287:
samples were analyzed after the critical two-minute point. That is, looking for motile sperm in small amounts of pre-ejaculate via microscope after two minutes – when the sample has most likely dried – makes examination and evaluation "extremely difficult". Thus, in March 2011 a team of researchers assembled 27 male volunteers and analyzed their pre-ejaculate samples within two minutes after producing them. The researchers found that 11 of the 27 men (41%) produced pre-ejaculatory samples that contained sperm, and 10 of these samples (37%) contained a "fair amount" of motile sperm (in other words, as few as 1 million to as many as 35 million). This study therefore recommends, in order to minimize
361:
that 9.8% of unmarried men who have had sexual intercourse in the last three months in 2002 used withdrawal, which then increased to 14.5% in 2006–2010, and then to 18.8% in 2011–2015. The use of withdrawal varied by the unmarried man's age and cohabiting status, but not by ethnicity or race. The use of withdrawal decreased significantly with increasing age groups, ranging from 26.2% among men aged 15–19 to 12% among men aged 35–44. The use of withdrawal was significantly higher for never-married men (23.0%) compared with formerly married (16.3%) and cohabiting (13.0%) men.
283:(sperm cells), which would compromise the effectiveness of the method. However, several small studies have failed to find any viable sperm in the fluid. While no large conclusive studies have been done, it is believed by some that the cause of method (correct-use) failure is the pre-ejaculate fluid picking up sperm from a previous ejaculation. For this reason, it is recommended that the male partner urinate between ejaculations, to clear the urethra of sperm, and wash any ejaculate from objects that might come near the woman's vulva (such as hands and penis).
296:
pre-ejaculate. All pre-ejaculate specimens were examined within an hour of production and then dried; all pre-ejaculate specimens were found to be true pre-ejaculate. It is widely believed that urinating after an ejaculation will flush the urethra of remaining sperm. However, some of the subjects in the March 2011 study who produced sperm in their pre-ejaculate did urinate (sometimes more than once) before producing their sample. Therefore, some males can release the pre-ejaculate fluid containing sperm without a previous ejaculation.
357:(NSFG) in 2014, 8.1% of reproductive-aged women reported using withdrawal as a primary contraceptive method. This was a significant increase from 2012 when 4.8% of women reported the use of withdrawal as their most effective method. However, when withdrawal is used in addition to or in rotation with another contraceptive method, the percentage of women using withdrawal jumps from 5% for sole use and 11% for any withdrawal use in 2002, and for adolescents from 7.1% of sole withdrawal use to 14.6% of any withdrawal use in 2006–2008.
1907:
341:, since pre-ejaculate may carry viral particles or bacteria which may infect the partner if this fluid comes in contact with mucous membranes. However, a reduction in the volume of bodily fluids exchanged during intercourse may reduce the likelihood of disease transmission compared to using no method due to the smaller number of pathogens present.
292:
across a wide range of observed values, total sperm count (as with other identified semen and sperm characteristics) has weak power to predict which couples are at risk of pregnancy. Regardless, this study introduced the concept that some men may consistently have sperm in their pre-ejaculate, due to a "leakage," while others may not.
243:
the 2006–2010 cycle of the
National Survey of Family Growth, found significant differences in failure rate based on parity status. Women with 0 previous births had a 12-month failure rate of only 8.4%, which then increased to 20.4% for those with 1 prior birth and again to 27.7% for those with 2 or more.
