1105:
1019:" the majority of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which incurs expenses, or "costs", within a company rather than generating profits or revenue streams. Modern businesses rely heavily on technology for their day-to-day operations, so the expenses delegated to cover technology that facilitates business in a more efficient manner are usually seen as "just the cost of doing business." IT departments are allocated funds by senior leadership and must attempt to achieve the desired deliverables while staying within that budget. Government and the private sector might have different funding mechanisms, but the principles are more-or-less the same. This is an often overlooked reason for the rapid interest in automation and
1093:
1081:
1057:
1069:
458:
2822:
917:
734:
721:
429:
2846:
2834:
985:
system of regular (paper) mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, delivery, and others) and characteristic features — ease of use, message transmission delays, sufficient reliability and at the same time no guarantee of delivery. The advantages of e-mail are: easily perceived and remembered by a person addresses of the form user_name@domain_name (for example,
820:, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007, almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally: 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3
477:, where they had discussed and began thinking of computer circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of information technology and computer science became more complex and was able to handle the processing of more data. Scholarly articles began to be published from different organizations.
1037:
has defined information technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support, or management of computer-based information systems". The responsibilities of those working in the field include network administration, software development and installation, and the planning
705:
Not only personally, computers and technology have also revolutionized the marketing industry, resulting in more buyers of their products. During the year of 2002, Americans exceeded $ 28 billion in goods just over the
Internet alone while e-commerce a decade later resulted in $ 289 billion in sales.
991:
Disadvantages of e-mail: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive advertising and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of guaranteed delivery of a particular letter; possible delays in message delivery (up to several days); limits on the size of one message and on the total size
1227:
On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual
1014:
Companies in the information technology field are often discussed as a group as the "tech sector" or the "tech industry." These titles can be misleading at times and should not be mistaken for "tech companies;" which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that sell consumer technology
984:
The technology and services it provides for sending and receiving electronic messages (called "letters" or "electronic letters") over a distributed (including global) computer network. In terms of the composition of elements and the principle of operation, electronic mail practically repeats the
693:
Innovations in technology have already revolutionized the world by the twenty-first century as people were able to access different online services. This has changed the workforce drastically as thirty percent of U.S. workers were already in careers in this profession. 136.9 million people were
1000:
A software and hardware complex with a web interface that provides the ability to search for information on the
Internet. A search engine usually means a site that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) — a set of
701:
Along with technology revolutionizing society, millions of processes could be done in seconds. Innovations in communication were also crucial as people began to rely on the computer to communicate through telephone lines and cable. The introduction of the email was considered revolutionary as
685:
had been redefined as "The development of cable television was made possible by the convergence of telecommunications and computing technology (…generally known in
Britain as information technology)." We then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within documents for the
1005:
sites, but there are also systems that can look for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is one of the priorities of the modern
Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work of search engines).
876:
All DMS consist of components, they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity. All databases are common in one point that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a
324:
usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an IT system. IT systems play a vital role in facilitating efficient data management, enhancing communication networks, and supporting organizational processes across various industries. Successful IT projects require
958:): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months during the same two decades; the global
988:); the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted, as well as arbitrary files; independence of servers (in the general case, they address each other directly); sufficiently high reliability of message delivery; ease of use by humans and programs.
966:
Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited". To address that issue, the field of
572:, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring. The first recognizably modern
416:, defined as the study of procedures, structures, and the processing of various types of data. As this field continues to evolve globally, its priority and importance have grown, leading to the introduction of computer science-related courses in
346:
and Thomas L. Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT)." Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of
492:
were considered some of the major pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their developments, most of their efforts were focused on designing the first digital computer. Along with that, topics such as
790:. However, the information stored in it and delay-line memory was volatile in the fact that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the
1092:
1104:
1228:
term has since been converted to what purports to be of great use, but without the reinforcement of definition ... the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."
698:, which was equivalent to 51 million households. Along with the Internet, new types of technology were also being introduced across the globe, which has improved efficiency and made things easier across the globe.
1435:
Commonly a synonym for computers and computer networks but more broadly designating any technology that is used to generate, store, process, and/or distribute information electronically, including television and
962:
capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast information has doubled every 12.3 years.
1030:, networks, and other technical areas of their businesses. Companies have also sought to integrate IT with business outcomes and decision-making through a BizOps or business operations department.
1272:
1080:
1068:
1056:
938:
XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s, particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented
1001:
programs that provides the functionality of a search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine developer company. Most search engines look for information on
706:
And as computers are rapidly becoming more sophisticated by the day, they are becoming more used as people are becoming more reliant on them during the twenty-first century.
2504:
2400:
631:
397:
Based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC — 1450 AD),
1297:
2222:
595:
allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the
1023:, but the constant pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some minor operations in large companies.
