411:
368:
20:
396:
384:
48:
456:. The crucial difference is that in this interpretation the animals do not represent the devil, but actual wildlife encountered by Jesus, specifically in his forty days in the "wilderness" or desert in between his Baptism and Temptation. Schapiro assembled a good deal of textual material showing tropes of wild beasts submitting to Christ and other Christian figures, especially in the context of the early monasticism of the desert, where the attitude of the challenging local fauna was a live issue. The legend of
507:
519:
433:
274:, with two matched beasts that have been described as "otter-like". Christ has no cross, and stands with his hands held together in front of him. The image here, which is much the most discussed by scholars, partly because it is badly worn and hard to read, has been denied to be of the subject at all – see below. Here the image represents the divine nature of Christ, matching the slightly smaller image on the other main side of the shaft representing his human nature with
481:
deserto salvatorem mundi" – "Jesus Christ: the judge of righteousness: the beasts and dragons recognised in the desert the saviour of the world". The new interpretation would only apply to the two Anglo-Saxon crosses among the examples mentioned here; works such as the
Ravenna mosaic and the Carolingian book-covers are not claimed to show it. Other Anglo-Saxon pieces might represent it, for example, according to
32:
480:
followed by a scene which seems unmistakably to show lions, bears and deer sitting peacefully in pairs as they are blessed by Christ. The inscription round the image on the
Ruthwell Cross, for which no direct source is known, reads: "IHS XPS iudex aequitatis; bestiae et dracones cognoverunt in
493:
Museum from the 2nd quarter of the 7th century with two beast heads at the foot of a cross "must also represent
Creation's adoration of the risen Christ" Schapiro saw the "peaceful" image as the original version, its composition later turned into the "militant" version, probably after the
636:
along the back of a bull-like dragon, while the Virgin's throne sits on a lion; both animals are lying in profile, facing out of the scenes, and one of Mary's feet rests on the hind-quarters of each beast. Following the imagery of chapter 12 of the
467:
This interpretation has met with considerable acceptance, though the matter cannot be regarded as settled. A small number of other examples of the new subject have been advanced, most from before about 1200, though the clearest is in a 14th-century
188:, the cross starts to end in a spear-head, which Christ may be shown driving down into a beast (often into the mouth of the serpent) in an energetic pose, using a compositional type more often (and earlier) found in images of the
173:
14.6: "I am the way, and the truth, and the life", while the other holds the bottom of a cross resting across Christ's shoulder. Here the subject is thought to refer to the contemporary struggle of the Church against the
410:
819:
Schapiro's main thrust. Haney's chapter gives a completely different interpretation of the image. She and Hilmo's chapter 2 discuss the main literature. In particular Hilmo asserts that
118:
as: Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder: the young lion and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet". This was interpreted as a reference to Christ defeating and triumphing over
74:, and shows a standing Christ with his feet on animals, often holding a cross-staff which may have a spear-head at the bottom of its shaft, or a staff or spear with a cross-motif on a
192:
fighting Satan. In all the depictions mentioned above and below, up to the
Errondo relief, Christ is beardless. Later still the beasts more often appear beneath the feet of a seated
564:(8th century) is shown holding a spear and standing on a snake with a head at each end, a composite figure of the beasts. The book which the miniature illustrates is Cassiodorus's
603:. Another possibility, following the commentary of Eusebius, is that the Baptism provoked the devilish beasts to attack Christ, an episode often considered to relate to the
259:
another
Carolingian ivory relief, also probably originally a book-cover, from Genoels-Elderen, now in Belgium, either a much more provincial version of Carolingian style, or
665:
316:
the
Crowland Psalter (Bodleian, MS Douce 296), Anglo-Saxon from the mid-11th century, with spear and two beasts, in what was to be a common pattern for psalters.
