36:
377:. Higher levels of Wnt14 prevented chondrocyte differentiation whereas lower levels appeared to allow it. If the Wnt/ β-Catenin pathway is upregulated, then endochondral ossification is encouraged which promotes ossification of the formed cartilage. This pathway is a canonical Wnt pathway because of the β-Catenin that accumulates once Wnt14 signalling is initiated. After Wnt14 is initiated,
254:. Within finished cartilage, collagen fibers compose 10-20% of the volume, water 65-80%, and the proteoglycan-hyaluronic acid aggregates the remaining portion. Due to the proliferative nature of chondroblasts, cells compose a larger portion of the composition than what is normally found within completed cartilage.
460:
Chondroblasts appear to migrate to cartilage whenever chondrocytes are destroyed via mechanical force. Remaining chondrocytes divide in order to form more chondroblasts. HMGB-1, a growth factor which promotes chondrocyte division while receptors for advanced glycation products (RAGE) mediated
349:
Runx2 is another important genetic component of
Chondroblast formation. It has been found that expressing this gene will result in the suppression of the differentiation of chondroblasts. Expression of this gene will also prompt already formed cartilage to undergo
181:
Within adults and developing adults, most chondroblasts are located in the perichondrium. This is a thin layer of connective tissue which protects cartilage and is where chondroblasts help to expand cartilage size whenever prompted to by
396:
levels before the activation of the Runx2 and Osx transcription factors which seems to suggest that early β-Catenin levels can be a sign of whether an early mesenchymal progenitor cell will progress to a chondrocyte or to an osteoblast.
276:
chains. These chains together are attached to a hyaluronic acid backbone which, in conjunction with the collagen fibrils, create an interstitial intrafibrillar space in which water is held in by the negative charge of the proteoglycans.
420:
found that retinoids maintain cells within condensations in a prechondrogenic, mesenchymal cell state which prevents cell differentiation. It has also been suggested that the inhibition of receptor mediated retinoid signaling induces
706:
Lee, T. J.; Jang, J; Kang, S; Jin, M; Shin, H; Kim, D. W.; Kim, B. S. (2013). "Enhancement of osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation of human embryonic stem cells by mesodermal lineage induction with BMP-4 and FGF2 treatment".
346:, which marks progenitor cells for chondrogenic differentiation. Inactivation of the Sox9 gene will result in the loss of all Cartilage, and thus Chondroblast, formation. This factor is also expressed alongside Sox5 and Sox6.
145:
due to their role in forming both the chondrocytes and cartilage matrix which will eventually form cartilage. Use of the term is technically inaccurate since mesenchymal progenitors can also technically differentiate into
742:
Pittenger MF, Mackay AM, Beck SC, Jaiswal RK, Douglas R, Mosca JD, Moorman MA, Simonetti DW, Craig S, Marshak DR (April 1999). "Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells".
361:
are not the only factors which determine whether chondroblasts will form. General inactivation or activation of these gene doesn't turn all affected cells into one type or another. Extrinsic
385:
to bind to the LEF/TCF transcription factors which lead both to the destruction of any remaining phosphorylated β-Catenin as well as the differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells into
468:
However, regeneration is still too slow for patient care to effectively rely on this mechanism of repair. Part of this inability to regenerate quickly from injury results from the relative
202:
because the perichondrium, located on the outside of developing bone, is not as heavily ensheathed in cartilage extracellular matrix as the interior and because here
313:
is inside the womb. It has been suggested that differentiating embryonic stem cells with these growth factors could prevent stem cells, once injected into potential
498:
that form at the sites of endochondral ossification due to over stimulation of the chondroblasts. When they form, they are usually found on the upper or lower
465:
to clean up cell debris resulting from the damage. Chondroblasts then secrete cartilage matrix around themselves in order to reform the lost cartilage tissue.
