415:
456:(formerly Burma), stated: "Gandhi's teachings on nonviolent civil resistance and the way in which he had put his theories into practice have become part of the working manual of those who would change authoritarian administrations through peaceful means. I was attracted to the way of non-violence, but not on moral grounds, as some believe. Only on practical political grounds." Subsequently, as State Counsellor of Myanmar from 2016 onwards, she incurred much criticism, especially in connection with the failure to prevent, and to condemn, the killings and expulsions of the
252:
378:
concluded that "nonviolent resistance methods are more likely to be successful than violent methods in achieving strategic objectives". Their article (later developed into a book) noted particularly that "resistance campaigns that compel loyalty shifts among security forces and civilian bureaucrats are likely to succeed". These findings have been highly influential within environmental and social movements, although their pertinence to campaigns not involving regime change has been questioned by researchers such as Kyle R. Matthews.
406:, in which she finds that the success rates of civil resistance have been dropping since the beginning of the 2010s. Some of the reasons identified include the authoritarian learning curve and over-reliance of activists on digital forms of organizing such as social media campaigns. What's more, the COVID-19 pandemic which began in 2020 led large numbers of movements worldwide to cancel public actions and instead shift focus on internal priorities, such as strategic planning.
484:
opposition in terms designed to suggest that civil resistance is simply a front for more sinister forces. It has sometimes been attacked as being planned and directed from abroad, and as intimately connected to terrorism, imperialism, communism etc. A classic case was the Soviet accusation that the 1968 Prague Spring, and the civil resistance after the Soviet-led invasion of August 1968, were the result of
Western machinations. Similarly, President
567:
364:
case studies and other resources about civil resistance campaigns and movements as well as the dynamics of civil resistance. ICNC's blog, Minds of the
Movement, also serves as a thorough compendium of civil resistance campaigns and movements throughout history and today. Swarthmore's Global Nonviolent Action Database is an additional key resource documenting hundreds of civil resistance campaigns and movements.
680:. While each of these terms has its uses and connotations, "civil resistance" is one appropriate term to use in cases where the resistance has a civic quality, relating to a society as a whole; where the action involved is not necessarily disobedience, but instead involves supporting the norms of a society against usurpers; where the decision not to use violent methods is not based on a general philosophy of
30:. Civil resistance operates through appeals to the adversary, pressure and coercion: it can involve systematic attempts to undermine or expose the adversary's sources of power (or pillars of support, such as police, military, clergy, business elite, etc.). Forms of action have included demonstrations, vigils and petitions; strikes, go-slows, boycotts and emigration movements; and sit-ins, occupations,
507:
because of, an occupying or colonial state's internal political turmoil or setbacks in war: for example, this was a key factor in the
Finnish struggle of 1898â1905 against Russian control. In other countries the problems faced by their own armed forces, whether against conventional armies or guerrillas, played some part in the development of civil resistance: for example, in the
648:
539:. In Egypt in JuneâJuly 2013, a civil resistance movement in effect called for a military coup: peaceful demonstrators and a petition supported by millions of signatures demanded the replacement of the elected Muslim Brotherhood government, and provided a degree of revolutionary legitimacy for the army take-over of 3 July 2013. At least one nonviolent campaign, the
480:, a specialist on the Gandhian philosophy of conflict, indicated concern about "the symbolic violence of those who engage in conflict with techniques which they, at least, perceive to be nonviolent." She saw Gandhian satyagraha as a form of "creative conflict" and as "contrasted both to violence and to methods not violent or just short of violence".
1515:, SHS, Helsinki, 1990, p. 225, where Jonas Castrén, a key figure in the constitutional insurgency, is cited as emphasizing the central importance of understanding current events in Russia and their importance for the Finnish struggle. "He exclaimed that now was the time for Finns to rise up in mass struggle."
684:, but on a wide range of prudential, ethical and legal considerations; and where the technical and communications infrastructure of modern civil societies provides a means of organizing resistance. Because of such considerations, the term has been used in this century in many analyses in academic journals.
719:, one participant-observer has seen "new forms of civil resistance" as being associated with a problematic departure from a previously more widely shared commitment to maintaining nonviolent discipline. Because of these concerns, those who have used the term "civil resistance" have tended to emphasise its
501:
is that the dynamics of military and civil resistance are at some levels diametrically opposed to each other." However, the connections between civil resistance and other forms of power are not limited to the idea of a "mixed strategy". They can assume many forms. Eight ways in which civil resistance
377:
produced a widely noted article on "Why Civil
Resistance Works", the most thorough and detailed analysis (to that date) of the rate of success of civil resistance campaigns, as compared to violent resistance campaigns. After looking at over 300 cases of both types of campaign, from 1900 to 2006, they
37:
Some civil resistance movements' motivations for avoiding violence are generally related to context, including a society's values and its experience of war and violence, rather than to any absolute ethical principle. Civil resistance cases can be found throughout history and in many modern struggles,
563:
from 2012 onwards. The possibility of such developments can be an inducement to a government to bargain with a nonviolent movement before things get out of hand. However, in several countries in the Middle East and North Africa in 2011 and after, campaigns by civil resistance movements were followed
514:
Civil resistance campaigns frequently lead to a situation of partial stalemate, in which negotiation between civil resisters and those in positions of governmental power is perceived as essential. Hence, "round table talks" were critically important in the Indian independence struggle up to 1947, in
496:
There can be some more plausible connections between civil resistance and other forms of power. Although civil resistance can sometimes be a substitute for other forms of power, it can also operate in conjunction with them. Such conjunction is never problem-free. Michael Randle has identified a core
546:
Some nonviolent campaigns can be seen as reluctant or unwitting harbingers of violence. They may be followed by the emergence of groups using armed force and/or by military intervention from outside the territory concerned. This can happen if, for example, they (a) are perceived as failures, or (b)
436:
gave a notably multi-faceted account of the various considerations, experiences and influences that constituted his "intellectual odyssey to nonviolence". By 1954 this had led to the intellectual conviction that "nonviolent resistance was one of the most potent weapons available to oppressed people
506:
Civil resistance is often a response to changes in constellations of power. Leaders of civil resistance campaigns have often been acutely aware of power-political developments, both domestic and international. In some countries there has been a growth of civil opposition after, and perhaps in part
483:
It is generally difficult in practice to separate out entirely the use of civil resistance and power-political considerations of various kinds. One frequently-encountered aspect of this problem is that regimes facing opposition taking the form of civil resistance often launch verbal attacks on the
363:
produced a list of 84 cases. He followed this with further surveys. In 2013 Maciej
Bartkowski authored a long list of cases in the past 200 years, arranged alphabetically by country. The International Center on Nonviolent Conflict's (ICNC) website houses an enormous Resource Library with dozens of
526:
can be especially multi-faceted. In some cases a civil resistance campaign has been an effective response to a military coup. In other cases a campaign could succeed in its final objectiveâe.g. the removal of a hated regimeâonly when there was the reality or the threat of a military coup to bring
472:
The experience of civil resistance suggests that it can at least partially replace other forms of power. Some have seen civil resistance as offering, potentially, a complete alternative to power politics. The core vision is of nonviolent methods replacing armed force in many or all of its forms.
381:
On the other hand, the evidence of several of the 2011 uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa appears to provide contrasting pathways by which this logic may fail to materialise, with splits in the armed forces contributing towards civil war in Libya and Syria, and a shift in armed forces
42:
led the first documented civil resistance campaign (using three primary tactics: civil disobedience, marches, and creation of parallel institutions) to free India from
British imperialism. The phenomenon of civil resistance is often associated with the advancement of human rights and democracy.
390:
Forming judgements about whether a campaign is a success or failure is inherently difficult: the answer may depend on the time-frame used, and on necessarily subjective judgments about what constitutes success. Some of the authors' decisions on this are debatable. Similar difficulties arise in
428:
Some leaders of civil resistance struggles have urged the use of nonviolent methods for primarily ethical reasons, while others have emphasized practical considerations. Some have indicated that both of these types of factor have to be taken into account â and that they necessarily overlap.