367:
444:
An alternative view of the iconography of the
Ruthwell and Bewcastle Crosses sees the panels with Christ as showing a different depiction, even rarer than
645:
had called Mary the "conqueror of dragons", and she was long to be shown crushing a snake underfoot, also a reference to her title as the "New Eve"
583::13:- "Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength: thou brakest the heads of the dragons in the waters" (KJV). This was related by commentators to
383:
448:, which has been called "Christ as Judge recognised by the beasts in the desert". This hitherto unrecognised subject was first proposed by
568:, which explains that Psalm 90:13 refers to Christ, and elsewhere that David, who is portrayed in the only two surviving miniatures, is a
1239:
548:
as treading on two snakes with human heads, both saints aiming lances at the heads of the snakes. This is the earliest known form of the
196:, becoming an occasional feature of this subject. Alternatively the beasts are replaced by a solitary snake trodden on by Christ.
872:
122:. Sometimes two beasts are shown, usually the lion and snake or dragon, and sometimes four, which are normally the lion, dragon,
114:, literally "The asp and the basilisk you will trample under foot/you will tread on the lion and the dragon", translated in the
207:
attributes to "the primitive taste of the Anglo-Saxon tribes for imagery of heroic combats with wild beasts and monsters, as in
1305:
1203:
1177:
1144:
1075:
395:
494:
Constantinian conversion, but surviving in a small trickle of examples, especially those produced in contexts of monastic
979:
Webster, figure 12, discussed pp. 31–32; see also figure 197, p. 226, a late 11th-century sculpture of Risen Christ with
78:. Some art historians argue that the subject exists in an even rarer pacific form as "Christ recognised by the beasts".
1096:
1256:
1221:
1195:
1169:
1120:
1067:
184:
The first depictions show Christ standing frontally, apparently at rest, standing on defeated beasts. From the late
19:
181:, which denied the divine nature of Christ; the image asserts the orthodox doctrine. A lion and snake are shown.
166:
24:
922:
827:, seeing "adoratae" (adored) for the rare "adortae" (attacked), in reference to the beasts – Hilmo, 40 and 45.
801:(1972), of which view Lasko was aware from other sources – see his note 32 on p. 260. See also Schapiro, 128.
735:
Hilmo, 37, Syndicus, 98; van der Meer, 121, who says "The strange mosaic ... has remained unique of its kind".
130:(which was depicted with varying characteristics) of the Vulgate. All represented the devil, as explained by
1320:
1292:
1214:
Medieval images, icons, and illustrated
English literary texts: from Ruthwell Cross to the Ellesmere Chaucer
797:
and northern France, according to Lasko, 13; Northumbrian according to Hilmo, 42, following John
Beckwith's
162:
1280:, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 6, (1943), pp. 1–19, The Warburg Institute,
726:Ó Carragaáin, screen 2, who has other details of liturgical uses of relevant texts. See also Chazelle, 77
549:
1297:
338:, showing three figures of Christ (now bearded), each standing on a beast, in a combined scene of the
698:
70:, though it is never common. It is a variant of the "Christ in Triumph" subject of the resurrected
1325:
531:
685:
Psalm 91 in the Hebrew/Protestant numbering, 90 in the Greek/Catholic liturgical sequence – see
588:
260:
239:
1207:
1181:
161:
of Christ, dressed as a general or emperor in military uniform, clean-shaven and with a cross-
1225:
1079:
620:
219:
The motif appears in several other works from the
Carolingian period onwards, which include:
911:
295:
shows Christ using the shaft of his cross, not yet a spear, as a weapon against the serpent.
642:
604:
1164:, Editors Peter Clemoes, Simon Keynes, Michael Lapidge, Cambridge University Press, 2008,
8:
1232:
Christian Inculturation in Eighth-Century Northumbria: The Bewcastle and Ruthwell Crosses
569:
553:
552:
motif which by the 10th or 11th century was strongly associated with the military saints
335:
331:
138:
in their commentaries on Psalm 91. The verse was part of the daily monastic service of
638:
561:
511:
115:
1188:
Christ in Celtic Christianity: Britain and Ireland from the fifth to the tenth century
952:, December 1944, is reprinted in his work cited, as is his later article on the cross.
1301:
1252:
1217:
1199:
1191:
1173:
1165:
1140:
1132:
1116:
1092:
1071:
1063:
625:
538:
482:
461:
299:
193:
189:
306:, Christ's cross appears to end in a spear-point, which is plunged into the serpent.