312:
or so that they can have a full experience and be able to "feel" their partner. Other reasons for the popularity of this method are its anecdotal increase in male sexual deftness, it has no direct monetary cost, requires no artificial devices, has no physical side effects, can be practiced without a
271:
consistently and correctly at every act of intercourse, the failure rate is 4% per year. This rate is derived from an educated guess based on a modest chance of sperm in the pre-ejaculate. In comparison, the pill has a perfect-use failure rate of 0.3%, IUDs a rate of 0.1–0.6%, and internal condoms a
242:
Like many methods of birth control, reliable effect is achieved only by correct and consistent use. Observed failure rates of withdrawal vary depending on the population being studied: American studies have found actual failure rates of 15–28% per year. One US study, based on self-reported data from
360:
When asked if withdrawal was used at least once in the past month by women, use of withdrawal increased from 13% as sole use to 33% ever use in the past month. These increases are even more pronounced for adolescents 15 to 19 years old and young women 20 to 24 years old
Similarly, the NSFG reports
286:
However, recent research suggests that this might not be accurate. A contrary, yet non-generalizable study that found mixed evidence, including individual cases of a high sperm concentration, was published in March 2011. A noted limitation to these previous studies' findings is that pre-ejaculate
329:
is less effective at preventing pregnancy. As a result, it is also less cost-effective than many more effective methods: although the method itself has no direct cost, users have a greater chance of incurring the risks and expenses of either child-birth or abortion. Only models that assume all
246:
An analysis of
Demographic and Health Surveys in 43 developing countries between 1990 and 2013 found a median 12-month failure rate across subregions of 13.4%, with a range of 7.8–17.1%. Individual countries within the subregions were even more varied. A large scale study of women in England and
291:
and disease transmission, the use of condoms from the first moment of genital contact. As a point of reference, a study showed that, of couples who conceived within a year of trying, only 2.5% included a male partner with a total sperm count (per ejaculate) of 23 million sperm or less. However,
295:
Similarly, another robust study performed in 2016 found motile sperm in the pre-ejaculate of 16.7% (7/42) healthy men. What more, this study attempted to exclude contamination of sperm from ejaculate by drying the pre-ejaculate specimens to reveal a fern-like pattern, characteristics of true
214:
preferred small families and are known to have practiced a variety of birth control methods. There are references that have led historians to believe withdrawal was sometimes used as birth control. However, these societies viewed birth control as a woman's responsibility, and the only
230:
in the 5th century AD, contraceptive practices fell out of use in Europe; the use of contraceptive pessaries, for example, is not documented again until the 15th century. If withdrawal was used during the Roman Empire, knowledge of the art may have been lost during its decline.
349:
Based on data from surveys conducted during the late 1990s, 3% of women of childbearing age worldwide rely on withdrawal as their primary method of contraception. Regional popularity of the method varies widely, from a low of 1% in Africa to 16% in
Western Asia.
247:
Scotland during 1968–1974 to determine the efficacy of various contraceptive methods found a failure rate of 6.7 per 100 woman-years of use. This was a “typical use” failure rate, including user failure to use the method correctly. In comparison, the
410:"Table 26-1 Percentage of women experiencing an unintended pregnancy during the first year of typical use and the first year of perfect use of contraception and the percentage continuing use at the end of the first year. United States"
1897:
259:
have an actual use failure rate of 10–18%. However, some authors suggest that actual effectiveness of withdrawal could be similar to the effectiveness of condoms; this area needs further research. (See
1895:
308:
is that it can be used by people who have objections to, or do not have access to, other forms of contraception. Some people prefer it so they can avoid possible adverse effects of
1896:
420:
1354:
1841:
234:
From the 18th century until the development of modern methods, withdrawal was one of the most popular methods of birth-control in Europe, North
America, and elsewhere.
1387:
883:"Evaluation of contraceptive efficacy and cycle control of a transdermal contraceptive patch vs an oral contraceptive: a randomized controlled trial"
1000:
Jones, RK; Fennell, J; Higgins, JA; Blanchard, K (June 2009). "Better than nothing or savvy risk-reduction practice? The importance of withdrawal".
601:
1959:
1177:
2107:
1075:
2268:
513:
2140:
1873:
1147:
409:
1344:
330:
couples practice perfect use of the method find cost savings associated with the choice of withdrawal as a birth control method.
1817:
1548:
Kovavisarach E, Lorthanawanich S, Muangsamran P (February 2016). "Presence of Sperm in Pre-Ejaculatory Fluid of
Healthy Males".
1912:
958:
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917:
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700:
666:
636:
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2305:
2013:
1983:
1952:
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261:
825:"Contraceptive Failure Rates in the Developing World: An Analysis of Demographic and Health Survey Data in 43 Countries"
2381:
2117:
824:
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2391:
2386:
2102:
354:
248:
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2003:
1808:(284). National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): 1–8.
1747:"Which young adults are most likely to use withdrawal? The importance of pregnancy attitudes and sexual pleasure"
1509:"Time to pregnancy and semen parameters: a cross-sectional study among fertile couples from four European cities"
1042:
Hatcher RA, Nelson AL, Trussell J, Cwiak C, Cason P, Policar MS, Aiken AR, Marrazzo J, Kowal D (September 2018).