2054:
332:
Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the earliest writing systems were developed, the term
3516:
1847:
1683:
687:
2765:
1034:
841:
emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was
252:
2878:
2850:
2015:"Americas events – Video animation on The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010"
215:
1046:
Information services is a term somewhat loosely applied to a variety of IT-related services offered by commercial companies, as well as
2440:
599:, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the
1959:
Hilbert, Martin; LĂłpez, Priscila (1 April 2011), "The World's
Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information",
896:
to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort." As an evolution of the
329:
planning, seamless integration, and ongoing maintenance to ensure optimal functionality and alignment with organizational objectives.
1192:
971: — "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data" — emerged in the late 1980s.
671:
285:
2826:
2014:
1171:
Research suggests that IT projects in business and public administration can easily become significant in scale. Work conducted by
1817:
1038:
and management of an organization's technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded, and replaced.
2838:
2454:
Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008), "Norbert Wiener and the Rise of
Information Ethics", in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.),
2969:
920:
IBM card storage warehouse located in
Alexandria, Virginia in 1959. This is where the government kept storage of punched cards.
1098:
U.S. projected percent change in employment in selected occupations in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020
986:
3757:
3368:
2786:
2714:
2696:
2678:
2660:
2642:
2624:
2606:
2588:
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2530:
2488:
2463:
2333:
2115:
1911:
1886:
1480:
866:
470:
49:
2408:
1355:
897:
702:"companies in one part of the world could communicate by e-mail with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world..."
2984:
1774:
1597:
2705:
Wright, Michael T. (2012), "The Front Dial of the
Antikythera Mechanism", in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.),
1421:
3511:
1203:
846:
245:
17:
1254:
2989:
2951:
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1015:
and software. It is also worth noting that from a business perspective, Information technology departments are a "
812:
computer system. Most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as
1928:
1312:"The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems"
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2232:
511:, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered the earliest known mechanical
205:
3856:
3552:
2063:
127:
117:
67:
2067:
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3521:
1183:
of $ 15 million or more) often failed to maintain costs within their initial budgets or to complete on time.
452:
3747:
3542:
1853:
1670:
387:
238:
3320:
2864:
850:
225:
3726:
3648:
1145:
1134:
Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the permission of the copyright holders
1110:
U.S. projected average annual percent change in output and employment in selected industries, 2010–2020
715:
374:. Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including
770:. Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of
3752:
3361:
1311:
1074:
U.S. Employment in the computer systems and design related services industry, in thousands, 1990–2011
888:(XML) has become a popular format for data representation. Although XML data can be stored in normal
122:
1130:
in the 1940s. Some of the ethical issues associated with the use of information technology include:
3484:
2800:
600:
82:
865:
and the familiar concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the first commercially available
3731:
3227:
2736:
1020:
939:
627:
577:
494:
338:
2754:
548:
computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete
465:, which is considered the first mechanical analog computer, dating back to the first century BC.
3577:
3197:
3166:
3146:
2911:
1016:
497:
began to be brought up as Turing was beginning to question such technology of the time period.
406:
398:
165:
112:
92:
2349:
1410:
927:
has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception. It can be broadly categorized as
503:
have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a
3810:
3721:
3712:
3682:
3630:
3568:
3131:
3004:
2999:
1172:
1086:
U.S. Occupational growth and wages in computer systems design and related services, 2010–2020
766:, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now
520:
508:
462:
301:
200:
170:
97:
3816:
3691:
3582:
3354:
3306:
3262:
3232:
2994:
2901:
1970:
1518:
1472:
1176:
779:
569:
545:
526:
444:
277:
195:
87:
1462:
8:
3572:
3433:
3325:
3301:
3126:
3029:
3014:
2936:
2906:
2374:
2022:
1707:
Information technology. (2003). In E.D. Reilly, A. Ralston & D. Hemmendinger (Eds.),
893:
107:
102:
60:
35:
1974:
1522:
778:
signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line. The first
3841:
3773:
3707:
3643:
3639:
3547:
3479:
3279:
3252:
3171:
2227:
1996:
1825:
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870:
611:
515:, and the earliest known geared mechanism. Comparable geared devices did not emerge in
474:
297:
77:
457:
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2710:
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2326:
Optimizing and
Assessing Information Technology: Improving Business Project Execution
2276:
2111:
2000:
1988:
1961:
1907:
1882:
1876:
1786:
1652:
1635:
Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), "Some early transistor applications in the UK",
1605:
1542:
1534:
1476:
1417:
1333:
1208:
1198:
959:
924:
771:
759:
667:
619:
592:
557:
538:
485:
375:
363:
309:
1464:
The Oxford
Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology
3686:
3587:
3454:
3408:
3315:
3212:
3052:
2921:
1978:
1644:
1526:
1468:
1323:
954:
Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of
901:
787:
745:
436:
413:
402:
175:
1062:
U.S. Employment distribution of computer systems design and related services, 2011
30:"IT" redirects here. For the customer service colloquially referred to as IT, see
3778:
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596:
581:
512:
352:
281:
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849:(IMS), which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later. IMS stores data
798:, the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.
603:
and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version.