691:"? All these terms have merits, and refer to largely the same phenomena. Indeed, there is a long history, in many languages, of using a wide variety of terms to describe these phenomena. The term "civil resistance" has been used increasingly for two main reasons:
621:
When leaders of even the most determinedly nonviolent movements have come to power in their countries, they have generally accepted the continued existence of armed forces and other more or less conventional security arrangements. For example, in 1991
2061:
In August 2012 this book won the
Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award, given annually by the American Political Science Association for the best book on government, politics, or international affairs published in the US during the previous calendar
51:
Civil resistance is a long-standing and widespread phenomenon in human history. Several works on civil resistance adopt a historical approach to the analysis of the subject. Cases of civil resistance, both successful and unsuccessful, include:
297:, which included the peaceful occupation of squares all over Spain in MayâJune 2011, and a mosaic of other forms of civil disobedience by many of the groups that were created, or strengthened, after the squares occupations. In particular the
598:
in Cairo did use certain forms of force for a defensive purpose when they were attacked by pro-regime thugs, some of whom were riding on horses and camels. In the subsequent days the crowds in Tahrir Square reverted to using nonviolent
421:, Burmese pro-democracy leader, greeting supporters from Bago State, Burma, 14 August 2011. She has stated that she was attracted to nonviolent civil resistance, not on moral grounds, but "on practical political grounds".
440:
Some have opted for civil resistance when they were in opposition to the government, but then have later, when in government, adopted or accepted very different policies and methods of action. For example, in one of her
663:
used it in many of his writings. In 1935 he wrote: "... I found that even civil disobedience failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase civil resistance." It is a near-synonym for
613:
Some campaigns of civil resistance may depend up the existence of militarily defended space. A life-saving example of an effective civil resistance enabling threatened people to reach a defended space occurred with the
589:
There have also been some cases of certain uses of force by civil resistance movements, whether against their adversaries, or to maintain internal discipline. For example, on 2 February 2011, in the generally peaceful
397:
Perhaps, more generally, sufficient account is not taken of the possibility that violence often takes place in circumstances that were already violent and chaotic, stacking the odds against any successful outcome for
372:
It is not easy to devise a method of proving the relative success of different methods of struggle. Often there are problems in identifying a given campaign as successful or otherwise. In 2008 Maria J. Stephan and
1302:
714:
There have been concerns that the term "civil resistance" might on occasion be misused, or at least stretched in a highly controversial way, to encompass acts of violence. Thus, arising from experience within the
654:
in South Africa in about 1906â1909. Referring to his years there, he later wrote: "... I found that even civil disobedience failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase civil
492:
of Russia, in speeches in 2014, described events in
Ukraine and the Arab countries as foreign-influenced. Such accusations of sinister power-political involvement are often presented without convincing evidence.
1668:
Cases of armed interventions in areas where there had been an absence of governance in at least parts of a country are outlined by George Joffé and Helen
Lackner in Roberts, Willis, McCarthy and Garton Ash,
2767:
2299:
978:
476:
Several writers, while sharing the vision of civil resistance as progressively overcoming the use of force, have warned against a narrowly instrumental view of nonviolent action. For example,
2135:
871:
214:
in 2004, all of which involved successful resistance against an incumbent government that had refused to acknowledge its defeat in an election and had sought to falsify the election results
547:
are repressed with extreme violence, or (c) succeed in removing a regime but then leave a power vacuum in its place. Processes of the first two of these kinds happened, for example, in
1483:, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005, especially at pp. 153â62. A more general discussion of this question is in Adam Roberts, "Introduction", in Roberts and Garton Ash,
1653:
Cases of perceived failure of civil resistance being followed by armed campaigns and military intervention are outlined by
Richard English and Howard Clark in Roberts and Garton Ash,
695:
It emphasises the positive (civic goals; widespread civil society involvement; and civil as distinct from uncivil conduct) rather than the negative (avoidance of the use of violence).
3494:
581:, he praised the NATO military alliance; and on 12 March 1999 the Czech Republic (with Havel still as president) joined the alliance. He is seen here on 26 September 2000.
602:
Some civil resistance movements have sought, or welcomed, a measure of armed protection for their activities. Thus in the American civil rights movement of the 1960s, the
497:
difficulty regarding strategies that seek to combine the use of violent and nonviolent methods in the same campaign: "The obvious problem about employing a mixed strategy
1300:
2899:
1186:
2764:
1513:
Constitutional Insurgency in Finland: Finnish "Passive Resistance" against Russification as a Case of Nonmilitary Struggle in the European Resistance Tradition
271:
in December 2010, and resulting, in 2011, in the fall of rulers in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen. In some countries the movements were followed by war (e.g.
2294:
973:
394:
Regimes transitioning from autocracy to democracy tend to be highly unstable, so an initial success for a movement may be followed by a more general failure.
2385:
2667:
1927:"Civil Resistance and the 'Diversity of Tactics' in the Anti-Globalization Movement: Problems of Violence, Silence, and Solidarity in Activist Politics"
1984:
2270:
2076:
860:
543:
in Portugal in 1974â75, was in support of a military coup that had already occurred: this campaign helped to steer Portugal in a democratic direction.
312:
in 2013, in opposition to urban development plans, and also to government encroachments on freedom of expression and on Turkey's secularist traditions
3718:
355:(XR), established in May 2018. An international nonviolent movement with three climate and ecological emergency demands and 10 Principles and Values.
3474:
2130:
866:
966:
This is abstracted from the longer definition of "civil resistance" in Adam Roberts, Introduction, in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.),
2937:
1622:
1539:
These three cases of round table talks are outlined by Judith Brown, Alexander Smolar and Andrew Wilson respectively in Roberts and Garton Ash,
1239:
2692:
1826:
1682:
2230:
1530:, pp. 179â96, where he discusses at pp. 186â89 the competitive relationship between the violent and non-violent anti-dictatorship movements.
2329:
3641:
2814:
2113:
244:
2242:
3342:
1477:
A pioneering exploration of certain examples of connections between non-violent resistance and other forms of power is in Kurt Schock,
1001:
610:
of March 1965 only succeeded in reaching Montgomery, Alabama, at the third attempt, when it was protected by troops and federal agents.
1968:
2755:
618:
in 1943 when thousands of Jews were spirited out of German-occupied Denmark and across a narrow stretch of sea (the Sound) to Sweden.
3946:
3530:
1926:
2554:
1478:
298:
3646:
1263:
T. R. Davies, "The failure of strategic nonviolent action in Bahrain, Egypt, Libya and Syria: 'political ju-jitsu' in reverse",
3951:
3025:
2962:
339:
84:
1445:
These accusations by Presidents Assad and Putin are cited and discussed in Adam Roberts, Michael J. Willis, Rory McCarthy and
822:
3738:
3570:
3550:
3525:
3427:
3372:
2677:
2660:
2635:
2611:
2594:
2564:
2461:
2410:
2393:
2319:
2311:
2284:
2266:
2226:
2218:
2147:
2123:
2056:
2036:
2024:
2000:
488:
of Syria, in March 2011, accused "enemies" of using "very sophisticated tools" to undermine Syria's stability; and President
2068:
702:", that a movement's avoidance of violence in pursuit of a particular cause is not necessarily tied to a general belief in "
687:
What exactly are the advantages of the term "civil resistance", as distinct from its near-synonyms "nonviolent action" and "
3590:
3580:
2236:
1654:
1639:
1540:
1525:
1484:
1431:
1017:
967:
382:
loyalty in Egypt failing to contribute towards enduring democratic reform. Criticisms of the central thesis of the book on
327:. Various tactics of unarmed civil resistance were also frequently employed in the Russian-occupied settlements during the
203:
564:
by violent internal conflict and civil war, often with the involvement of external forces: Syria is the most tragic case.
3626:
2957:
1990:
916:
276:
1844:
1786:
1222:
3595:
3422:
1884:
391:
deciding whether a campaign is violent or nonviolent, when on the ground both strategies may co-exist in several ways.