486:
1319:
2132:
1945:
206:. This text is believed to have been written over 2,500 years ago. Societies in the ancient civilizations of
118:
2122:
1379:
776:"Contraceptive Failure in the United States: Estimates from the 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth"
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334:
183:
227:
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2327:
2292:
2240:
1698:"Contraceptive method use in the United States: trends and characteristics between 2008, 2012 and 2014"
577:
215:
well-documented contraception methods were female-controlled devices (both possibly effective, such as
1169:
194:
Perhaps the oldest description of the use of the withdrawal method to avoid pregnancy is the story of
2205:
2150:
1931:
2058:
364:
For 1998, about 18% of married men in Turkey reported using withdrawal as a contraceptive method.
2220:
448:
Rogow D, Horowitz S (1995). "Withdrawal: a review of the literature and an agenda for research".
309:
535:
Creatsas GK (December 1993). "Sexuality: sexual activity and contraception during adolescence".
2230:
2083:
2047:
1616:
Trussell J, Leveque JA, Koenig JD, London R, Borden S, Henneberry J, et al. (April 1995).
1249:"Male contraception without prescription. A reevaluation of the condom and coitus interruptus"
838:
Vessey, M; Lawless, M; Yeates, D (April 1982). "Efficacy of
Different Contraceptive Methods".
2182:
2145:
2039:
656:
1507:
Slama R, Eustache F, Ducot B, Jensen TK, Jørgensen N, Horte A, et al. (February 2002).
505:
2210:
1927:
925:
288:
24:
1799:"Unmarried Men's Contraceptive Use at Recent Sexual Intercourse: United States, 2011-2015"
8:
2335:
2310:
2112:
2024:
1139:
252:
1842:"Distribution of married men's use of condom, withdrawal, and other contraceptive means"
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863:
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560:
489:(1991). "A Guide to Methods of Birth Control." Briefing Paper No. 25, Washington, D. C.
465:
152:
1998:
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1200:"Does preejaculatory penile secretion originating from Cowper's gland contain sperm?"
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prescription or medical consultation, and provides no barriers to stimulation.
207:
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1508:
1215:
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2250:
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1968:
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148:
1484:
1468:"World Health Organization reference values for human semen characteristics"
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2028:
1813:
1780:
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1602:
1561:
1534:
1493:
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1304:
1233:
1091:"Efficacy information in contraceptive counseling: those little white lies"
1021:
910:
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280:
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This method was used by an estimated 38 million couples worldwide in 1991.
172:
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859:
724:
556:
477:
2273:
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1915:
was created from a revision of this article dated 4 August 2023
1274:
1124:
589:
321:
Compared to the other common reversible methods of contraception such as
279:("Cowper's fluid") emitted by the penis prior to ejaculation may contain
164:
156:
1937:
2033:
791:
469:
1550:
Journal of the
Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet
695:(4th ed.). Cincinnati: The Couple to Couple League. p. 146.
2072:
2043:
1547:
1327:
1320:"An examination of the sperm content of human pre-ejaculatory fluid"
461:
1993:
1618:"The economic value of contraception: a comparison of 15 methods"
823:
Polis, C; Bradley, SEK; Bankole, A; et al. (24 March 2016).
216:
1465:
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256:
220:
160:
740:(Sixteenth Revised ed.). New York: Irvington Publishers.
404:
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999:
774:
Sundaram, A; Vaughan, B; Kost, K; et al. (March 2017).
1615:
1416:
887:
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497:
322:
195:
1417:
Killick SR, Leary C, Trussell J, Guthrie KA (March 2011).
1041:
773:
399:
1574:
880:
338:
1577:"Why withdrawal? Why not withdrawal? Men's perspectives"
1506:
1170:"How effective is withdrawal as a birth control method?"
504:
Casey FE (20 March 2024). Talavera F, Barnes AD (eds.).
494:
881:
Audet MC, Moreau M, Koltun WD, et al. (May 2001).
822:
333:
The method is largely ineffective in the prevention of
957:
Hatcher RA, Trussel J, Stewart F, et al. (2000).
732:
Hatcher RA, Trussel J, Stewart F, et al. (1994).
956:
731:
1575:
Ortayli N, Bulut A, Ozugurlu M, Cokar M (May 2005).