3783:
3652:
3591:
3413:
3257:
3242:
3207:
3136:
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3091:
3076:
2979:
2770:
1127:
1002:
955:
905:
741:
643:
635:
343:
155:
2707:
Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012
1794:
1613:
1497:
Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer science and technology
1328:
366:, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as
3835:
3601:
3537:
3418:
3111:
3062:
2941:
2746:
Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Information Technology
1790:
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1609:
1538:
1337:
1180:
854:
817:
809:
783:
659:
607:
541:
432:
180:
150:
2653:
Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes
1983:
1648:
1408:
Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), "Information technology",
523:
capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.
3677:
3141:
3121:
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1992:
1546:
928:
763:
753:
737:
623:
561:
553:
489:
31:
1509:
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981), "Decipherment of the earliest tablets",
469:
Ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the
3346:
3096:
3034:
2974:
2887:
1678:
1160:
1152:
1047:
968:
889:
791:
639:
573:
504:
481:
355:, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.
185:
2821:
2795:
Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999).
1316:
International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Science (IJSECS)
916:
3799:
3717:
3398:
3296:
3161:
3081:
1442:
1255:"What Is Information Technology? A Beginner's Guide to the World of IT"
1179:
suggested that half of all large-scale IT projects (those with initial
858:
733:
720:
615:
588:
391:
371:
367:
348:
326:
317:
160:
2633:
Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000),
2441:"U.S. Careers in the growing field of information technology services"
1743:
931:, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or
900:(SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both
428:
336:
in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the
3459:
3403:
3284:
3156:
3019:
1137:
Employers monitoring their employees' emails and other Internet usage
549:
3428:
3334:
3290:
3202:
3067:
2505:
Delivering large-scale IT projects on time, on budget, and on value
1140:
1027:
833:
767:
695:
647:
417:
383:
379:
313:
305:
273:
132:
666:
in 1971. These important inventions led to the development of the
3222:
3086:
2845:
1156:
1126:
The field of information ethics was established by mathematician
824:
in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, doubling roughly every 3 years.
821:
565:
519:
until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first
500:
359:
220:
1878:
The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD
3804:
3464:
3423:
3071:
2833:
2254:
813:
516:
440:
210:
42:
2856:
1738:
Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to the present
1736:
Northrup, C.C. (2013). Computers. In C. Clark Northrup (Ed.),
272:) is a set of related fields that encompass computer systems,
3311:
3217:
2203:
775:
663:
534:
530:
2036:
2034:
2032:
1159:
to monitor a user's online activities, which may be used by
946:, describing "data-in-transit rather than... data-at-rest".
320:
equipment — operated by a limited group of IT users, and an
3673:
3330:
943:
838:
2797:
Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World
2169:
2167:
857:
proposed an alternative relational storage model based on
284:
and information processing, and storage. IT forms part of
2632:
2191:
2179:
2085:
2029:
1671:"Advanced information on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000"
1495:
Henderson, H. (2017). computer science. In H. Henderson,
1448:
885:
842:
801:
2299:"Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT"
1026:
Many companies now have IT departments for managing the
2733:
Information Technology and the Corporation of the 1990s
2520:
2164:
2142:
2140:
1749:
1577:
935:, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.
41:"Infotech" redirects here. For the Indian company, see
1902:
Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999),
1755:
1720:
Stewart, C.M. (2018). Computers. In S. Bronner (Ed.),
1565:
2749:: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation.
1553:
2137:
2125:
1300:, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
2152:
1954:
1952:
1950:
2617:Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications
2557:Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011),
1815:
1409:
2507:, published 1 October 2012, accessed 23 June 2023
1508:
1502:
992:of messages in the mailbox (personal for users).
632:metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor
3833:
2808:Information Technology — A Luddite Analysis
2007:
1947:
1634:
1380:
1378:
1298:16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management
1385:Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958),
1357:A History of Information Technology and Systems
584:, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.
2731:Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994),
2689:Computer Science and Communications Dictionary
2601:(2nd ed.), The British Computer Society,
1407:
1384:
688:International Organization for Standardization
3362:
2872:
2766:The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood
2650:
2438:
1929:"How Much Information Is There in the World?"
1901:
1375:
1035:Information Technology Association of America
246:
2669:Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006),
2668:
2556:
2342:
2255:"Our programmes, campaigns and partnerships"
2209:
2197:
2185:
2103:
2091:
2040:
1958:
1840:
1767:
816:. Until 2002 most information was stored on
2806:Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986).
2730:
2456:Information Technology and Moral Philosophy
1637:Engineering Science & Education Journal
1416:(first ed.), Oxford University Press,
544:, completed in 1941, was the world's first
3376:
3369:
3355:
2879:
2865:
2521:Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010),
2434:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2392:
1874:
1852:, University of Manchester, archived from
1775:"Early computers at Manchester University"
679:National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review
537:, began to appear in the early 1940s. The
253:
239:
2637:(4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group,
2596:
2578:
2538:
2401:"Industry Overview: Information Services"
2375:"Follow Information Services on Index.co"
1982:
1761:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1571:
1449:Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000)
1327:
1193:Information and communications technology
774:was developed to remove the clutter from
672:information and communications technology
286:information and communications technology
3522:society as information processing system
3517:humans as information processing systems
2781:, Holt-Saunders International Editions,
2779:Introduction to Computer Data Processing
2503:Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. and Laartz, J.,
2478:
2367:
1461:Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014).