85:
538:
298:
444:
which combine to inhibit protein 3, a protein which inhibits cartilage differentiation. These preferences are important since mature cartilage
381:
of the β-Catenin that would normally mark the protein for destruction is suppressed which allows it to accumulate and eventually go into the
1304:
919:
787:"Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling in Mesenchymal Progenitors Controls Osteoblast and Chondrocyte Differentiation during Vertebrate Skeletogenesis"
210:
and increases the birth of the affected tissue. It is important to note that perichondrium, and thus chondroblasts, are not found on the
506:
where chondroblast activity is most apparent. Rarely, they can be found on the feet, hands, flat bones, or spine. 30–50% of these
1354:
625:
138:. Another name for them is subchondral cortico-spongious progenitors. They have euchromatic nuclei and stain by basic dyes.
650:
Pearle, Andrew D.; Warren, Russell F.; Rodeo, Scott A. (2005). "Basic
Science of Articular Cartilage and Osteoarthritis".
565:"Human platelet-rich plasma stimulates migration and chondrogenic differentiation of human subchondral progenitor cells"
1601:
1672:
1297:
912:
92:
1649:
1618:
169:. Once they embed themselves into the cartilage matrix, they grow the cartilage matrix by growing more cartilage
306:
261:
strength. The structure of these fibers, like the majority of collagen fibers, forms a triple helix structure.
563:
KrĂĽger, Jan
Philipp; Hondke, Sylvia; Endres, Michaela; Pruss, Axel; Siclari, Alberto; Kaps, Christian (2012).
80:
1025:
328:
302:
35:
268:
responsible for stress shielding the matrix from compression loading. They attach themselves to up to 100
154:. Chondroblasts are called chondrocytes when they embed themselves in the cartilage matrix, consisting of
1566:
1478:
1290:
905:
365:
act upstream in determining what cell type will form out of any particular mesenchymal progenitor cell.
73:
1030:
351:
207:
124:
1657:
1549:
68:
1460:
1593:
1558:
830:
417:
1715:
953:
362:
887:
264:
Proteoglycans resist the compression generally put upon cartilage and generate the swelling
1581:
1576:
1431:
1179:
751:
425:
expression which is considered a “master switch” for the differentiation of chondroblasts.
343:
294:
170:
8:
1201:
269:
211:
755:
329:
Signaling, transcription and environmental factors responsible for chondroblast creation
1450:
1211:
854:
594:
476:
195:
166:
1313:
986:
981:
846:
842:
808:
767:
724:
667:
621:
586:
858:
686:
598:
433:
Differentiation of chondroblasts is favored in an environment with high compressive
1442:
1226:
1216:
1129:
838:
798:
759:
716:
659:
576:
445:
273:
257:
Collagen Type II fibers are responsible for giving the future cartilage matrix its
135:
120:
1473:
1174:
1133:
872:
Aufderheide, A.C.; RodrĂguez-MartĂn, C.; Langsjoen, O. (2011). "Chondrosarcoma".
803:
786:
763:
491:
378:
290:
235:
191:
614:
1571:
1404:
1379:
1262:
991:
720:
522:
187:
142:
663:
409:, need to be repressed in order for Chondroblasts to form. A 2003 study using
1709:
1485:
1267:
948:
526:
511:
495:
251:
243:
239:
199:
113:
1098:
1072:
1020:
1012:
850:
812:
771:
728:
671:
590:
382:
155:
128:
393:
1633:
1384:
1327:
1231:
1103:
971:
386:
374:
203:
147:
117:
373:
Wnt14 is controlled by Col2a1 and is put through the β-Catenin mediated
98:
1662:
1417:
1394:
1369:
1252:
1194:
1153:
1138:
1056:
1046:
958:
480:
462:
410:
392:
Testing of this pathway has indicated that the Wnt/β-Catenin increases
785:
Day, Timothy F.; Guo, Xizhi; Garrett-Beal, Lisa; Yang, Yingzi (2005).
581:
564:
206:
are located. The type of growth maintained by chondroblasts is called
1680:
1606:
1510:
1505:
1495:
1412:
1389:
1374:
1257:
1247:
1221:
1189:
1143:
1124:
1119:
1051:
940:
932:
897:
521:
type of tumor, but most are low grade tumors and often appear in the
518:
469:
449:
406:
285:
As suggested in the name, mesenchymal progenitors originate from the
132:
20:
1282:
871:
1623:
1468:
1332:
1206:
507:
441:
339:
318:
286:
265:
231:
183:
159:
226:
The extracellular matrix secreted by chondroblasts is composed of
1522:
1517:
1490:
1148:
1082:
503:
314:
258:
1628:
1611:
1169:
1077:
472:
438:
227:
215:
162:
19:
This article is about the skeletal tissue. For other uses, see
831:"Molecular mechanisms regulating chondroblast differentiation"
1690:
499:
434:
358:
322:
310:
247:
56:
525:
region. It constitutes 20% of skeletal system tumors in the
1685:
1500:
1337:
1003:
928:
452:
and thus would be ill-suited to a high oxygen environment.