2869:
2854:
2777:
2704:
2642:
2631:
2622:
2579:
2547:
2506:
2476:
2425:
2378:
2360:
2208:
2194:
2167:
2103:
2086:
1345:
1106:
1101:
166:
2538:, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, USA, 1968; and, with a new Introduction on "Czechoslovakia and Civilian Defence", as
3915:
3616:
3600:
2874:
2028:
328:
290:
2745:
258:
marchers in Cairo with 'OUT' signs on the 'Day of Anger' against President Mubarak. On 11 February he left office.
3823:
3753:
3504:
3387:
3382:
2988:
2807:
767:
606:
of May 1961, having been opposed violently, received armed protection for part of its hazardous journey; and the
187:
127:
2433:"The failure of strategic nonviolent action in Bahrain, Egypt, Libya and Syria: âpolitical ju-jitsuâ in reverse"
2256:
1210:
Maria J. Stephan and Erica Chenoweth, "Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict",
3661:
2952:
2521:
2491:
2182:
1109:), Porter Sargent, Boston, 1973, pp. 75â97; and his short accounts of numerous cases in Gene Sharp and others,
898:
723:
character, and to use it in addition to â and not in substitution of â such terms as "nonviolent resistance".
3833:
3432:
3417:
1022:, Oxford University Press, 2009. Include chapters by specialists on nineteen movements between 1917 and 2007.
2046:
854:
3743:
3708:
3698:
3656:
3469:
942:
359:
Numerous other campaigns, both successful and unsuccessful, could be included in a longer listing. In 1967
152:
60:
1702:, London, 3 February 2011, provides an eye-witness account of the events of 2 February. Also available at
634:
of 1989, in his new capacity as President of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic paid tribute to the
531:
in South Vietnam a long civil resistance campaign against the government resulted in change only when the
3936:
3723:
3636:
3489:
3362:
2014:
1619:
1059:
716:
323:
in 2013â14, demanding closer integration with European Union countries, and the resignation of President
284:
3788:
3442:
3437:
2800:
1389:
532:
414:
638:
alliance. On 12 March 1999 the Czech Republic, along with Poland and Hungary, became a member of NATO.
3803:
1638:
Kenneth Maxwell, 'Portugal: "The Revolution of the Carnations", 1974â75', in Roberts and Garton Ash,
1319:
615:
607:
2687:
2210:
Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present
1334:
1019:
Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present
969:
Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present
3818:
3768:
3407:
3397:
3166:
2927:
1824:
817:
626:
who had been a leading figure in civil resistance in communist Czechoslovakia from the founding of
591:
578:
516:
91:
3264:
3869:
3808:
3748:
3651:
3575:
3535:
3402:
3392:
3171:
3088:
3020:
2932:
787:
762:
673:
508:
335:
138:
2444:
1272:
1219:
502:
can in practice relate to other forms of power are identified here, with examples in each case:
3773:
3585:
3156:
3003:
2527:
2248:
2200:
2173:
1555:
1417:
Joan V. Bondurant, "Creative Conflict and the Limits of Symbolic Violence" in Bondurant (ed.),
1369:
889:
747:
433:
66:
1703:
1450:
3874:
3828:
3813:
3778:
3565:
3509:
3098:
2864:
1714:
1388:, second BBC Reith Lecture, "Dissent", first broadcast 5 July 2011, transcript available at
999:
777:
699:
688:
665:
346:
74:
23:
2115:
Philosophy of Nonviolence: Revolution, Constitutionalism, and Justice beyond the Middle East
1033:
3941:
3783:
3284:
3279:
3239:
3108:
3093:
2095:
Civil Resistance and Conflict Transformation: Transitions from Armed to Nonviolent Struggle
792:
710:", but rather arises from the particular values and circumstances of the society concerned.
540:
352:
105:
31:
3053:
555:
in the 1990s. Processes of the third kind, involving some forms of power vacuum, included
8:
3728:
3703:
3499:
3484:
3083:
2823:
1615:
827:
812:
802:
797:
757:
176:
3214:
1524:
Amado Mendoza, "'People Power'" in the Philippines, 1983â86' in Roberts and Garton Ash,
1136:
3671:
3560:
3555:
3545:
3540:
2734:
CivilResistance.info, founded by the late Howard Clark, and run by a team of volunteers
2669:
Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent Struggle, Democratization, and Governance in the Middle East
2252:
2204:
1941:
1907:
1872:
1801:
1772:
1583:
1575:
1446:
1240:"Social Movements and the (mis)use of Research: Extinction Rebellion and the 3.5% rule"
972:, Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 2â3. See also the short definition in Gene Sharp,
742:
669:
660:
651:
305:
251:
233:
183:
116:
56:
3030:
3849:
3479:
3367:
3324:
3319:
3269:
3063:
3058:
2839:
2781:
2759:
2749:
2700:
2683:
2673:
2656:
2638:
2627:
2607:
2590:
2575:
2560:
2543:
2517:
2502:
2487:
2472:
2457:
2440:
2421:
2406:
2389:
2374:
2356:
2315:
2307:
2280:
2262:
2222:
2214:
2190:
2163:
2143:
2119:
2099:
2082:
2052:
2032:
2020:
1996:
1911:
1864:
1587:
1268:
1215:
752:
631:
574:
324:
211:
120:
2601:
2371:
Strategic Nonviolent Conflict: The Dynamics of People Power in the Twentieth Century
1876:
1034:"From the Berlin Wall to Today â Lessons for Harnessing the Moment of the Whirlwind"
523:
3798:
3666:
3299:
3204:
3073:
3008:
2889:
2296:
Sharp's Dictionary of Power and Struggle: Language of Civil Resistance in Conflicts
2093:
1899:
1856:
1567:
1385:
1275:
975:
Sharp's Dictionary of Power and Struggle: Language of Civil Resistance in Conflicts
548:
449:
418:
272:
218:
190:
146:
80:
the Sudanese Revolution against military regime (leader Ibrahim Abood )-1958- 1964.
2432:
2016:
A Guide to Civil Resistance: A Bibliography of People Power and Nonviolent Protest
1821:
Mobile Phones as a Tool for Civil Resistance: Case Studies from Serbia and Belarus
3864:
3854:
3713:
3621:
2942:
2917:
2894:
2771:
2696:
2303:
2186:
2139:
2042:
1830:
1790:
1626:
1455:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016, pp. 277â80, 314â17 (chapter by Roberts).
1306:
1279:
1005:
982:
902:
875:
846:
528:
485:
457:
374:
207:
3209:
1969:
Civil resistance against climate change : What, when, who and how effective
1756:
623:
570:
3889:
3793:
3309:
3289:
3068:
2849:
2366:
2344:
2153:
2010:
1571:
1318:
David Cortright, review on E-International Relations website, 17 January 2013.
1099:
See for example his discussion of "Illustrations from the Past" in Gene Sharp,
940:
879:
807:
489:
477:
445:
39:
1983:
Winnifred Louis. - International Center on Nonviolent Conflict, 2021. - ISBN:
1903:
16:
Political action that relies on the use of non-violent methods by civil groups
3930:
3894:
3884:
3879:
3763:
3631:
3314:
3294:
3274:
3254:
3229:
3186:
3128:
3118:
2947:
2728:
2325:
2157:
2109:
1868:
1860:
1809:
1784:
883:
850:
642:
603:
595:
536:
461:
101:
the Sudanese Revolution against military regime (Jaffer Numairy )-1969- 1984.
2653:
Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice and 21st Century Potential
2484:
A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance
2276:
1161:
1111:
Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice and 21st Century Potential
941:
International Center on Nonviolent Conflict; Beer, Michael (16 April 2021).