1291:"Researchers find no sperm in pre-ejaculate fluid".
1197:
1088:
255:(IUDs) have an actual use failure rate of 0.1–0.8%.
1671:. Population Reference Bureau. 2002. Archived from
837:
733:
661:. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. pp. 74–75.
2373:
1089:Trussell TJ, Faden R, Hatcher RA (August 1976).
1792:
1790:
1695:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1031:
952:
950:
1326:. Knowledge for Health Project. Archived from
1198:Zukerman Z, Weiss DB, Orvieto R (April 2003).
780:Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
690:
537:Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology
251:has an actual use failure rate of 2–8%, while
1953:
1246:
1204:Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics
995:
993:
991:
447:
325:, hormonal contraceptives, and male condoms,
171:) may be directed away in an effort to avoid
1787:
1666:"Family Planning Worldwide: 2002 Data Sheet"
1286:
1284:
1140:"Can pre-ejaculation fluid cause pregnancy?"
1028:
947:
713:The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics
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441:
1994:Preventing sexually-transmitted infections
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1074:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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1114:
963:(18th ed.). New York: Ardent Media.
900:
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684:
622:
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1923:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
1906:
1419:"Sperm content of pre-ejaculatory fluid"
1380:"Coitus interruptus (Withdrawal method)"
654:
534:
438:
1696:Kavanaugh ML, Jerman J (January 2018).
1401:
626:
353:In the United States, according to the
2374:
1377:
1368:
943:First-Year Contraceptive Failure Rates
681:
650:
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615:
23:" redirects here. For other uses, see
1941:
1339:
1337:
1317:
1311:
1137:
588:
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1999:Over-the-counter oral contraceptives
874:
528:
1984:Comparison of birth control methods
1869:Contraception and abortion in Islam
1763:10.1016/j.contraception.2014.12.005
1714:10.1016/j.contraception.2017.10.003
1014:10.1016/j.contraception.2008.12.008
645:
629:The Humble Little Condom: A History
262:Comparison of birth control methods
13:
2361:Male contraceptives in development
1893:
1797:Daniels K, Abma JC (August 2017).
1334:
693:The Art of Natural Family Planning
16:Withdrawal method of birth-control
14:
2403:
1862:
1745:Higgins JA, Wang Y (April 2015).
1622:American Journal of Public Health
1095:American Journal of Public Health
631:. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
516:from the original on 29 July 2019
1905:
549:10.1097/00001703-199312000-00011
355:National Survey of Family Growth
316:
249:combined oral contraceptive pill
2004:Oral contraceptive formulations
1834:
1823:from the original on 2019-12-03
1738:
1689:
1658:
1568:
1541:
1500:
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1390:from the original on 2006-09-24
1357:from the original on 2008-04-20
1293:Contraceptive Technology Update
1240:
1191:
1180:from the original on 2009-02-21
1161:
1150:from the original on 2009-05-11
1131:
1082:
1046:(21st ed.). New York, NY.
831:
816:
767:
754:from the original on 2020-08-02
604:from the original on 2009-03-02
600:. Creative Loafing Media, Inc.
594:"Who wrote the Bible? (Part 1)"
487:Population Action International
426:from the original on 2022-05-04
335:sexually transmitted infections
275:It has been suggested that the
184:sexually transmitted infections
1247:Free MJ, Alexander NJ (1976).
1144:Women's health: Expert answers
582:
571:
1:
1594:10.1016/S0968-8080(05)25175-3
926:The Alan Guttmacher Institute
852:10.1016/s0140-6736(82)91885-2
719:(885): 111–4. December 1992.
691:Kippley J, Kippley S (1996).
658:Encyclopedia of birth control
393:
344:
299:
1435:10.3109/14647273.2010.520798
711:"Choice of contraceptives".
113:Advantages and disadvantages
7:
2311:Fertility awareness methods
1581:Reproductive Health Matters
1299:(10): 154–6. October 1993.
417:Contraceptivetechnology.org
367:
228:decline of the Roman Empire
219:, and ineffective, such as
10:
2408:
1318:Clark S (September 1981).
1168:Cornforth T (2003-12-02).