1349:
1347:
1309:
1246:
915:
732:
719:
670:(PC) in the 1970s, and the emergence of
456:
427:
2743:Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011).
2614:
2423:
2323:
2173:
2146:
2131:
2056:A Platform for Enterprise Data Services
2052:
1920:
1904:Magnetic Information Storage Technology
1809:
1499:. (3rd ed.). . New York: Facts On File.
1460:
1412:A Dictionary of Media and Communication
1360:, University of Arizona, archived from
1041:
14:
3834:
2704:
2398:
1559:
1252:
677:By the year of 1984, according to the
642:at Bell Laboratories in 1959, and the
412:Information technology is a branch of
3758:philosophy of artificial intelligence
3350:
2860:
2776:
2453:
1750:Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010)
1732:
1730:
1344:
1259:Technology Blog, Rasmussen University
1009:
867:relational database management system
471:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
50:Information Technology (constituency)
2686:
2559:Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
2350:"Top Information Services companies"
2158:
1473:10.1093/acref/9780199766666.001.0001
898:Standard Generalized Markup Language
724:Ferranti Mark I computer logic board
304:, or, more specifically speaking, a
48:For the Hong Kong constituency, see
3448:information processing abstractions
2803:, Massachusetts: Course Technology.
2046:
1935:, University of Southern California
1724:. . Johns Hopkins University Press.
1689:from the original on 17 August 2019
1596:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998),
1310:Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023).
794:, invented in 1932 and used in the
758:Early electronic computers such as
24:
2724:
2443:. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1822:Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics
1727:
1401:
1353:
709:
25:
3868:
3392:information processes by function
2814:
2651:van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011),
2619:, Information Science Reference,
2599:A History of Manchester Computers
2523:Computer Integrated Manufacturing
2053:Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009),
1204:Outline of information technology
839:Database Management Systems (DMS)
808:in 1956, as a component of their
568:German messages. Although it was
3512:nature as information processing
2990:Failure of electronic components
2844:
2832:
2820:
2635:Encyclopedia of Computer Science
2541:Computer Organization and Design
2481:Ethics in Information Technology
2110:. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
1722:Encyclopedia of American studies
1709:Encyclopedia of computer science
1273:"Computer Technology Definition"
1103:
1091:
1079:
1067:
1055:
995:
786:, which was based on a standard
2886:
2583:, Manchester University Press,
2513:
2497:
2472:
2447:
2317:
2291:
2269:
2247:
2215:
2097:
1895:
1868:
1714:
1701:
1663:
1628:
1489:
1454:
949:
911:
782:digital storage device was the
606:Several other breakthroughs in
560:developed the first electronic
382:, electronics, semiconductors,
358:The term is commonly used as a
206:Library and information science
2825:Learning materials related to
2709:, Springer, pp. 279–292,
2458:, Cambridge University Press,
2439:Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013).
2104:Silberschatz, Abraham (2010).
1926:
1816:Universität Klagenfurt (ed.),
1303:
1290:
1265:
1221:
1166:
128:Science and technology studies
13:
1:
3669:information processing theory
1235:
847:Information Management System
453:History of computing hardware
290:information technology system
3748:computational theory of mind
2985:List of emerging electronics
2223:"Technology Sector Snapshot"
2210:Han, Kamber & Pei (2011)
2198:Han, Kamber & Pei (2011)
2186:Han, Kamber & Pei (2011)
1598:"Computing's Golden Jubilee"
1531:10.1126/science.211.4479.283
1240:
827:
694:personally connected to the
480:Looking at early computing,
351:and mathematical methods to
142:Related fields and subfields
7:
2671:Database Management Systems
1875:Khurshudov, Andrei (2001),
1467:. Oxford University Press.
1296:Forbes Technology Council,
1186:
1033:In a business context, the
974:
443:. The Zuse Z3 is the first
226:Quantum information science
10:
3873:
3649:computational neuroscience
3553:human–computer interaction
2539:Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004),
2324:Proctor, K. Scott (2011),
2092:Ward & Dafoulas (2006)
2041:Ward & Dafoulas (2006)
1175:in collaboration with the
1148:accessing online databases
1119:
886:extensible markup language
831:
751:
728:
716:Electronic data processing
713:
450:
423:
47:
40:
29:
3792:
3766:
3753:philosophy of information
3740:
3700:
3661:
3623:
3614:
3561:
3530:
3504:
3497:
3447:
3391:
3384:
3185:
3043:
2960:
2894:
2777:Price, Wilson T. (1981),
2691:, vol. 2, Springer,
2673:, Cengage Learning EMEA,
2597:Lavington, Simon (1998),
2579:Lavington, Simon (1980),
2479:Reynolds, George (2009),
2328:, John Wiley & Sons,
1387:"Management in the 1980s"
1329:10.35870/ijsecs.v3i2.1512
1115:
892:, it is commonly held in
27:Computer-based technology
3543:brain–computer interface
2399:Publishing, Value Line.