1293:
Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century
1108:
948:
784:
surely copied from an Early Christian model." See also Schiller, I,29 and fig. 427
661:
633:
608:
596:
357:
253:
961:
Herren and Ó Carragaáin accept it; Hilmo sticks to the traditional interpretation.
572:
of Christ. In later Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, such as the Tiberius C. VI Psalter (
526:
By the 8th century, the motif of "treading" on devilish beasts was transferred to
47:
573:
416:
292:
285:
282:
267:
246:
200:
185:
31:
1287:
1244:
615:
542:
506:
453:
402:
374:
275:
271:
235:
204:
170:
1060:
The crucified God in the Carolingian era: theology and art of Christ's passion
1314:
1023:
Schiller, I, 136 & fig. 380, who actually doubts Psalm 74 is referred to.
320:
143:
123:
95:
36:
793:
Carolingian with Insular influence, as well as similarities with works from
518:
706:
545:
457:
432:
67:
63:
1249:
Selected Papers, volume 3, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art
1084:
980:
686:
600:
535:
242:
231:
151:
147:
131:
87:
1005:
The title of the section of Herren dealing with the crosses, from p. 236
157:
The earliest appearance of the subject in a major work is a 6th-century
1273:
820:
781:
629:
495:
449:
1281:
984:
469:
437:
310:
256:, MS Douce 176, often known as the "Oxford book cover"; four beasts.
824:
580:
346:
175:
139:
127:
99:
91:
52:
419:, West Face, John the Baptist, Christ treading on the beasts, and
592:
584:
208:
111:
40:
327:; beardless Christ has a foot on each of the necks of two beats.
324:
1190:, Volume 20 of Studies in Celtic history, Boydell Press, 2002,
702:
527:
490:
486:
350:
227:
178:
158:
107:
75:
71:
1284:– according to Hilmo, misreads a crucial source for the image.
1238:
Magazine, Vol 4, Autumn 2007, Yale Institute of Sacred Music,
794:
701:
have a "cobra" for the basilisk, which may be closest to the
557:
224:
119:
1115:, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London,
1150:
942:
Saxl's article is in "Further reading", Schapiro's article
780:
Schapiro, 74 says it is "...of about 800 ... a work of the
420:
199:
The more "militant" depictions are especially a feature of
135:
103:
55:
was sometimes depicted as a bird with a long smooth tail.
579:
A variant depiction may also relate to a different text,
473:
252:
the central panel of the Carolingian ivory book cover of
291:
the late Carolingian illustration for Psalm 90 in the
1158:
The Christ and the beasts panel on the Ruthwell Cross
576:), the figure standing on a similar beast is Christ.
460:
and the lion is an enduring example, and later Saint
427:
234:'s "Court School" on the detached back cover of the
16:
Subject found in Late Antique and Early Medieval art
845:
Schapiro, p. 152, illustrates the two side by side.
501:
51:Ivory from Genoels-Elderen, with four beasts; the
288:, a very similar depiction to the Ruthwell Cross.
169:. One arm holds open a book showing the text of
1312:
762:For some further examples, see Schapiro, 153–160
389:The "Oxford book cover" of Bodleian MS Douce 176
607:, which immediately follows the Baptism in the
595:(1049), may be referred to in the scene of the
970:Schapiro, 154–160; the Catalan scene is fig. 8
1186:Herren, Michael W., and Brown, Shirley Ann,
628:of c. 1130, Christ does not appear, but the
522:Vinica icon of saints Christopher and George
345:tympanum relief of c. 1216 at the church in
1261:The Religious Meaning of the Ruthwell Cross
944:The Religious Meaning of the Ruthwell Cross
884:Shapiro, 155 illustrates two other examples
360:of standing blessing Christ and two beasts.
90:derives from Biblical texts, in particular
1091:, Yale University Press, 1995 (2nd edn.)
530:. One of the terracotta icons found near
510:Illustration of David as Victor from the
1151:Mainly on Ruthwell and Bewcastle crosses
517:
505:
431:
309:the ivory head of an early 11th-century
46:
30:
18:
799:Ivory Carving in Early Medieval England
1313:
599:, where Christ stands on some sort of
498:, showing "Christ as the ideal monk".