422:
413:
741:
293:, when forming from the mesoderm, specifically form from
151:
876:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
829:
Hoffman, L. M.; Weston, A. D.; Underhill, T. M. (2003).
562:
835:
The
Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume
828:
784:
539:
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
405:
Retinoic acid, part of a family of molecules called
16:
Mesenchymal progenitor cell that forms a chondrocyte
709:
221:
874:The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology
613:
649:
416:with a weak, constitutively active retinoic acid
1707:
824:
822:
705:
645:
643:
558:
556:
554:
354:which will prompt the cartilage to form bone.
1298:
913:
342:component of this process is Sox9, a HMG box
819:
640:
551:
1305:
1291:
920:
906:
888:"Epidemiology of Bone Cancer: An Overview"
368:
34:
802:
580:
428:
357:It is important to note here that these
333:
272:molecules and up to 50 keratan sulfate
141:These cells are extremely important in
1708:
927:
1312:
1286:
901:
684:
611:
13:
475:of cartilage as compared to other
14:
1727:
1602:Dense irregular connective tissue
173:rather than by dividing further.
843:10.2106/00004623-200300002-00017
400:
222:Matrix formation and composition
93:Anatomical terms of microanatomy
1619:Dense regular connective tissue
880:
569:Journal of Orthopaedic Research
165:, until they lie in the matrix
865:
778:
735:
699:
678:
605:
494:can sometimes form, which are
280:
1:
544:
307:fibroblast growth factor FGF2
804:10.1016/j.devcel.2005.03.016
764:10.1126/science.284.5411.143
620:. New York: Academic Press.
486:
176:
116:cells, is the name given to
7:
532:
514:which is similarly benign.
455:
10:
1732:
721:10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.11.067
652:Clinics in Sports Medicine
198:. They are located on the
18:
1671:
1648:
1592:
1557:
1548:
1541:
1459:
1441:
1430:
1403:
1362:
1353:
1346:
1320:
1240:
1162:
1112:
1091:
1065:
1039:
1011:
1002:
939:
685:King, M.W. (2014-02-10).
664:10.1016/j.csm.2004.08.007
517:Chondrosarcoma is a more
352:endochondral ossification
125:endochondral ossification
91:
79:
67:
55:
50:
45:
33:
28:
837:. 85-A Suppl 2: 124–32.
208:appositional bone growth
40:Diagram of chondroblasts
369:Wnt/β-catenin signaling
321:, or stem cell caused
954:fibrocartilage callus
510:have an accompanying
502:as well as the upper
429:Environmental factors
363:environmental factors
334:Transcription factors
687:"Glycosaminoglycans"
344:transcription factor
295:embryonic stem cells
171:extracellular matrix
123:in situ which, from
756:1999Sci...284..143P
612:Hall, B.K. (1983).
270:Chondroitin sulfate
212:articular cartilage
791:Developmental Cell
477:connective tissues
196:glycosaminoglycans
74:H2.00.03.5.00002
1703:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1644:
1643:
1537:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1426:
1425:
1314:Connective tissue
1280:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1185:connective tissue
1180:Volkmann's canals
627:978-0-12-319501-2
582:10.1002/jor.22005
107:
106:
102:
1723:
1555:
1554:
1546:
1545:
1474:Reticular fibers
1443:Ground substance
1439:
1438:
1360:
1359:
1351:
1350:
1307:
1300:
1293:
1284:
1283:
1227:medullary cavity
1202:Sharpey's fibres
1175:Haversian canals
1130:epiphyseal plate
1120:subchondral bone
1009:
1008:
922:
915:
908:
899:
898:
892:
891:
884:
878:
877:
869:
863:
862:
826:
817:
816:
806:
782:
776:
775:
739:
733:
732:
703:
697:
696:
694:
693:
682:
676:
675:
647:
638:
637:
635:
634:
619:
609:
603:
602:
584:
560:
492:Chondroblastomas
437:and low partial
274:glycoaminoglycan
250:, and a host of
121:progenitor cells
99:edit on Wikidata
96:
38:
26:
25:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1695:
1667:
1640:
1588:
1529:
1469:Collagen fibers
1455:
1433:
1422:
1405:Wandering cells
1399:
1342:
1316:
1311:
1281:
1272:
1236:
1158:
1134:epiphyseal line
1108:
1087:
1061:
1035:
1026:intramembranous
998:
935:
926:
896:
895:
886:
885:
881:
870:
866:
827:
820:
783:
779:
750:(5411): 143–7.