2107:Database System Concepts
1214:
979:
869:(RDBMS) was released by
601:University of Manchester
3732:artificial intelligence
3662:in cognitive psychology
3615:Information processing
3228:Electromagnetic warfare
2737:Oxford University Press
2581:Early British Computers
1984:10.1126/science.1200970
1391:Harvard Business Review
1021:Artificial Intelligence
744:to store and represent
628:Fairchild Semiconductor
610:technology include the
578:stored-program computer
495:artificial intelligence
339:Harvard Business Review
3847:Information technology
3727:computational circuits
3722:information structures
3578:bio-inspired computing
3498:Information processors
3378:Information processing
3198:Automotive electronics
3147:Robotic vacuum cleaner
3107:Information technology
2912:Electronic engineering
2851:Information technology
2849:Quotations related to
2839:Information technology
2827:Information technology
2615:Pardede, Eric (2009),
1740:. . London: Routledge.
1253:Cosker, Glynn (2023),
921:
749:
725:
683:information technology
466:
448:
435:replica on display at
334:information technology
266:Information technology
191:Information technology
113:Knowledge organization
34:. For other uses, see
3857:Mass media technology
3811:Decoding the Universe
3683:cognitive informatics
3617:theories and concepts
3385:Information processes
3132:Portable media player
3005:Molecular electronics
3000:Low-power electronics
2810:. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
2687:Weik, Martin (2000),
1849:The Manchester Mark 1
1649:10.1049/esej:19980301
1151:Web sites installing
919:
884:In recent years, the
804:introduced the first
736:
723:
634:(MOSFET) invented by
591:in the late 1940s at
521:mechanical calculator
509:Antikythera mechanism
463:Antikythera mechanism
460:
431:
302:communications system
278:programming languages
201:Intellectual property
171:Computer data storage
3852:Intellectual capital
3817:information overload
3692:behavior informatics
3583:ubiquitous computing
3326:Terahertz technology
3307:Open-source hardware
3263:Consumer electronics
3233:Electronics industry
2995:Flexible electronics
2902:Analogue electronics
2841:at Wikimedia Commons
2483:, Cengage Learning,
1177:University of Oxford
1042:Information services
894:relational databases
552:machine. During the
527:Electronic computers
196:Intellectual freedom
3701:in computer science
3640:genetic informatics
3302:Nuclear electronics
3127:Networking hardware
3030:Quantum electronics
3015:Organic electronics
2937:Printed electronics
2907:Digital electronics
2073:on 25 December 2013
2025:on 18 January 2012.
1975:2011Sci...332...60H
1856:on 21 November 2008
1523:1981Sci...211..283S
1354:Butler, Jeremy G.,
853:, but in the 1970s
587:The development of
409:(1940 to present).
405:(1840 — 1940), and
61:Information science
36:It (disambiguation)
3774:information theory
3713:computation theory
3708:neural computation
3644:cellular computing
3548:physical computing
3280:Marine electronics
3253:Integrated circuit
3172:Video game console
2970:2020s in computing
2952:Thermal management
2277:"Cyberstates 2016"
2235:on 13 January 2017
2228:The New York Times
1906:, Academic Press,
1785:(4), Summer 1992,
1141:Unsolicited emails
1122:Information ethics
1010:Commercial effects
933:telecommunications
922:
750:
726:
612:integrated circuit
475:Harvard University
467:
449:
362:for computers and
298:information system
296:) is generally an
3829:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3767:interdisciplinary
3610:
3609:
3493:
3492:
3475:stream processing
3465:signal processing
3460:sign processesing
3344:
3343:
3321:Radio electronics
2947:Schematic capture
2932:Power electronics
2837:Media related to
2788:978-4-8337-0012-2
2716:978-94-007-4131-7
2698:978-0-7923-8425-0
2680:978-1-84480-452-8
2662:978-3-642-19344-6
2644:978-1-56159-248-7
2626:978-1-60566-308-1
2608:978-1-902505-01-5
2590:978-0-7190-0810-8
2572:978-0-12-381479-1
2550:978-81-203-1254-8
2532:978-81-203-3345-1
2490:978-0-538-74622-9
2465:978-0-521-85549-5
2335:978-1-118-10263-3
2305:. 22 October 2020
2117:978-0-07-741800-7
1913:978-0-12-734570-3
1888:978-0-130-92739-2
1881:, Prentice Hall,
1797:on 28 August 2017
1616:on 9 January 2012
1517:(4479): 283–285,
1482:978-0-19-976666-6
1209:Knowledge society
1199:IT infrastructure
960:telecommunication
925:Data transmission
772:delay-line memory
668:personal computer
620:Texas Instruments
614:(IC) invented by
593:Bell Laboratories
539:electromechanical
486:J. Presper Eckert
403:electromechanical
388:telecom equipment
376:computer hardware
364:computer networks
344:Harold J. Leavitt
263:
262:
18:Computer industry
16:(Redirected from
3864:
3687:neuroinformatics
3621:
3620:
3588:artificial brain
3502:
3501:
3485:state processing
3480:agent processing
3455:event processing
3389:
3388:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3348:
3347:
3316:Radio navigation
3213:Data acquisition
2922:Microelectronics
2881:
2874:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2848:
2836:
2824:
2791:
2739:
2719:
2701:
2683:
2665:
2647:
2629:
2611:
2593:
2575:
2561:(3rd ed.),
2553:
2543:, PHI Learning,
2535:
2525:, PHI Learning,
2508:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2476:
2470:
2468:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2436:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2407:. Archived from
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2231:. Archived from
2219:
2213:
2212:, p. xxiii.