330:the "Errondo Tympanum" relief, by the
1251:, 1980, Chatto & Windus, London,
660:A clearer image of this depiction by
353:; two beasts beneath a seated Christ.
1113:Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I
1062:, Cambridge University Press, 2001,
697:Other modern versions, such as the
556:and George. A well-known figure of
214:
39:(c.337) showing a depiction of his
13:
1267:
1240:online text, with many photographs
1216:, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004,
1052:
356:Gothic sculpture on the portal of
14:
1337:
1129:, Burns & Oates, London, 1962
428:Christ recognised by the animals?
409:
394:
382:
366:
323:, c. 1075, Church of St Martin,
1035:
1026:
1017:
1008:
999:
990:
973:
964:
955:
936:
927:
916:
905:
896:
887:
878:
866:
857:
848:
839:
830:
813:
804:
787:
774:
765:
756:
502:Variants and related depictions
476:, Ms. Lat. 8846) which shows a
1139:, 2012, British Museum Press,
1041:Schiller, I,108 & fig. 280
902:Schapiro, 156-57 (illustrated)
747:
738:
729:
720:
711:
691:
679:
670:
654:
81:
1:
1047:
983:decoration, in the church at
587:, and on the wooden doors of
446:Christ treading on the beasts
60:Christ treading on the beasts
933:The name used by Herren, 236
893:Lasko, 181–183 and plate 196
167:Archbishop's Chapel, Ravenna
25:Archbishop's Chapel, Ravenna
7:
1162:Anglo-Saxon England, vol 14
302:, of similar date, below a
10:
1342:
1298:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1156:Haney, Kristine Edmonson,
810:Haney, 216, for the otters
923:Image of Amiens sculpture
823:had misread a passage in
699:New International Version
263:; There are four beasts.
1058:Chazelle, Celia Martin.
912:Abstract of Polish paper
648:
566:Commentary on the Psalms
334:(1150–1175), now in the
319:An end of the shrine of
211:and the pagan legends."
1105:, 1967, Faber and Faber
532:Vinica, North Macedonia
142:, and also sung in the
1230:Ó Carragaáin, Éamonn,
632:pick their way to the
589:Sankt Maria im Kapitol
523:
515:
441:
313:in the British Museum.
240:illuminated manuscript
150:, the day of Christ's
62:is a subject found in
56:
44:
28:
621:Adoration of the Magi
521:
509:
472:full-page miniature (
435:
102:calcabis conculcabis
50:
34:
22:
1321:Iconography of Jesus
643:Bernard of Clairvaux
605:Temptation of Christ
478:Temptation of Christ
436:Anglo-Saxon head of
249:, with four beasts).
1127:Early Christian Art
1103:Early Christian Art
1089:Ars Sacra, 800–1200
464:renewed the theme.
373:Ivory cover of the
336:Cloisters, New York
332:Master of Cabestany
43:spearing a serpent.
1278:The Ruthwell Cross
1101:van der Meer, F.,
639:Book of Revelation
562:Durham Cassiodorus
524:
516:
512:Durham Cassiodorus
442:
186:Carolingian period
116:King James Version
57:
45:
29:
1306:978-0-87099-179-0
1296:, no. 471, 1979,
1204:978-0-85115-889-1
1178:978-0-521-03838-6
1145:978-0-7141-2809-2
1125:Eduard Syndicus;
1109:Schiller, Gertrud
1076:978-0-521-80103-4
626:Neuilly-en-Donjon
597:Baptism of Christ
539:Saint Christopher
462:Francis of Assisi
300:Stuttgart Psalter
194:Christ in Majesty
190:Archangel Michael
1333:
1042:
1039:
1033:
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949:The Art Bulletin
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931:
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709:
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689:
687:Psalms#Numbering
683:
677:
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668:
662:Wenceslas Hollar
658:
634:Virgin and Child
618:tympanum of the
609:Synoptic Gospels
413:
398:
386:
370:
358:Amiens Cathedral
278:drying his feet.