740:
736:
704:
700:
691:
689:
683:
679:
648:
641:
632:
630:
628:
610:
606:
561:
552:
547:
535:
489:
458:
431:
403:
379:phosphorylation
371:
336:
331:
317:, from forming
283:
236:hyaluronic acid
224:
179:
131:in the growing
103:
41:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1729:
1719:
1718:
1701:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1677:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1654:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1598:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1569:
1563:
1561:
1552:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1498:
1493:
1486:Elastic fibers
1483:
1482:
1481:
1471:
1465:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1454:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1436:
1432:Extracellular
1428:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1409:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1380:Reticular cell
1377:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1357:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1310:
1309:
1302:
1295:
1287:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1127:
1122:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1015:
1006:
1000:
999:
997:
996:
995:
994:
989:
984:
976:
975:
974:
969:
961:
956:
951:
945:
943:
937:
936:
925:
924:
917:
910:
902:
894:
893:
879:
864:
818:
777:
734:
698:
677:
639:
626:
604:
549:
548:
546:
543:
542:
541:
534:
531:
523:axial skeletal
488:
485:
457:
454:
430:
427:
402:
399:
370:
367:
335:
332:
330:
327:
282:
279:
252:macromolecules
223:
220:
178:
175:
143:chondrogenesis
105:
104:
95:
89:
88:
83:
77:
76:
71:
65:
64:
62:chondroblastus
59:
53:
52:
48:
47:
43:
42:
39:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1728:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1429:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1001:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
979:
977:
973:
970:
968:
965:
964:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
949:perichondrium
947:
946:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
923:
918:
916:
911:
909:
904:
903:
900:
889:
883:
875:
868:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
825:
823:
814:
810:
805:
800:
797:(5): 739–50.
796:
792:
788:
781:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
738:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
702:
688:
681:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
646:
644:
629:
623:
618:
617:
608:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
578:
575:(6): 845–52.
574:
570:
566:
559:
557:
555:
550:
540:
537:
536:
530:
528:
527:United States
524:
520:
515:
513:
512:osteoblastoma
509:
505:
501:
497:
496:benign tumors
493:
484:
482:
478:
474:
471:
466:
464:
453:
451:
447:
443:
440:
436:
426:
424:
419:
415:
412:
408:
401:Retinoic acid
398:
395:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
366:
364:
360:
355:
353:
347:
345:
341:
338:An important
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
278:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
255:
253:
249:
245:
244:glycoproteins
241:
240:proteoglycans
237:
233:
229:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
200:perichondrium
197:
193:
189:
185:
174:
172:
168:
164:
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
139:
137:
134:
130:
126:
122:
119:
115:
114:perichondrial
111:
110:Chondroblasts
100:
94:
90:
87:
84:
82:
78:
75:
72:
70:
66:
63:
60:
58:
54:
49:
44:
37:
32:
27:
22:
1716:Cell biology
1451:Tissue fluid
1184:
1073:bone mineral
1031:endochondral
1021:primary bone
1013:Ossification
967:chondroblast
966:
882:
873:
867:
834:
794:
790:
780:
747:
743:
737:
715:(2): 793–7.