229:
on 14 February 2005, and calling for Syrian military withdrawal from Lebanon
3758:
3377:
3304:
3259:
2993:
2884:
2859:
2587:
La Liberté au Bout des Ondes: Du Coup de Prague à la Chute du Mur de Berlin
2398:
2006:
782:
338:, also known as "Occupy Central" and the "Umbrella movement", opposing the
226:
247:
following evidence of electoral manipulation in the elections of June 2009
3357:
3244:
3219:
3161:
3123:
3113:
2983:
2765:
Oxford University Research Project on Civil Resistance and Power Politics
2723:
2348:
2243:
Oxford University Research Project on Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1698:
Mustafa Khalili, 'The two sets of protesters were left to fight it out,â
772:
732:
703:
681:
264:
142:
134:
controlled government, even after delegalization and numerous crackdowns.
95:
70:
2331:
Civil Resistance Against Coups: A Comparative and Historical Perspective
1845:"Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict"
3859:
3733:
3347:
3133:
3078:
3048:
2978:
2648:
2617:
2290:
1992:
Recovering Nonviolent History: Civil Resistance in Liberation Struggles
1401:
1124:
Recovering Nonviolent History: Civil Resistance in Liberation Struggles
1083:
720:
677:
627:
360:
316:
38:
against both tyrannical rulers and democratically elected governments.
2792:
2532:
The Strategy of Civilian Defence: Non-violent Resistance to Aggression
2189:(PDF available), Albert Einstein Institution, Cambridge, Mass., 1991.
2048:
Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict
1579:
1088:
The Strategy of Civilian Defence: Non-violent Resistance to Aggression
856:
Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict
3899:
3693:
3412:
3352:
3234:
2844:
2738:
2451:
1436:, pp. 21â23 (chapter by Roberts), 93 (Kramer) and 386n. (Garton Ash).
994:
See e.g. the report by Peter Ackerman, Adrian Karatnycky and others,
573:, impresario of civil resistance in the years leading up to the 1989
26:
by ordinary people to challenge a particular power, force, policy or
2177:
893:
3249:
3224:
3181:
3015:
2998:
2922:
2469:
Freedom Without Violence: Resisting the Western Political Tradition
707:
566:
109:
2733:
943:"Civil Resistance Tactics in the 21st Century: Report and Webinar"
402:
In July 2020, Erica Chenoweth's new research was published in the
3176:
737:
453:
320:
268:
237:
222:
2786:
2572:
Unarmed Against Hitler: Civilian Resistance in Europe, 1939â1943
2132:
Nonviolent Revolution: Civil Resistance in the Late 20th Century
1745:
Unarmed Against Hitler: Civilian Resistance in Europe, 1939â1943
1086:, "The Technique of Non-violent Action", in Adam Roberts (ed.),
868:
Nonviolent Revolution: Civil Resistance in the Late 20th Century
3103:
2556:
Unarmed Insurrections: People Power Movements in Nondemocracies
1480:
Unarmed Insurrections: People Power Movements in Nondemocracies
1122:"Appendix: Conflict Summaries", in Maciej J. Bartkowski (ed.),
917:"The Trifecta of Civil Resistance: Unity, Planning, Discipline"
552:
409:
309:
196:
158:
the mass mobilization against authoritarian rule in Pinochet's
131:
27:
1329:
Adam Roberts, "Terrorism Research: Past, Present and Future",
996:
How Freedom is Won. From Civil Resistance to Durable Democracy
647:
225:
in 2005, following the assassination of former prime minister
2756:
The trifecta of civil resistance: unity, planning, discipline
2542:, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, UK, and Baltimore, US, 1969.
560:
556:
349:
onwards to resist President Donald Trump's sexist statements.
280:
232:
the demonstrations, mainly led by students and monks, in the
170:
159:
155:, especially before 1961, and during the period of 1983â1994.
2179:
Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions
1545:, pp. 47, 55 (India), 136â43 (Poland), and 350â53 (Ukraine).
895:
Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions
34:, and the creation of parallel institutions of government.
2717:
2514:
Violence, Nonviolence and the Palestinian National Movement
2258:
Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring: Triumphs and Disasters
1671:
Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring: Triumphs and Disasters
1452:
Civil Resistance in the Arab Spring: Triumphs and Disasters
859:, Columbia University Press, New York, 2011; Howard Clark,
845:
Examples of the use of the term "civil resistance" include
635:
267:
uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa, starting in
2403:
People Power and Political Change: Key Issues and Concepts
1732:
Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954â1965
2900:
Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe
2879:
2689:
A Theory of Nonviolent Action: How Civil Resistance Works
698:
It conveys, more effectively perhaps than such terms as "
442:
186:
that led to the restoration of independence of the three
130:
Trade Union used civil resistance to protest against the
112:
in 1974â75, supporting the military coup of 25 April 1974
22:
is a form of political action that relies on the use of
2718:
Albert Einstein Institution, East Boston, Massachusetts
2499:
Nonviolent Struggle: Theories, Strategies, and Dynamics
2353:
A Force More Powerful: A Century of Nonviolent Conflict
522:
The relation between civil resistance and the military
467:
1126:, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, Colorado, 2013, pp. 355â405.
865:, Pluto Press, London, 2000; Sharon Erickson Nepstad,
2559:, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2005.
1971:? / International Center on Nonviolent Conflict ICNC
1747:, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, 1993, pp. 151â54.
1659:, pp. 75â90 (Northern Ireland) and 277â94 (Kosovo).
905:, Albert Einstein Institution, Massachusetts, 1991.
2420:, Oxford University Press India, New Delhi, 2014.
2019:, vol. 1, Green Print/Merlin Press, London, 2013.
1804:, letter to P. Kodanda Rao, 10 September 1935; in
1057:
985:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2011, p. 87.
299:Platform for People Affected by Mortgages, or PAH
3928:
1842:
706:" in all circumstances, nor to a philosophy of "
643:The term "civil resistance": merits and concerns
2938:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union
2516:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
342:in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
3719:Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria
1885:"The Strategic Dimensions of Civil Resistance"
1558:(1975). "Civil Resistance to Military Coups".
1032:Engler, Mark; Engler, Paul (3 December 2023).
432:In his chapter on "Pilgrimage to Nonviolence"
2808:
2334:, ICNC Monograph Series, Washington DC, 2017.
2069:Civil Resistance: What Everyone Needs to Know
2051:, Columbia University Press, New York, 2011.
1882:
1683:International Institute for Strategic Studies
2746:"Civil resistance and the language of power"
2739:International Center for Nonviolent Conflict
2386:Civil Resistance Tactics in the 21st Century
1843:Stephan, Maria J.; Chenoweth, Erica (2008).
1060:"Perspectives on Ukrainian Civil Resistance"
1031:
1016:Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.),
410:Reasons for choosing to use civil resistance
2789:, an independent non-profit media platform.
2603:Face au Totalitarisme: La RĂ©sistance Civile
2501:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2015.
2471:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2016.
2439:, vol. 26, no. 3 (2014), pp. 299â313.
2306:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2011.
2142:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2011.
2118:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2015.
1374:Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story
1333:, vol. 38, no. 1, January 2015, pp. 62â74.
1113:, Porter Sargent, Boston, 2005, pp. 69â356.
878:, Oxford University Press, New York, 2011;
592:Egyptian struggle against President Mubarak
245:2009 Iranian presidential election protests
195:the campaign against Serbian domination in
2815:
2801:
2534:, Faber, London, 1967. (Also published as
1995:, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, Colorado, 2013.
1823:, DigiActive Research Series, June 2009.
1783:, electronic edition, vol. 25, pp. 76â78.
1759:, address to NATO Council, 21 March 1991,
1605:. London: Andre Deutsch. pp. 188â212.
1376:, Ballantine Books, New York, 1960, p. 81.
1187:"Home | Global Nonviolent Action Database"
517:Solidarity's campaign in Poland up to 1989
175:the various movements contributing to the
2540:Civilian Resistance as a National Defence
2536:Civilian Resistance as a National Defense
2261:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016.
2213:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009.
527:about the desired change. Thus, the 1963
279:) or by a return to military rule, as in
2574:, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, 1993.
2373:, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, 1994.
1673:, pp. 134â40 (Libya) and 160â68 (Yemen).