254:Bodleian Library
215:Notable examples
94:(90):13: "super
1341:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1330:
1326:Anglo-Saxon art
1311:
1310:
1288:Weitzmann, Kurt
1270:
1268:Further reading
1245:Schapiro, Meyer
1212:Hilmo, Maidie.
1153:
1137:Anglo-Saxon Art
1133:Webster, Leslie
1055:
1053:General subject
1050:
1045:
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1036:
1031:
1027:
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978:
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574:British Library
504:
430:
423:
417:Bewcastle Cross
414:
405:
399:
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387:
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293:Utrecht Psalter
286:Bewcastle Cross
247:Vatican Museums
217:
201:Anglo-Saxon art
110:" in the Latin
84:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1097:978-0300060485
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1049:
1046:
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895:
886:
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873:British Museum
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838:
829:
812:
803:
786:
773:
771:Schiller, I,29
764:
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746:
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728:
719:
710:
690:
678:
676:Schiller, I,29
669:
652:
650:
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550:dragon-slaying
543:military saint
503:
500:
483:Leslie Webster
454:Meyer Schapiro
452:, followed by
440:, 11th century
429:
426:
425:
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415:
408:
406:
403:Ruthwell Cross
400:
393:
391:
388:
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375:Lorsch Gospels
372:
365:
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354:
343:
328:
317:
314:
307:
296:
289:
279:
276:Mary Magdalene
272:Ruthwell Cross
264:
257:
250:
245:of about 810 (
236:Lorsch Gospels
216:
213:
205:Meyer Schapiro
83:
80:
23:Mosaic in the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1338:
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1295:
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1263:(1944), etc.)
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1257:0-7011-2514-4
1254:
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1233:
1229:
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1222:0-7546-3178-8
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1197:
1196:0-85115-889-7
1193:
1189:
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1170:0-521-03838-3
1167:
1163:
1159:
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1121:0-85331-270-2
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1068:0-521-80103-6
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996:Schapiro, 158
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753:Schapiro, 153
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1085:Lasko, Peter
1080:Google books
1059:
1037:
1032:Hilmo, 40–42
1028:
1019:
1014:Hilmo, 37–38
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1001:
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126:(snake) and
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68:Medieval art
64:Late Antique
59:
58:
1274:Saxl, Fritz
981:Urnes style
601:sea-monster
340:Temptations
283:Anglo-Saxon
268:Anglo-Saxon
243:Gospel book
232:Charlemagne
152:Crucifixion
148:Good Friday
132:Cassiodorus
88:iconography
82:Iconography
37:Constantine
1315:Categories
1259:(includes
1236:Colloquium
1048:References
875:Tau cross.
821:Fritz Saxl
782:Ada School
630:Three Magi
616:Romanesque
496:asceticism
450:Fritz Saxl
304:Temptation
100:basiliscum
66:and Early
35:A coin of
985:Jevington
863:Hilmo, 49
854:Hilmo, 49
836:Hilmo, 45
744:Hilmo, 49
717:Hilmo, 37
705:"pethen".
438:tau cross
311:tau cross
165:, in the
987:, Sussex
825:Eusebius
581:Psalm 74
554:Theodore
541:and the
534:shows a
377:, c. 810
347:Strzelno
203:, which
140:compline
128:basilisk
108:draconem
92:Psalm 91
53:basilisk
1290:, ed.,
593:Cologne
585:baptism
560:in the
470:Catalan
209:Beowulf
112:Vulgate
96:aspidem
41:labarum
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703:Hebrew
546:George
528:saints
491:Ludlow
487:brooch
351:Poland
270:stone
228:relief
179:heresy
159:mosaic
104:leonem
76:pennon
72:Christ
1282:JSTOR
1160:, in
795:Trier
649:Notes
624:, at
614:In a
558:David
421:runes
238:, an
230:from
225:ivory
176:Arian
120:Satan
1302:ISBN
1253:ISBN
1218:ISBN
1200:ISBN
1192:ISBN
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1093:ISBN
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666:here
570:type
401:The
325:Visé
298:the
281:the
266:the
171:John
163:halo
146:for
136:Bede
134:and
86:The
664:is
591:in
489:in
474:BnF
223:an
124:asp
106:et
98:et
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