712:
708:
701:
690:. Retrieved
680:
655:
651:
631:. Retrieved
615:
607:
572:
568:
516:
490:
467:
459:
432:
404:
391:
383:cell nucleus
372:
356:
348:
337:
284:
263:
256:
225:
214:surfaces of
180:
156:proteoglycan
140:
129:chondrocytes
127:, will form
109:
108:
61:
29:Chondroblast
1673:Specialized
1663:Mesenchymal
1634:Aponeurosis
1385:Tendon cell
1347:Composition
1328:Soft tissue
1232:bone marrow
972:chondrocyte
658:(1): 1–12.
387:osteoblasts
375:Wnt pathway
281:Development
204:capillaries
148:osteoblasts
118:mesenchymal
51:Identifiers
1418:Macrophage
1395:Melanocyte
1370:Fibroblast
1321:Physiology
1222:trabeculae
1217:canaliculi
1195:periosteum
1154:epicondyle
1139:metaphysis
1099:cancellous
1057:osteoclast
1047:osteoblast
959:metaphysis
692:2014-10-22
633:2014-10-22
545:References
481:human body
463:chemotaxis
411:transgenic
309:while the
1681:Cartilage
1650:Embryonic
1607:Submucosa
1567:Reticular
1496:Fibrillin
1413:Mast cell
1390:Adipocyte
1375:Fibrocyte
1263:irregular
1190:endosteum
1163:Structure
1144:diaphysis
1125:epiphysis
1052:osteocyte
941:Cartilage
933:cartilage
616:Cartilage
519:malignant
487:Pathology
470:avascular
450:avascular
407:retinoids
394:β-Catenin
319:teratomas
299:induction
177:Structure
133:cartilage
21:cartilage
1710:Category
1624:Ligament
1363:Resident
1338:Scarring
1333:Fibrosis
1268:sesamoid
1207:enthesis
1104:cortical
859:44703653
851:12721355
813:15866164
772:10102814
729:23206696
672:15636773
599:25710553
591:22058056
533:See also
508:sarcomas
456:Function
442:pressure
418:receptor
315:patients
301:through
289:. These
287:mesoderm
266:pressure
232:collagen
186:such as
184:hormones
160:collagen
1572:Adipose
1523:Elaunin
1518:EMILIN1
1491:Elastin
1212:lacunae
1149:condyle
1113:Regions
1083:osteoid
992:fibrous
987:elastic
982:hyaline
752:Bibcode
744:Science
504:humerus
479:of the
340:genetic
259:tensile
167:lacunae
46:Details
1658:Mucoid
1629:Tendon
1612:Dermis
1550:Proper
1479:COL3A1
1461:Fibers
1434:matrix
1241:Shapes
1170:osteon
1078:ossein
1066:Matrix
978:Types
963:Cells
857:
849:
811:
770:
727:
670:
624:
597:
589:
473:nature
446:tissue
439:oxygen
323:tumors
228:fibers
216:joints
194:, and
163:fibers
136:matrix
1691:Blood
1594:Dense
1582:White
1577:Brown
1559:Loose
1542:Types
1355:Cells
1253:short
1092:Types
1040:Cells
855:S2CID
595:S2CID
500:tibia
435:force
359:genes
311:fetus
291:cells
248:water
112:, or
97:[
86:66783
57:Latin
1686:Bone
1511:FBN3
1506:FBN2
1501:FBN1
1258:flat
1248:long
1004:Bone
931:and
929:Bone
847:PMID
809:PMID
768:PMID
725:PMID
668:PMID
622:ISBN
587:PMID
423:Sox9
414:mice
305:and
303:BMP4
297:via
158:and
839:doi
799:doi
760:doi
748:284
717:doi
713:430
660:doi
577:doi
448:is
152:fat
150:or
81:FMA
1712::
853:.
845:.
833:.
821:^
807:.
793:.
789:.
766:.
758:.
746:.
723:.
711:.
666:.
656:24
654:.
642:^
593:.
585:.
573:30
571:.
567:.
553:^
529:.
483:.
389:.
325:.
246:,
242:,
238:,
234:,
230:,
218:.
192:TH
190:,
188:GH
69:TH
1306:e
1299:t
1292:v
1132:/
921:e
914:t
907:v
890:.
861:.
841::
815:.
801::
795:8
774:.
762::
754::
731:.
719::
695:.
674:.
662::
636:.
601:.
579::
101:]
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