1430:See for example Roberts and Garton Ash,
1237:
914:
646:
565:
413:
250:
3343:Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation
2822:
2778:People power and the new global ferment
2275:. Arabic language edition published by
2251:, Michael J. Willis, Rory McCarthy and
1734:, Viking Press, New York, 1987, p. 279.
1629:, 19 February 2014, paragraphs 8â9, 18.
1600:
1554:
1214:, vol. 33, no. 1 (Summer 2008), p. 42.
535:of 1â2 November 1963 toppled President
3929:
3026:Socialism with Chinese characteristics
2963:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
2672:, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2009.
2456:, New Internationalist, Oxford, 2011.
1924:
1883:Ackerman, Peter; Rodal, Berel (2008).
1808:, electronic edition, vol. 67, p. 400.
1721:, Grove Press, New York, 1962, p. 107.
1603:The Lost Revolution: Vietnam 1945â1965
1267:, vol. 26, no. 3 (2014), pp. 299â313.
1238:Matthews, Kyle R. (29 November 2021).
960:
577:. In April 1991, as President of post-
85:Northern Ireland civil rights movement
73:'s, and other activists' roles in the
46:
3373:Initiative for Peace and Human Rights
2796:
2418:Nonviolence: Challenges and Prospects
1346:"The Future of Nonviolent Resistance"
1090:, Faber, London, 1967, at pp. 98â104.
199:, 1990â1998, that was followed by war
1421:, Aldine, Chicago, 1971, pp. 121â22.
1228:, listed below in the bibliography.)
468:Relationship to other forms of power
437:in their quest for social justice."
345:Women's marches in USA from January
2606:, André Versaille, Brussels, 2011.
1940:(2 & 3): 505â17. Archived from
1656:Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1641:Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1542:Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1527:Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1486:Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1433:Civil Resistance and Power Politics
1408:, Porter Sargent, Boston, 1980, xi.
1331:Studies in Conflict & Terrorism
499:in the course of an actual struggle
145:in the 1980s that ousted President
13:
2453:Counterpower: Making Change Happen
1419:Conflict: Violence and Nonviolence
1406:Social Power and Political Freedom
1058:Commons Librarian (7 March 2022).
594:, some groups among the crowds in
452:, the pro-democracy campaigner in
340:2014â15 Hong Kong electoral reform
14:
3963:
2870:Eastern Bloc media and propaganda
2855:Criticism of communist party rule
2711:
2623:The Politics of Nonviolent Action
2437:Global Change, Peace and Security
1806:Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi
1781:Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi
1265:Global Change, Peace and Security
1244:The Commons Social Change Library
1102:The Politics of Nonviolent Action
1064:The Commons Social Change Library
1038:The Commons Social Change Library
947:The Commons Social Change Library
921:The Commons Social Change Library
167:Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
3916:Human rights in the Soviet Union
2875:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc
2655:, Porter Sargent, Boston, 2005.
2626:, Porter Sargent, Boston, 1973.
2486:, Nation Books, New York, 2007.
2339:Other works related to the topic
1291:Juan Masullo Jimenez, review of
998:, Freedom House, New York, 2005
823:2016 Turkish coup d'Ă©tat attempt
448:, first broadcast in July 2011,
367:
329:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
123:advent to power in February 1979
3947:Nonviolent resistance movements
3824:Dissolution of the Soviet Union
3754:Fall of the inner German border
1962:
1918:
1835:
1813:
1795:
1766:
1750:
1737:
1724:
1708:
1692:
1676:
1662:
1647:
1632:
1609:
1594:
1548:
1533:
1518:
1505:
1492:
1471:
1458:
1439:
1424:
1411:
1395:
1379:
1363:
1338:
1323:
1312:
1285:
1257:
1231:
1204:
1179:
1154:
1129:
1116:
1093:
768:Dissolution of the Soviet Union
3814:Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact
2953:Terrorism and the Soviet Union
2589:, Nouveau Monde, Paris, 2009.
1763:, Brussels, April 1991, p. 31.
1077:
1051:
1025:
1010:
988:
934:
915:Merriman, Hardy (3 May 2023).
908:
839:
511:in the Philippines in 1983â86.
1:
3952:Political science terminology
3834:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
3433:Inter-regional Deputies Group
3418:National League for Democracy
2098:, Routledge, Abingdon, 2015.
2081:, Pluto Press, London, 2000.
1989:Bartkowski, Maciej J. (ed.),
1224:. (See also their 2011 book,
833:
179:in central and eastern Europe
3744:Alexanderplatz demonstration
3709:Polish Round Table Agreement
3383:People's Movement of Ukraine
2355:, Palgrave, New York, 2000.
1280:10.1080/14781158.2014.924916
541:Revolution of the Carnations
106:Revolution of the Carnations
61:Indian independence movement
7:
3789:January Events in Lithuania
3724:Hungarian Round Table Talks
3363:Democratic Party of Albania
2699:, Zed Books, London, 2015.
2405:, Routledge, London, 2012.
1689:, London, 2013, pp. 179â84.
1299:website, 29 November 2013.
726:
717:anti-globalization movement
285:Egyptian Revolution of 2011
10:
3968:
3443:Hungarian Democratic Forum
3438:Alliance of Free Democrats
3428:Union of Democratic Forces
2727:, documentary directed by
2416:Chakrabarty, Bidyut, ed.,
2369:and Christopher Kruegler,
2129:Nepstad, Sharon Erickson,
2078:Civil Resistance in Kosovo
2072:. Oxford University Press.
1572:10.1177/002234337501200102
1489:, especially at pp. 13â20.
1293:Why Civil Resistance Works
1226:Why Civil Resistance Works
862:Civil Resistance in Kosovo
533:South Vietnamese army coup
384:Why Civil Resistance Works
3908:
3842:
3804:1991 protests in Belgrade
3684:
3609:
3518:
3460:
3451:
3333:
3195:
3142:
3039:
2971:
2908:
2830:
2724:How to Start a Revolution
2666:Stephan, Maria J. (ed.),
2162:, Fontana, London, 1994.
1904:10.1080/00396330802173131
1775:, "The Momentous Issue",
1560:Journal of Peace Research
1191:nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu
888:, Fontana, London, 1994;
616:Rescue of the Danish Jews
608:Selma to Montgomery March
519:, and in Ukraine in 2004.
153:apartheid in South Africa
3794:January Events in Latvia
3784:Reunification of Germany
3769:1990s post-Soviet aliyah
3699:1987â1989 Tibetan unrest
3423:National Salvation Front
3408:Belarusian Popular Front
3398:Popular Front of Estonia
3167:Polish underground press
2928:List of socialist states
2695:21 November 2015 at the
2431:Davies, Thomas Richard,
2241:. Reviews available at
2185:13 December 2012 at the
2066:Chenoweth, Erica. 2021.
1934:Osgoode Hall Law Journal
1861:10.1162/isec.2008.33.1.7
1829:27 February 2012 at the
1601:Shaplen, Robert (1966).
901:13 December 2012 at the
818:2011 Egyptian Revolution
579:Communist Czechoslovakia
315:the early phases of the
3870:Economic liberalization
3809:1991 Belarusian strikes
3749:Fall of the Berlin Wall
3403:Public Against Violence
3393:Popular Front of Latvia
3172:Political demonstration
3021:Chinese economic reform
2933:People Power Revolution
2302:11 October 2017 at the
2138:20 October 2012 at the
1779:, 10 November 1921; in
1305:23 October 2017 at the
981:11 October 2017 at the
874:20 October 2012 at the
788:People Power Revolution
559:from 2011 onwards, and
509:People Power Revolution
336:2014 Hong Kong protests
256:Egypt, 25 January 2011:
139:People Power Revolution
3004:New political thinking
2780:, 15 November 2010 at
2758:, 19 November 2010 at
2748:, 19 November 2010 at
2045:and Maria J. Stephan,
2031:, Merlin Press, 2015.
1925:Conway, Janet (2003).
1849:International Security
1511:Steven Duncan Huxley,
1370:Martin Luther King Jr.
1212:International Security
748:Civilian-based defense
656:
585:
434:Martin Luther King Jr.