450:Studies in Family Planning
237:
189:
63:Failure rates (first year)
18:
2353:
2324:
2306:Calendar (rhythm) methods
2289:
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2012:
1976:
1472:Human Reproduction Update
1174:About.com: Women's Health
182:does not protect against
117:
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62:
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46:
41:
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2382:Methods of birth control
1044:Contraceptive technology
960:Contraceptive Technology
902:10.1001/jama.285.18.2347
736:Contraceptive Technology
2392:Latin words and phrases
2387:Contraception for males
2221:Emergency Contraception
1526:10.1093/humrep/17.2.503
1378:Delvin D (2005-01-17).
1216:10.1023/A:1022933320700
1138:Harms RW (2007-09-20).
310:hormonal contraceptives
167:so that the ejaculate (
2141:Multi-month injections
2084:Hormonal contraception
2048:Levonorgestrel implant
2014:Long-acting reversible
1901:
1881:Listen to this article
2269:Vaginal pH modulation
2246:Low-dose mifepristone
2146:Progestogen-only pill
2040:Contraceptive implant
1900:
1634:10.2105/AJPH.85.4.494
1485:10.1093/humupd/dmp048
1330:on 24 September 2015.
1253:Public Health Reports
1107:10.2105/AJPH.66.8.761
267:For couples that use
2301:Breastfeeding method
2211:Contraceptive sponge
2095:estrogen–progestogen
2044:Etonogestrel implant
1932:More spoken articles
655:Bullough VL (2001).
506:"Coitus interruptus"
289:unintended pregnancy
253:intrauterine devices
159:is withdrawn from a
25:AZL (disambiguation)
2336:Non-penetrative sex
2328:vaginal intercourse
2293:vaginal intercourse
2113:Contraceptive patch
2108:Extended cycle Pill
2025:Intrauterine device
1989:Male contraceptives
1556:(Suppl 2): S38–41.
1345:"Withdrawal Method"
918:"Contraceptive Use"
151:during penetrative
2236:Ulipristal acetate
2224:(Post-intercourse)
2118:Monthly injections
1902:
1513:Human Reproduction
1350:Planned Parenthood
1146:. MayoClinic.com.
792:10.1363/psrh.12017
627:Collier A (2007).
327:coitus interruptus
306:coitus interruptus
269:coitus interruptus
180:Coitus interruptus
153:sexual intercourse
132:Coitus interruptus
36:Coitus interruptus
2369:
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2349:
2348:
2177:
2176:
1898:
1053:978-1-7320556-0-5
970:978-0-9664902-6-8
846:(8276): 841–842.
747:978-0-8290-3171-3
702:978-0-926412-13-2
668:978-1-57607-181-6
638:978-1-59102-556-6
598:The Straight Dope
375:Coitus reservatus
304:The advantage of
128:
127:
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2133:Progestogen-only
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973:. Archived from
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928:. Archived from
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382:Coitus saxonicus
135:, also known as
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2191:External condom
2183:Barrier Methods
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1628:(4): 494–503.
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1353:. March 2004.
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1751:Contraception
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1702:Contraception
1699:
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1678:on 2006-09-26
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1478:(3): 231–45.
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1002:Contraception
996:
994:
992:
977:on 2008-05-31
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932:on 2001-12-18
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543:(6): 774–83.
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337:(STIs), like
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317:Disadvantages
314:
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277:pre-ejaculate
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149:birth control
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105:Clinic review
103:
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89:Reversibility
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49:
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30:
26:
2354:Experimental
2315:
2201:Cervical cap
2169:Ormeloxifene
2151:Vaginal ring
2123:Vaginal ring
2029:Hormonal IUD
1849:. Retrieved
1846:ResearchGate
1845:
1836:
1825:. Retrieved
1805:
1757:(4): 320–7.
1754:
1750:
1740:
1708:(1): 14–21.
1705:
1701:
1691:
1680:. Retrieved
1673:the original
1660:
1625:
1621:
1611:
1584:
1580:
1570:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1475:
1471:
1461:
1429:(1): 48–52.
1426:
1422:
1392:. Retrieved
1383:
1359:. Retrieved
1348:
1328:the original
1323:
1313:
1296:
1292:
1256:
1252:
1242:
1210:(4): 157–9.
1207:
1203:
1193:
1182:. Retrieved
1173:
1163:
1152:. Retrieved
1143:
1133:
1101:(8): 761–7.