2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2101:
2095:
2089:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2072:
2066:, archived from
2061:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2027:
2026:
2021:. Archived from
2011:
2005:
2003:
1986:
1956:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1924:
1918:
1916:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1872:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1844:
1838:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1824:, archived from
1813:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1793:, archived from
1771:
1765:
1762:Lavington (1998)
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1734:
1725:
1718:
1712:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1688:
1675:
1667:
1661:
1659:
1632:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1612:, archived from
1593:
1587:
1584:Lavington (1980)
1581:
1575:
1572:Chaudhuri (2004)
1569:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1549:
1506:
1500:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1415:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1382:
1373:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1364:on 5 August 2012
1351:
1342:
1341:
1331:
1307:
1301:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1250:
1229:
1225:
1107:
1095:
1083:
1071:
1059:
788:cathode ray tube
554:Second World War
437:Deutsches Museum
414:computer science
308:— including all
255:
248:
241:
176:Cultural studies
57:
56:
21:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3821:
3788:
3779:decision theory
3762:
3736:
3696:
3657:
3635:systems biology
3616:
3606:
3597:virtual reality
3557:
3526:
3489:
3470:data processing
3443:
3439:decision-making
3380:
3375:
3345:
3340:
3273:Small appliance
3268:Major appliance
3248:Home automation
3238:Embedded system
3193:Audio equipment
3181:
3177:Washing machine
3102:Home theater PC
3058:Central heating
3053:Air conditioner
3045:
3039:
3010:Nanoelectronics
2962:
2956:
2927:Optoelectronics
2917:Instrumentation
2890:
2885:
2817:
2789:
2727:
2725:Further reading
2722:
2717:
2699:
2681:
2663:
2645:
2627:
2609:
2591:
2573:
2563:Morgan Kaufmann
2551:
2533:
2516:
2511:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2452:
2448:
2437:
2424:
2414:
2412:
2411:on 20 June 2021
2397:
2393:
2383:
2381:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2356:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2322:
2318:
2308:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2184:
2180:
2176:, p. xiii.
2172:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2145:
2138:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2102:
2098:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2039:
2030:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1969:(6025): 60–65,
1957:
1948:
1938:
1936:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1857:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1831:
1829:
1828:on 21 June 2006
1818:"Magnetic drum"
1814:
1810:
1800:
1798:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1735:
1728:
1719:
1715:
1706:
1702:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1594:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1507:
1503:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1459:
1455:
1447:
1443:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1406:
1402:
1383:
1376:
1367:
1365:
1352:
1345:
1308:
1304:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1279:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1189:
1169:
1124:
1118:
1111:
1108:
1099:
1096:
1087:
1084:
1075:
1072:
1063:
1060:
1044:
1012:
998:
982:
977:
952:
914:
879:database schema
863:predicate logic
836:
830:
806:hard disk drive
796:Ferranti Mark 1
756:
742:early computers
731:
718:
712:
710:Data processing
656:Masatoshi Shima
652:Federico Faggin
597:Ferranti Mark I
582:Manchester Baby
529:, using either
513:analog computer
455:
426:
401:(1450 — 1840),
353:decision-making
306:computer system
259:
230:
137:
68:General aspects
53:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3870:
3860:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3827:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3807:
3802:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3784:systems theory
3781:
3776:
3770:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3715:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3694:
3689:
3680:
3671:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3653:neurocomputing
3646:
3637:
3627:
3625:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3592:mind uploading
3585:
3580:
3575:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3508:
3506:
3499:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
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3444:
3442:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
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3411:
3406:
3401:
3395:
3393:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3374:
3373:
3366:
3359:
3351:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3338:
3337:Communications
3328:
3323:
3318:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3258:Home appliance
3255:
3250:
3245:
3243:Home appliance
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3208:Control system
3205:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3117:Microwave oven
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2980:Bioelectronics
2977:
2972:
2966:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2884:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2842:
2830:
2829:at Wikiversity
2816:
2815:External links
2813:
2812:
2811:
2804:
2793:
2787:
2774:
2771:Pantheon Books
2758:
2741:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2702:
2697:
2684:
2679:
2666:
2661:
2648:
2643:
2630:
2625:
2612:
2607:
2594:
2589:
2576:
2571:
2554:
2549:
2536:
2531:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2496:
2489:
2471:
2464:
2446:
2422:
2391:
2366:
2341:
2334:
2316:
2290:
2268:
2246:
2214:
2202:
2190:
2178:
2174:Pardede (2009)
2163:
2161:, p. 361.
