridophyta 5845:Malawimonada 5719:Korarchaeota 5680:Thermotogota 5665:Synergistota 5640:Nitrospirota 5635:Nitrospinota 5580:Deinococcota 5513:Bacteroidota 5393:paraphyletic 5305:Angiospermae 5289: 5282: 5281:Ginkgoales ( 5254:Petriellales 5236:Medullosales 5163:(seed ferns) 4876: 4797:Sphagnopsida 4792:Takakiopsida 4725:(liverworts) 4691: 4685:Embryophytes 4639:(see below↓) 4597:Charophyceae 4567: 4549:Streptophyta 4401:land plants) 4389: 4358: 4276: 4269:Rhodelphidia 4256: 4199:Opisthokonta 4103: 4049:Cupressaceae 3973:. Retrieved 3955: 3893:. Retrieved 3882: 3870:Bibliography 3854: 3836:. Retrieved 3830: 3821: 3812: 3806: 3797: 3791: 3782: 3776: 3764: 3739: 3735: 3732:Picea glauca 3731: 3727: 3721: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3693:Picea glauca 3692: 3686: 3667: 3661: 3651: 3639:. Retrieved 3635:the original 3625: 3613:. Retrieved 3604: 3595: 3576: 3564:. Retrieved 3552: 3544: 3537: 3525:. Retrieved 3521:the original 3471: 3467: 3458: 3425: 3421: 3415: 3398: 3394: 3374: 3351:. Retrieved 3347:the original 3337: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3285: 3279: 3267:. Retrieved 3252: 3243: 3237: 3225:. Retrieved 3220: 3211: 3166: 3162: 3151: 3139:. Retrieved 3134: 3125: 3116: 3110: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3016: 3012: 3002: 2949: 2945: 2935: 2892: 2888: 2878: 2835: 2832:Kew Bulletin 2831: 2821: 2786: 2782: 2772: 2760:. 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J. Bot 3395:Can. J. Bot 3269:17 December 2471:fertilizers 2392:(cypress), 2334:Cultivation 2246:Douglas fir 2241:P. contorta 2230:New Zealand 2220:, Australia 2175:germination 2076:Pinus pinea 2007:Cryptomeria 1974:Pseudotsuga 1941:pollination 1889:pollination 1861:gametophyte 1844:sporophylls 1838:and female 1836:microspores 1718:male flower 1673:) known as 1638:nutcrackers 1463:Metasequoia 1451:Pseudolarix 1436:ultraviolet 1428:blue spruce 1246:angiosperms 1227:industry). 1197:New Zealand 1181:Tāne Mahuta 1172:Description 1142:voltzialean 1122:Cordaitales 856:Ginkgophyta 840:Cordaitales 811:Taxodiaceae 799: 2002 792: 2011 742:Coniferales 684:(cone) and 641:carbon sink 381:gymnosperms 377:seed plants 361:Pinophytina 331:Palissyales 308:Ephedraceae 259:Cupressales 237:Cupressidae 48:307–0 6379:Categories 6202:Parakaryon 6164:Entoprocta 6099:Arthropoda 6094:Tardigrada 6074:Priapulida 6069:Loricifera 6054:Echinoderm 6024:Ctenophora 5996:Gnetophyta 5951:Charophyta 5941:Rhodophyta 5913:Ascomycota 5908:Zygomycota 5850:Metamonada 5825:Euglenozoa 5810:Ciliophora 5518:Balneolota 5493:Aquificota 5327:Magnoliids 5295:Gnetopsida 5065:horsetails 4993:quillworts 4985:clubmosses 4961:Lycophytes 4934:Renaliales 4711:Bryophytes 4289:Rhodophyta 4278:Rhodelphis 3975:14 January 3464:Tomback, D 3259:"Conifers" 3194:2164/12435 2952:(1): 384. 