425:
283:in 2013 following the
259:
151:the campaigns against
90:a variety of raids on
67:Martin Luther King Jr.
3875:Post-Soviet conflicts
3829:Tajikistani Civil War
3779:Revolution on Granite
3739:Monday Demonstrations
3265:SanjaasĂŒrengiin Zorig
3099:Mengistu Haile Mariam
2865:Eastern Bloc politics
2770:31 March 2017 at the
2741:(ICNC), Washington DC
2277:All Prints Publishers
2092:Doudouet, VĂ©ronique,
1789:12 March 2012 at the
1687:Strategic Survey 2013
1500:Unarmed Insurrections
778:Nonviolent resistance
700:nonviolent resistance
689:nonviolent resistance
666:nonviolent resistance
659:The term is not new.
650:
569:
417:
254:
119:in 1977â1979, before
75:Civil Rights Movement
24:nonviolent resistance
3285:Vytautas Landsbergis
3280:Viacheslav Chornovil
3109:Denis Sassou Nguesso
2467:Howes, Dustin Ells,
2229:(paperback, 2011).
1625:31 July 2016 at the
1350:Journal of Democracy
793:Resistance movements
404:Journal of Democracy
353:Extinction Rebellion
32:constructive program
3729:Pan-European Picnic
3704:1988 Polish strikes
3084:Wojciech Jaruzelski
2824:Revolutions of 1989
2776:Stellan Vinthagen,
2636:a 3-volume edition.
2009:, Howard Clark and
1947:on 27 December 2012
1620:Egypt Update no. 27
1616:M. Cherif Bassiouni
1004:27 May 2006 at the
828:Everyday Resistance
813:Tunisian revolution
803:Right of revolution
798:Revolutions of 1989
758:Creative disruption
423:Photo: Htoo Tay Zar
202:the revolutions in
177:revolutions of 1989
47:Historical examples
3937:Civil disobedience
3089:Slobodan MiloĆĄeviÄ
2958:Vatican Opposition
2787:Waging Nonviolence
2684:Vinthagen, Stellan
2600:Semelin, Jacques,
2585:Semelin, Jacques,
2570:Semelin, Jacques,
2253:Timothy Garton Ash
2205:Timothy Garton Ash
1985:978-1-943271-63-4.
1802:Mohandas K. Gandhi
1773:Mohandas K. Gandhi
1447:Timothy Garton Ash
1137:"Resource Library"
743:Civil disobedience
670:civil disobedience
657:
586:
551:in 1967â72 and in
426:
347:2017 Women's March
306:Gezi Park protests
260:
234:Saffron Revolution
184:Singing Revolution
117:Iranian Revolution
92:U. S. draft boards
3924:
3923:
3850:Colour revolution
3680:
3679:
3647:Congo-Brazzaville
3368:Democratic Russia
3325:Pope John Paul II
3320:George H. W. Bush
3270:Vladimir Bukovsky
3059:Mikhail Gorbachev
3054:Nicolae CeauÈescu
2840:Era of Stagnation
2782:openDemocracy.net
2760:openDemocracy.net
2750:openDemocracy.net
2678:978-0-230-62141-1
2661:978-0-87558-161-3
2612:978-2-87495-127-5
2595:978-2-84736-466-8
2565:978-0-8166-4193-2
2512:Pearlman, Wendy,
2497:Nepstad, Sharon,
2462:978-1-78026-032-7
2411:978-0-415-58049-6
2394:978-1-943271-40-5
2320:978-0-19-982988-0
2312:978-0-19-982989-7
2285:978-9953-88-970-2
2267:978-0-19-874902-8
2227:978-0-19-969145-6
2219:978-0-19-955201-6
2148:978-0-19-977821-8
2124:978-0-19-939420-3
2057:978-0-231-15682-0
2037:978-1-85425-113-8
2025:978-1-85425-108-4
2001:978-1-58826-895-2
1743:Jacques Semelin,
753:Colour revolution
632:Velvet Revolution
575:Velvet Revolution
478:Joan V. Bondurant
325:Viktor Yanukovych
3959:
3799:Transnistria War
3458:
3457:
3300:Aung San Suu Kyi
3215:Alexander DubÄek
3152:Civil resistance
3009:Sinatra Doctrine
2989:Demokratizatsiya
2890:Shortage economy
2817:
2810:
2803:
2794:
2793:
2754:Hardy Merriman,
2279:, Beirut, 2017.
2159:Civil Resistance
2043:Chenoweth, Erica
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1946:
1931:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1889:
1880:
1841:For example, by
1839:
1833:
1817:
1811:
1799:
1793:
1770:
1764:
1754:
1748:
1741:
1735:
1728:
1722:
1712:
1706:
1696:
1690:
1680:
1674:
1666:
1660:
1651:
1645:
1636:
1630:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1552:
1546:
1537:
1531:
1522:
1516:
1509:
1503:
1496:
1490:
1475:
1469:
1466:Civil Resistance
1462:
1456:
1443:
1437:
1428:
1422:
1415:
1409:
1399:
1393:
1386:Aung San Suu Kyi
1383:
1377:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1342:
1336:
1327:
1321:
1316:
1310:
1289:
1283:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1235:
1229:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1133:
1127:
1120:
1114:
1097:
1091:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1029:
1023:
1014:
1008:
992:
986:
964:
958:
957:
955:
953:
938:
932:
931:
929:
927:
912:
906:
885:Civil Resistance
851:Maria J. Stephan
843:
549:Northern Ireland
450:Aung San Suu Kyi
419:Aung San Suu Kyi
386:have included:
273:Syrian Civil War
219:Cedar Revolution
191:Baltic countries
20:Civil resistance
3967:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3904:
3865:Democratization
3855:Decommunization
3838:
3774:Helsinki Summit
3714:April 9 tragedy
3686:
3676:
3605:
3514:
3462:
3453:
3447:
3335:
3329:
3197:
3191:
3144:
3138:
3094:Mathieu Kérékou
3041:
3035:
2967:
2943:Reagan Doctrine
2918:Active measures
2910:
2904:
2895:Totalitarianism
2832:
2826:
2821:
2772:Wayback Machine
2714:
2697:Wayback Machine
2482:King, Mary E.,
2388:". ICNC Press.