2151:
2147:Pardede (2009)
2136:
2132:Pardede (2009)
2124:
2116:
2096:
2084:
2045:
2028:
2006:
1946:
1919:
1912:
1894:
1887:
1867:
1839:
1808:
1766:
1754:
1752:, p. 178.
1742:
1726:
1713:
1700:
1662:
1643:(3): 100–106,
1627:
1588:
1576:
1564:
1562:, p. 279.
1552:
1501:
1488:
1481:
1453:
1451:, p. 869.
1441:
1423:978-0199568758
1422:
1400:
1374:
1343:
1322:(2): 151–161.
1302:
1289:
1264:
1244:
1242:
1239:
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1234:
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1219:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1188:
1185:
1181:cost estimates
1168:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1149:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1128:Norbert Wiener
1120:Main article:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1054:
1043:
1040:
1011:
1008:
1003:World Wide Web
997:
994:
981:
978:
976:
973:
951:
948:
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906:human-readable
851:hierarchically
832:Main article:
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752:Main article:
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636:Mohamed Atalla
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2942:Semiconductor
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2761:Gleick, James
2759:
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2303:TechNewsWorld
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2024:
2020:
2019:The Economist
2016:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1934:
1930:
1927:Wu, Suzanne,
1923:
1915:
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1685:
1682:. June 2018.
1681:
1680:
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1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1615:
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1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1586:, p. 11.
1585:
1580:
1573:
1568:
1561:
1560:Wright (2012)
1556:
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792:magnetic drum
789:
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784:Williams tube
781:
780:random-access
777:
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765:
761:
755:
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740:were used in
739:
738:Punched tapes
735:
722:
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707:
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699:
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689:
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673:
669:
665:
661:
660:Stanley Mazor
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
630:in 1959, the
629:
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617:
613:
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608:semiconductor
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181:Data modeling
179:
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151:Bibliometrics
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3678:intelligence
3377:
3186:Applications
3167:Water heater
3142:Refrigerator
3122:Mobile phone
3106:
3025:Piezotronics
2853:at Wikiquote
2807:
2796:
2778:
2769:. New York:
2764:
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2732:
2706:
2688:
2670:
2655:, Springer,
2652:
2634:
2616:
2598:
2580:
2558:
2540:
2522:
2514:Bibliography
2499:
2480:
2474:
2455:
2449:
2413:. Retrieved
2409:the original
2404:
2394:
2382:. Retrieved
2378:
2369:
2357:. Retrieved
2354:VentureRadar
2353:
2344:
2325:
2319:
2307:. Retrieved
2302:
2293:
2281:. Retrieved
2271:
2259:. Retrieved
2249:
2237:. Retrieved
2233:the original
2226:
2217:
2205:
2200:, p. 8.
2193:
2188:, p. 5.
2181:
2154:
2149:, p. 4.
2134:, p. 2.
2127:
2106:
2099:
2094:, p. 3.
2087:
2075:, retrieved
2068:the original
2055:
2048:
2043:, p. 2.
2023:the original
2018:
2009:
1966:
1960:
1939:10 September
1937:, retrieved
1932:
1922:
1903:
1897:
1877:
1870:
1858:, retrieved
1854:the original
1848:
1842:
1830:, retrieved
1826:the original
1821:
1811:
1799:, retrieved
1795:the original
1782:
1779:Resurrection
1778:
1769:
1764:, p. 1.
1757:
1745:
1737:
1721:
1716:
1711:. (4th ed.).
1708:
1703:
1691:. Retrieved
1677:
1665:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1618:, retrieved
1614:the original
1602:Resurrection
1601:
1591:
1579:
1574:, p. 3.
1567:
1555:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1496:
1491:
1463:
1456:
1444:
1434:
1427:, retrieved
1411:
1403:
1394:
1390:
1366:, retrieved
1362:the original
1356:
1319:
1315:
1305:
1292:
1280:. Retrieved
1276:
1267:
1258:
1248:
1223:
1170:
1161:data brokers
1125:
1048:data brokers
1045:
1032:
1025:
1013:
999:
990:
983:
965:
953:
950:Manipulation
937:
929:broadcasting
923:
912:Transmission
890:file systems
883:
875:
837:
800:
764:punched tape
762:made use of
757:
754:Data storage
704:
700:
692:
682:
678:
676:
646:invented by
624:Robert Noyce
605:
586:
570:programmable
564:computer to
546:programmable
525:
499:
490:John Mauchly
479:
468:
461:This is the
445:programmable
411:
396:
357:
337:
333:
331:
321:
293:
289:
269:
265:
264:
216:Preservation
190:
83:Architecture
54:
32:Tech support
3293:electronics
3097:Home cinema
3035:Spintronics
2975:Atomtronics
2888:Electronics
2159:Weik (2000)
1693:17 December
1679:Nobel Prize
1277:Law Insider
1167:IT projects
1017:cost center
969:data mining
956:Moore's law
681:, the term
640:Dawon Kahng
589:transistors
505:tally stick
482:Alan Turing
349:statistical
186:Informatics
3836:Categories
3800:infosphere
3718:algorithms
3624:in biology
3569:processors
3562:artificial
3399:perception
3297:Multimedia
3287:technology
3162:Television
3092:Home robot
3082:Dishwasher
3044:Electronic
2405:Value Line
2283:12 January
2261:12 January
2239:12 January
1860:24 January
1436:telephone.