1098:
1094:
1084:
1043:
1005:
1001:
979:. Retrieved
975:the original
959:
942:
941:- see table
934:. Retrieved
930:the original
921:
892:
886:
876:
843:
839:
833:
818:
783:
779:
769:
756:. Retrieved
735:
716:
712:
692:
672:. Retrieved
657:
628:
606:. Retrieved
597:
584:
573:
540:
536:
530:
518:. Retrieved
510:Medscape.com
509:
453:
449:
428:. Retrieved
416:
388:Masturbation
380:
373:
363:
359:
352:
348:
332:
326:
320:
305:
303:
294:
285:
274:
272:rate of 2%.
268:
266:
245:
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225:
193:
179:
177:
173:insemination
144:
140:
136:
131:
130:
129:
35:
29:
2274:Nonoxynol-9
2261:Spermicides
786:(1): 7–16.
281:spermatozoa
165:ejaculation
141:pulling out
76:Typical use
68:Perfect use
2376:Categories
2341:Abstinence
2316:Withdrawal
2283:Behavioral
2231:Copper IUD
2034:Copper IUD
1928:Audio help
1919:2023-08-04
1874:Withdrawal
1851:August 13,
1827:2020-07-20
1682:2006-09-14
1394:2006-07-13
1361:2008-03-28
1184:2009-07-15
1154:2009-07-15
1062:1048947218
981:2006-07-13
936:2005-05-10
840:The Lancet
758:2019-09-08
674:2009-07-24
608:2009-07-24
394:References
345:Prevalence
300:Advantages
226:After the
137:withdrawal
121:protection
50:Behavioral
42:Background
2290:Including
2206:Diaphragm
2103:Oral pill
2073:Vasectomy
1070:cite book
217:pessaries
163:prior to
55:First use
2325:Avoiding
2093:Combined
2069:(female)
1930: ·
1818:Archived
1814:29155680
1781:25530102
1732:29038071
1603:16035610
1562:27266214
1535:11821304
1494:19934213
1453:21155689
1388:Archived
1355:Archived
1305:12286905
1234:12762415
1178:Archived
1148:Archived
1022:19442773
911:11343482
868:24203338
810:28245088
752:Archived
602:Archived
565:46433691
514:Archived
430:18 March
421:Archived
368:See also
202:and the
186:(STIs).
1971:methods
1917: (
1888:minutes
1772:4373981
1723:5959010
1652:7702112
1643:1615115
1444:3564677
1324:Popline
1266:1440560
1225:3455634
1116:1653419
860:6122067
801:5363251
725:1448019
590:Adams C
557:8286689
520:24 July
478:7570764
470:2137833
257:Condoms
238:Effects
221:amulets
198:in the
190:History
143:or the
58:Ancient
2075:(male)
2018:(LARC)
1812:
1779:
1769:
1730:
1720:
1650:
1640:
1601:
1560:
1533:
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744:
723:
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665:
635:
563:
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468:
208:Greece
161:vagina
2161:SERMs
1821:(PDF)
1802:(PDF)
1676:(PDF)
1669:(PDF)
864:S2CID
561:S2CID
466:JSTOR
424:(PDF)
413:(PDF)
204:Bible
200:Torah
169:semen
157:penis
84:Usage
1853:2022
1810:PMID
1777:PMID
1728:PMID
1648:PMID
1599:PMID
1558:PMID
1531:PMID
1490:PMID
1449:PMID
1301:PMID
1271:PMID
1230:PMID
1121:PMID
1076:link
1058:OCLC
1048:ISBN
1018:PMID
965:ISBN
907:PMID
888:JAMA
856:PMID
806:PMID
742:ISBN
721:PMID
697:ISBN
663:ISBN
633:ISBN
553:PMID
522:2019
474:PMID
432:2022
323:IUDs
212:Rome
210:and
196:Onan
108:None
47:Type
21:'Azl
1767:PMC
1759:doi
1718:PMC
1710:doi
1638:PMC
1630:doi
1589:doi
1521:doi
1480:doi
1439:PMC
1431:doi
1261:PMC
1220:PMC
1212:doi
1111:PMC
1103:doi
1010:doi
897:doi
893:285
848:doi
844:319
796:PMC
788:doi
545:doi
458:doi
339:HIV
264:.)
223:).
119:STI
92:Yes
79:20%
2378::
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139:,
124:No
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