2384:Michael Beer, "
2367:Ackerman, Peter
2345:Ackerman, Peter
2304:Wayback Machine
2187:Wayback Machine
2154:Randle, Michael
2140:Wayback Machine
2075:Clark, Howard,
1965:
1960:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1929:
1923:
1919:
1887:
1840:
1836:
1831:Wayback Machine
1818:
1814:
1800:
1796:
1791:Wayback Machine
1771:
1767:
1755:
1751:
1742:
1738:
1730:Juan Williams,
1729:
1725:
1713:
1709:
1697:
1693:
1681:
1677:
1667:
1663:
1652:
1648:
1637:
1633:
1627:Wayback Machine
1614:
1610:
1599:
1595:
1553:
1549:
1538:
1534:
1523:
1519:
1510:
1506:
1497:
1493:
1476:
1472:
1463:
1459:
1444:
1440:
1429:
1425:
1416:
1412:
1400:
1396:
1384:
1380:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1313:
1307:Wayback Machine
1290:
1286:
1262:
1258:
1248:
1246:
1236:
1232:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1170:
1168:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1145:
1143:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1121:
1117:
1098:
1094:
1082:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1056:
1052:
1042:
1040:
1030:
1026:
1015:
1011:
1006:Wayback Machine
993:
989:
983:Wayback Machine
965:
961:
951:
949:
939:
935:
925:
923:
913:
909:
903:Wayback Machine
876:Wayback Machine
847:Erica Chenoweth
844:
840:
836:
729:
645:
529:Buddhist crisis
486:Bashar al-Assad
470:
458:Rohingya people
412:
375:Erica Chenoweth
370:
188:Soviet-occupied
94:to protest the
83:Aspects of the
59:'s role in the
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3965:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3890:Post-communism
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3844:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3690:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3520:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3480:Czechoslovakia
3477:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3463:Eastern Europe
3455:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3339:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3310:Isaias Afwerki
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3290:Zianon Pazniak
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3148:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3069:Erich Honecker
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2981:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2914:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2850:Anti-communism
2847:
2842:
2836:
2834:
2828:
2827:
2820:
2819:
2812:
2805:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2784:
2774:
2762:
2752:
2742:
2736:
2731:
2720:
2713:
2712:External links
2710:
2709:
2708:
2681:
2664:
2646:
2615:
2598:
2583:
2568:
2553:Schock, Kurt,
2551:
2525:
2510:
2495:
2480:
2465:
2448:
2429:
2414:
2396:
2382:
2364:
2336:
2335:
2326:Zunes, Stephen
2323:
2288:
2246:
2198:
2171:
2151:
2127:
2110:Mallat, Chibli
2107:
2090:
2073:
2064:
2040:
2011:Michael Randle
2004:
1987:
1979:Robyn Gulliver
1975:Kelly Fielding
1964:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1917:
1834:
1819:Fabien Miard,
1812:
1794:
1765:
1749:
1736:
1723:
1707:
1691:
1675:
1661:
1646:
1631:
1608:
1593:
1547:
1532:
1517:
1504:
1491:
1470:
1457:
1438:
1423:
1410:
1394:
1378:
1362:
1337:
1322:
1311:
1284:
1256:
1230:
1203:
1178:
1153:
1128:
1115:
1092:
1076:
1050:
1024:
1009:
987:
959:
933:
907:
880:Michael Randle
837:
835:
832:
831:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
808:Social defence
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
728:
725:
712:
711:
696:
644:
641:
640:
639:
619:
611:
600:
587:
544:
520:
512:
490:Vladimir Putin
469:
466:
446:Reith Lectures
411:
408:
400:
399:
395:
392:
369:
366:
357:
356:
350:
343:
332:
313:
302:
287:
249:
248:
241:
230:
215:
200:
193:
182:the 1988â1990
180:
173:
163:
156:
149:
135:
124:
113:
102:
99:
96:war in Vietnam
88:
81:
78:
64:
57:Mahatma Gandhi
48:
45:
40:Mahatma Gandhi
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3964:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3895:Yugoslav Wars
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3885:Neo-Stalinism
3883:
3881:
3880:Neo-Sovietism
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3764:Black January
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3683:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3608:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3459:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3315:Ronald Reagan
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3295:Zhelyu Zhelev
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3275:Boris Yeltsin
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3255:Joachim Gauck
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3187:Strike action
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3141:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3129:Todor Zhivkov
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:Deng Xiaoping
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2948:Soviet Empire
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2909:International
2907:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2829:
2825:
2818:
2813:
2811:
2806:
2804:
2799:
2798:
2795:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2744:Jack DuVall,
2743:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2729:Ruaridh Arrow
2726:
2725:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2706:
2705:9781780325156
2702:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2643:0-87558-070-X
2640:
2637:
2633:
2632:0-87558-068-8
2629:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2580:0-275-93961-8
2577:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2549:
2548:0-14-021080-6
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2528:Roberts, Adam
2526:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2507:9780199976041
2504:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2477:9780199336999
2474:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2454:
2449:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2426:9780198090380
2423:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2399:Carter, April
2397:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2379:0-275-93916-2
2376:
2372:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2361:0-312-24050-3
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2249:Roberts, Adam
2247:
2244:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2201:Roberts, Adam
2199:
2196:
2195:1-880813-04-1
2192:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2174:Roberts, Adam
2172:
2169:
2168:0-586-09291-9
2165:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2104:9781138120143
2101:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2088:
2087:0-7453-1574-7
2084:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2007:Carter, April
2005:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1898:(3): 111â25.
1897:
1893:
1886:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1838:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1816:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1746:
1740:
1733:
1727:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1695:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1672:
1665:
1658:
1657:
1650:
1644:, pp. 144â61.
1643:
1642:
1635:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1556:Roberts, Adam
1551:
1544:
1543:
1536:
1529:
1528:
1521:
1514:
1508:
1502:, pp. 154â56.
1501:
1495:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1461:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1442:
1435:
1434:
1427:
1420:
1414:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1351:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1315:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1297:Global Policy
1294:
1288:
1281:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1245:
1241:
1234:
1227:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1207:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1119:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1096:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1065:
1061:
1054:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1021:
1020:
1013:
1007:
1003:
1000:
997:
991:
984:
980:
977:
976:
971:
970:
963:
948:
944:
937:
922:
918:
911:
904:
900:
897:
896:
891:
887:
886:
881:
877:
873:
870:
869:
864:
863:
858:
857:
852:
848:
842:
838:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
763:Demonstration
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
730:
724:
722:
718:
709:
705:
701:
697:
694:
693:
692:
690:
685:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
662:
653:
649:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
617:
612:
609:
605:
601:
597:
596:Tahrir Square
593:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
562:
558:
554:
550:
545:
542:
538:
537:Ngo Dinh Diem
534:
530:
525:
521:
518:
513:
510:
505:
504:
503:
500:
494:
491:
487:
481:
479:
474:
465:
463:
462:Rakhine State
459:
455:
451:
447:
444:
438:
435:
430:
424:
420:
416:
407:
405:
396:
393:
389:
388:
387:
385:
379:
376:
368:Effectiveness
365:
362:
354:
351:
348:
344:
341:
337:
333:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
311:
307:
303:
300:
296:
294:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
261:
257:
253:
246:
242:
239:
235:
231:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
210:in 2003, and
209:
205:
201:
198:
194:
192:
189:
185:
181:
178:
174:
172:
168:
164:
161:
157:
154:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
133:
129:
125:
122:
118:
114:
111:
107:
103:
100:
97:
93:
89:
86:
82:
79:
76:
72:
68:
65:
62:
58:
55:
54:
53:
44:
41:
35:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3843:Later events
3759:Malta Summit
3591:Turkmenistan
3519:Soviet Union
3505:Soviet Union
3485:East Germany
3305:Meles Zenawi
3260:Sali Berisha
3210:VĂĄclav Havel
3157:Human chains
3151:
3064:KĂĄroly GrĂłsz
2994:Khozraschyot
2885:Nomenklatura
2860:Eastern Bloc
2722:
2707:(paperback).
2688:
2680:(paperback).
2668:
2652:
2651:and others,
2621:
2602:
2586:
2571:
2555:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2513:
2498:
2483:
2468:
2452:
2436:
2417:
2402:
2381:(paperback).
2370:
2363:(paperback).
2352:
2338:
2337:
2330:
2322:(paperback).
2314:(hardback);
2295:
2271:
2257:
2237:
2231:
2221:(hardback);
2209:
2178:
2158:
2131:
2114:
2106:(paperback).
2094:
2077:
2067:
2060:
2059:(hardback).
2047:
2015:
1991:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1963:Bibliography
1949:. Retrieved
1942:the original
1937:
1933:
1920:
1895:
1891:
1852:
1848:
1837:
1820:
1815:
1805:
1797:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1760:
1757:VĂĄclav Havel
1752:
1744:
1739:
1731:
1726:
1719:Freedom Ride
1718:
1710:
1700:The Guardian
1699:
1694:
1686:
1678:
1670:
1664:
1655:
1649:
1640:
1634:
1611:
1602:
1596:
1566:(1): 19â36.
1563:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1535:
1526:
1520:
1512:
1507:
1499:
1494:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1465:
1460:
1451:
1441:
1432:
1426:
1418:
1413:
1405:
1397:
1381:
1373:
1365:
1353:. Retrieved
1349:
1340:
1330:
1325:
1314:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1264:
1259:
1249:19 September
1247:. Retrieved
1243:
1233:
1225:
1211:
1206:
1194:. Retrieved
1190:
1181:
1169:. Retrieved
1165:
1156:
1144:. Retrieved
1140:
1131:
1123:
1118:
1110:
1100:
1095:
1087:
1079:
1069:19 September
1067:. Retrieved
1063:
1053:
1043:19 September
1041:. Retrieved
1037:
1027:
1018:
1012:
995:
990:
974:
968:
962:
952:19 September
950:. Retrieved
946:
936:
926:19 September
924:. Retrieved
920:
910:
894:
890:Adam Roberts
884:
867:
861:
855:
841:
783:People power
713:
686:
674:people power
658:
655:resistance."