1236:References
859:set theory
616:Jack Kilby
574:electronic
473:(MIT) and
407:electronic
399:mechanical
392:e-commerce
372:telephones
368:television
342:; authors
327:meticulous
322:IT project
318:peripheral
288:(ICT). An
161:Censorship
123:Philosophy
93:Management
3842:Computers
3573:processes
3424:reasoning
3414:operating
3409:influence
3404:attention
3285:Microwave
3157:Telephone
3046:equipment
3020:Photonics
2801:Cambridge
2755:2222-9280
2279:. CompTIA
2001:206531385
1832:21 August
1791:0958-7403
1657:0963-7346
1610:0958-7403
1539:0036-8075
1338:2776-3242
1241:Citations
1028:computers
940:protocols
828:Databases
810:305 RAMAC
550:computing
447:computer.
294:IT system
98:Retrieval
3429:learning
3335:Wireless
3291:Military
3223:e-health
3203:Avionics
3072:Notebook
3068:Computer
2961:Advanced
2895:Branches
2379:Index.co
2309:22 March
2257:. TechUK
2077:7 August
1993:21310967
1933:USC News
1801:19 April
1684:Archived
1620:19 April
1547:17748027
1429:1 August
1368:2 August
1187:See also
1173:McKinsey
975:Services
942:such as
902:machine-
855:Ted Codd
834:Database
822:exabytes
768:obsolete
760:Colossus
696:Internet
648:Ted Hoff
580:was the
576:digital
558:Colossus
384:internet
380:software
314:software
310:hardware
274:software
133:Taxonomy
118:Ontology
88:Behavior
3505:natural
3434:storing
3087:Freezer
2763:(2011).
2415:8 March
2384:8 March
2359:8 March
1971:Bibcode
1962:Science
1519:Bibcode
1511:Science
1282:11 July
1157:spyware
1153:cookies
1146:Hackers
814:CD-ROMs
729:Storage
690:(ISO).
674:(ICT).
566:decrypt
562:digital
542:Zuse Z3
501:Devices
433:Zuse Z3
424:History
360:synonym
221:Privacy
108:Society
103:Seeking
3805:inforg
3218:e-book
3152:Tablet
3112:Cooker
3077:Camera
2963:topics
2785:
2753:
2713:
2695:
2677:
2659:
2641:
2623:
2605:
2587:
2569:
2547:
2529:
2487:
2462:
2332:
2114:
1999:
1991:
1910:
1885:
1789:
1655:
1608:
1604:(20),
1545:
1537:
1479:
1420:
1336:
1116:Ethics
871:Oracle
658:, and
535:valves
531:relays
517:Europe
507:. The
488:, and
441:Munich
390:, and
316:, and
280:, and
211:Memory
78:Access
43:Cyient
3793:other
3531:mixed
3331:Wired
3312:Radar
3137:Radio
2071:(PDF)
2060:(PDF)
1997:S2CID
1687:(PDF)
1674:(PDF)
1215:Notes
1195:(ICT)
980:Email
776:radar
664:Intel
3720:and
3685:and
3676:and
3674:mind
3651:and
3642:and
3633:and
3590:and
3571:and
3333:and
3314:and
2783:ISBN
2751:ISSN
2711:ISBN
2693:ISBN
2675:ISBN
2657:ISBN
2639:ISBN
2621:ISBN
2603:ISBN
2585:ISBN
2567:ISBN
2545:ISBN
2527:ISBN
2485:ISBN
2460:ISBN
2417:2021
2386:2021
2361:2021
2330:ISBN
2311:2021
2285:2017
2263:2017
2241:2017
2112:ISBN
2079:2012
1989:PMID
1941:2013
1908:ISBN
1883:ISBN
1862:2009
1834:2011
1803:2008
1787:ISSN
1695:2019
1653:ISSN
1622:2008
1606:ISSN
1543:PMID
1535:ISSN
1477:ISBN
1431:2012
1418:ISBN
1370:2012
1334:ISSN
1284:2022
944:SOAP
904:and
861:and
746:data
638:and
622:and
370:and
300:, a
282:data
2064:IDC
1979:doi
1967:332
1645:doi
1527:doi
1515:211
1469:doi
1324:doi
1155:or
845:'s
843:IBM
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