2762:10 January 2575:615 (2003) 2539:References 2489:phosphorus 2402:(spruce), 2338:See also: 2060:archegonia 1986:Keteleeria 1869:archegonia 1840:megaspores 1826:Life cycle 1744:organelles 1687:gymnosperm 1659:, and one 1557:; all are 1547:monoecious 1529:cell walls 1517:parenchyma 1497:Tree rings 1268:pygmy pine 1138:Cisuralian 1086:Gnetophyta 848:Voltziales 836:herbaceous 766:morphology 635:have more 337:Voltziales 209:Division: 151:, Eastern 144:Abies alba 6260:Pinophyta 6230:Pinophyta 6119:Dicyemida 5991:Pinophyta 5870:Telonemia 5805:Cryptista 5795:Breviatea 5780:Amoebozoa 5775:Alveolata 5756:Eukaryote 5508:Bacillota 4827:Bryopsida 4780:Bryophyta 4509:UTC clade 4258:Picomonas 4194:Amoebozoa 4172:Alveolata 4160:Cryptista 4135:Eukaryota 4015:Pinophyta 3879:"Conifer" 3641:22 August 3615:22 August 3329:150405447 3203:2624-893X 3084:0027-8424 2976:2041-1723 2919:0960-9822 2862:1874-933X 2752:236141481 2736:2055-0278 2664:: 55–70. 2658:Phytotaxa 2525:pine nuts 2501:magnesium 2493:potassium 2458:guanidine 2428:Conifers 2389:Cupressus 2293:Predators 2274:P. patula 2114:meristems 2101:megaspore 2073:species ( 2055:strobilus 2053:. Female 1999:Cupressus 1936:strobilus 1691:micropyle 1671:Juniperus 1666:Juniperus 1630:pine nuts 1604:and most 1563:strobilus 1555:dioecious 1521:Tracheids 1509:structure 1501:influence 1474:deciduous 1440:evergreen 1415:latitudes 1338:grand fir 1302:menziesii 1225:kauri gum 1108:Phylogeny 823:Paleozoic 777:cladistic 711:Coniferae 578:cypresses 551:perennial 543:Pinopsida 535:Coniferae 388:Pinophyta 358:Coniferae 318:Gnetaceae 223:Pinopsida 213:Pinophyta 173:Kingdom: 6385:Conifers 6362:43000116 6357:Tropicos 6239:Wikidata 6179:Annelida 6174:Mollusca 6154:Phoronid 6149:Nemertea 6124:Rotifera 6104:Flatworm 6079:Nematoda 6044:Chordate 6034:Cnidaria 6029:Placozoa 5860:Rhizaria 5835:Haptista 5815:Cercozoa 5475:Bacteria 5337:Eudicots 5332:Monocots 5050:Ibykales 4784:(mosses) 4689:Plantae 4387:Plantae 4189:Amorphea 4167:Rhizaria 4155:Hacrobia 4145:Excavata 4130:Bacteria 4101:Plantae 4054:Taxaceae 4029:Pinaceae 4018:families 3945:Archived 3931:Archived 3912:Conifers 3889:Archived 3838:12 March 3609:Archived 3584:Archived 3557:Archived 3527:19 April 3496:38439470 3450:16705965 3263:Archived 3221:ABC News 3102:33139543 3035:30157290 2994:30674875 2927:28898663 2870:10045023 2838:(1): 8. 2813:29925623 2756:Archived 2744:34282286 2517:softwood 2485:nitrogen 2450:arginine 2434:ammonium 2408:(pine), 2353:cultivar 2143:Corvidae 2093:strobili 1992:Pinaceae 1877:seedling 1730:ripening 1710:forestry 1657:Taxaceae 1636:(mainly 1594:Pinaceae 1469:Taxodium 1293:Pinaceae 1154:Jurassic 1150:Mesozoic 1017:Taxaceae 876:Pinaceae 832:Mesozoic 722:Pinaceae 703:Pinaceae 645:softwood 606:redwoods 602:hemlocks 586:junipers 385:division 370:Conifers 347:Synonyms 302:Gnetidae 293:Pinaceae 274:Taxaceae 18:Conifers 6245:Q132825 6159:Bryozoa 5855:Provora 5830:Jakobea 5820:Discoba 5766:Protist 5703:Archaea 5456:Extant 5400:extinct 4249:Picozoa 4204:Animals 4125:Archaea 3925:in the 3895:27 July 3744:Bibcode 3566:28 June 3476:Bibcode 3430:Bibcode 3321:5675533 3227:6 April 3171:Bibcode 3141:6 April 3093:7682372 3062:Bibcode 2985:6344494 2954:Bibcode 2897:Bibcode 2840:Bibcode 2804:6030518 2716:Bibcode 2560:Biology 2497:calcium 2467:nursery 2442:nitrate 2414:(yew), 2394:juniper 2374:(fir), 2349:Globosa 2311:hemlock 2197:Ecology 2189:of the 2168:⁄ 2154:⁄ 2017:Sequoia 1873:diploid 1856:mitosis 1852:haploid 1848:meiosis 1752:meiotic 1746:to the 1663:genus ( 1584:⁄ 1570:⁄ 1411:stomata 1409:). 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