624:VĂĄclav Havel
604:Freedom Ride
582:
571:VĂĄclav Havel
498:
495:
482:
475:
471:
439:
431:
427:
422:
403:
401:
383:
380:
371:
358:
319:protests in
292:
277:War in Yemen
255:
227:Rafic Hariri
87:in 1967â1972
77:in 1955â1968
63:in 1917â1947
50:
36:
19:
18:
3942:Nonviolence
3819:August Coup
3672:South Yemen
3617:Afghanistan
3461:Central and
3454:by location
3358:Civic Forum
3245:Feng Congde
3220:Ion Iliescu
3205:Lech WaĆÄsa
3162:Magnitizdat
3124:Zhao Ziyang
3114:Heng Samrin
3074:MiloĆĄ JakeĆĄ
2984:Perestroika
2649:Sharp, Gene
2618:Sharp, Gene
2349:Jack DuVall
2291:Sharp, Gene
2126:(hardback).
2089:(hardback).
2027:. See also
1951:19 February
1855:(1): 7â44.
1777:Young India
1761:NATO Review
1390:BBC website
773:Nonviolence
733:Arab Spring
704:nonviolence
682:nonviolence
524:coup d'Ă©tat
265:Arab Spring
162:, 1983â1988
143:Philippines
126:the Polish
98:, 1967-1971
71:James Bevel
3931:Categories
3860:Lustration
3734:Baltic Way
3685:Individual
3662:Mozambique
3601:Uzbekistan
3586:Tajikistan
3571:Kyrgyzstan
3566:Kazakhstan
3531:Azerbaijan
3510:Yugoslavia
3388:Solidarity
3348:Charter 77
3334:Opposition
3230:Wu'erkaixi
3196:Opposition
3143:Opposition
3134:Siad Barre
3079:Egon Krenz
3049:Ramiz Alia
3040:Government
2979:Uskoreniye
2911:background
2833:background
2634:. Also in
2522:110700702X
2492:1560258020
2450:Gee, Tim,
2272:US edition
2232:US edition
1715:James Peck
1402:Gene Sharp
1084:Gene Sharp
834:References
721:nonviolent
678:satyagraha
628:Charter 77
583:Photo: IMF
361:Gene Sharp
317:Euromaidan
293:Indignados
128:Solidarity
121:Khomeini's
3900:Pink tide
3694:Jeltoqsan
3610:Elsewhere
3561:Lithuania
3413:Rastokhez
3353:New Forum
3336:movements
3235:Chai Ling
2845:Communism
2445:1478-1158
2238:On Google
1912:154588689
1869:0162-2889
1588:109901658
1468:, p. 168.
1273:1478-1158
1220:0162-2889
398:violence.
206:in 2000,
3657:Mongolia
3652:Ethiopia
3637:Cambodia
3541:Chechnya
3475:Bulgaria
3250:Tank Man
3240:Wang Dan
3225:Liu Gang
3182:Samizdat
3177:Protests
3016:Glasnost
2999:500 Days
2923:Cold War
2831:Internal
2768:Archived
2693:Archived
2300:Archived
2255:(eds.),
2207:(eds.),
2183:Archived
2136:Archived
2013:(eds.),
1892:Survival
1877:57561347
1827:Archived
1787:Archived
1623:Archived
1498:Schock,
1464:Randle,
1449:(eds.),
1303:Archived
1002:Archived
979:Archived
899:Archived
872:Archived
727:See also
708:Gandhism
599:methods.
295:movement
291:15-M or
110:Portugal
3909:Related
3667:Somalia
3596:Ukraine
3576:Moldova
3551:Georgia
3546:Estonia
3536:Belarus
3526:Armenia
3500:Romania
3490:Hungary
3470:Albania
3378:SÄ
jƫdis
3198:leaders
3145:methods
3042:leaders
3031:Äá»i Má»i
2972:Reforms
2530:, ed.,
1355:13 July
1107:article
738:Boycott
630:to the
454:Myanmar
321:Ukraine
269:Tunisia
240:in 2007
223:Lebanon
212:Ukraine
208:Georgia
141:in the
3687:events
3622:Angola
3581:Russia
3556:Latvia
3495:Poland
3452:Events
3104:Ne Win
2703:
2676:
2659:
2641:
2630:
2610:
2593:
2578:
2563:
2546:
2520:
2505:
2490:
2475:
2460:
2443:
2424:
2409:
2392:
2377:
2359:
2318:
2310:
2283:
2265:
2225:
2217:
2193:
2166:
2146:
2122:
2102:
2085:
2055:
2035:
2029:vol. 2
2023:
1999:
1910:
1875:
1867:
1586:
1580:422898
1578:
1271:
1218:
1196:6 July
1171:6 July
1162:"Blog"
1146:6 July
661:Gandhi
652:Gandhi
553:Kosovo
310:Turkey
204:Serbia
197:Kosovo
147:Marcos
132:Soviet
28:regime
3642:China
3632:Burma
3627:Benin
2062:year.
1945:(PDF)
1930:(PDF)
1908:S2CID
1888:(PDF)
1873:S2CID
1584:S2CID
1576:JSTOR
1105:(see
561:Yemen
557:Libya
281:Egypt
238:Burma
171:China
160:Chile
2701:ISBN
2674:ISBN
2657:ISBN
2639:ISBN
2628:ISBN
2608:ISBN
2591:ISBN
2576:ISBN
2561:ISBN
2544:ISBN
2518:ISBN
2503:ISBN
2488:ISBN
2473:ISBN
2458:ISBN
2441:ISSN
2422:ISBN
2407:ISBN
2390:ISBN
2375:ISBN
2357:ISBN
2347:and
2316:ISBN
2308:ISBN
2281:ISBN
2263:ISBN
2223:ISBN
2215:ISBN
2203:and
2191:ISBN
2164:ISBN
2144:ISBN
2120:ISBN
2100:ISBN
2083:ISBN
2053:ISBN
2033:ISBN
2021:ISBN
1997:ISBN
1953:2011
1881:And
1865:ISSN
1357:2022
1269:ISSN
1251:2024
1216:ISSN
1198:2022
1173:2022
1166:ICNC
1148:2022
1141:ICNC
1071:2024
1045:2024
954:2024
928:2024
849:and
676:and
636:NATO
334:the
304:the
289:the
275:and
263:the
243:the
217:the
165:the
137:the
115:the
104:the
69:'s,
2880:KGB
1900:doi
1857:doi
1568:doi
1295:on
1276:doi
460:in
443:BBC
308:in
236:in
221:in
169:in
108:in
3933::
2686:,
2620:,
2550:.)
2435:,
2401:,
2351:,
2328:,
2293:,
2269:.
2235:.
2176:,
2156:,
2112:,
1938:41
1936:.
1932:.
1906:.
1896:50
1894:.
1890:.
1871:.
1863:.
1853:33
1851:.
1847:.
1717:,
1685:,
1618:,
1582:.
1574:.
1564:12
1562:.
1404:,
1372:,
1348:.
1242:.
1189:.
1164:.
1139:.
1062:.
1036:.
945:.
919:.
892:,
882:,
853:,
672:,
668:,
464:.
2816:e
2809:t
2802:v
2663:.
2645:.
2614:.
2597:.
2582:.
2567:.
2524:.
2509:.
2494:.
2479:.
2464:.
2447:.
2428:.
2413:.
2287:.
2245:.
2197:.
2170:.
2150:.
2039:.
2003:.
1981:,
1977:,
1973:,
1955:.
1914:.
1902::
1879:.
1859::
1705:.
1590:.
1570::
1392:.
1359:.
1309:.
1282:.
1278::
1253:.
1200:.
1175:.
1150:.
1073:.
1047:.
956:.
930:.
331:.
301:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.