Chicxulub crater - Knowledge

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presumed to be derived from the Cretaceous carbonates. An analysis of melt rocks sampled by the M0077A borehole indicates two types of melt rock, an upper impact melt (UIM), which has a clear carbonate component as shown by its overall chemistry and the presence of rare limestone clasts and a lower impact melt-bearing unit (LIMB) that lacks any carbonate component. The difference between the two impact melts is interpreted to be a result of the upper part of the initial impact melt, represented by the LIMB in the borehole, becoming mixed with materials from the shallow part of the crust either falling back into the crater or being brought back by the resurgence forming the UIM.

518: 1129: 237: 977: 304: 270: 332: 6188: 1073: 5688: 6152: 851: 54: 6224: 6200: 1141: 277: 244: 5694: 912:. The rock heated Earth's surface and ignited wildfires, estimated to have enveloped nearly 70% of the planet's forests. The devastation to living creatures even hundreds of kilometers away was immense, and much of present-day Mexico and the United States would have been devastated. Fossil evidence for an instantaneous extinction of diverse animals was found in a soil layer only 10 centimeters (3.9 in) thick in 6212: 6164: 2382: 6176: 598:, to find these samples to support his hypothesis. Penfield tried to secure site samples, but was told they had been lost or destroyed. When attempts to return to the drill sites to look for corroborating rocks proved fruitless, Penfield abandoned his search, published his findings and returned to his Pemex work. Seeing the 1980 784:. The water depth at the impact site varied from 100 meters (330 ft) on the western edge of the crater to over 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) on the northeastern edge, with an estimated depth at the centre of the impact of approximately 650 meters (2,130 ft). The seafloor rocks consisted of a sequence of 4899:

Fischer-Gödde, Mario; Tusch, Jonas; Goderis, Steven; Bragagni, Alessandro; Mohr-Westheide, Tanja; Messling, Nils; Elfers, Bo-Magnus; Schmitz, Birger; Reimold, Wolf U.; Maier, Wolfgang D.; Claeys, Philippe; Koeberl, Christian; Tissot, François L.H.; Bizzarro, Martin; Münker, Carsten (August 16, 2024).

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10 lb), was too large for a comet of the size implied by the crater, and that they had overestimated likely comet impact rates. They concluded that all available evidence strongly favors an asteroid impactor, effectively ruling out a comet. Ruthenium isotope ratios in impact layers also strongly

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from the North Pacific, from a sediment sequence spanning the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (when the site was located in the central Pacific), with the meteorite being found at the base of the K-Pg boundary iridium anomaly within the sediment core. The meteorite was suggested to represent a fragment

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The ring structures are best developed to the south, west and northwest, becoming more indistinct towards the north and northeast of the structure. This is interpreted to be a result of variable water depth at the time of impact, with less well-defined rings resulting from the areas with water depths

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to improve the understanding of the velocity structure of the crater. The data was concentrated around the interpreted offshore peak ring to help identify possible drilling locations. At the same time, gravity data were acquired along 7,638 kilometers (4,746 mi) of profiles. The acquisition was

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that became an oasis for the recovery of life. Researchers using seismic images of the crater in 2008 determined that the impactor landed in deeper water than previously assumed, which may have resulted in increased sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere, due to more water vapor being available to react

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of the impact was estimated at 72 teratonnes of TNT (300 ZJ). The impact generated winds in excess of 1,000 kilometers per hour (620 mph) near the blast's center, and produced a transient cavity 100 kilometers (62 mi) wide and 30 kilometers (19 mi) deep that later collapsed. This

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and information about its makeup and age in the Yucatán area has come only from drilling results around the Chicxulub crater and the analysis of basement material found as part of the ejecta at more distant K–Pg boundary sites. The Maya block is one of a group of crustal blocks found at the edge of

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The form and structure (morphology) of the Chicxulub crater is known mainly from geophysical data. It has a well-defined concentric multi-ring structure. The outermost ring was identified using seismic reflection data. It is up to 130 kilometers (81 mi) from the crater center, and is a ring of

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around the impact crater wall. More recent evidence suggests the crater is 300 km (190 mi) wide, and the 180 km (110 mi) ring is an inner wall of it. Hildebrand, Penfield, Boynton, Camargo, and others published their paper identifying the crater in 1991. The crater was named for

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were compared, Penfield described a shallow "bullseye", 180 km (110 mi) in diameter, appearing on the otherwise non-magnetic and uniform surroundings—clear evidence to him of an impact feature. A decade earlier, the same map had suggested a crater to contractor Robert Baltosser, but Pemex

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in May 1980. These papers were followed by other reports of similar iridium spikes at the K–Pg boundary across the globe, and sparked wide interest in the cause of the K–Pg extinction; over 2,000 papers were published in the 1980s on the topic. There were no known impact craters that were the right

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defined by normal faults dipping towards the crater center, sometimes referred to as "slump blocks". The peak ring is about 80 km in diameter and of variable height, from 400 to 600 meters (1,300 to 2,000 ft) above the base of the crater in the west and northwest and 200 to 300 meters (660 to

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The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield, geophysicists who had been looking for petroleum in the Yucatán Peninsula during the late 1970s. Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search. Later, through contact

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Impact melt rocks are thought to fill the central part of the crater, with a maximum thickness of 3 kilometers (1.9 mi). The samples of melt rock that have been studied have overall compositions similar to that of the basement rocks, with some indications of mixing with carbonate source,

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and interbedded anhydrite. It varies in thickness from 600 meters (2,000 ft) up to 1,200 meters (3,900 ft). There is evidence for a Cretaceous basin within the Yucatán area that has been named the Yucatán Trough, running approximately south–north, widening northwards, explaining the

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from hydrocarbon exploration boreholes drilled by Pemex on the Yucatán peninsula have provided some useful data. UNAM drilled a series of eight fully-cored boreholes in 1995, three of which penetrated deeply enough to reach the ejecta deposits outside the main crater rim, UNAM-5, 6 and 7. In

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and settled across Earth's surface among other material thrown up by the impact, producing the layer of iridium-enriched clay. At the time, there was no consensus on what caused the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction and the boundary layer, with theories including a nearby

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from the lower part of the Cretaceous sequence, and this was injected into the atmosphere. This global dispersal of dust and sulfates would have led to a sudden and catastrophic effect on the climate worldwide, instigating large temperature drops and devastating the

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In March 2010, forty-one experts from many countries reviewed the available evidence: twenty years' worth of data spanning a variety of fields. They concluded that the impact at Chicxulub triggered the mass extinctions at the K–Pg boundary. Dissenters, notably

780:. This sedimentary unit is thought to have formed within hours of impact. A 2020 study concluded that the Chicxulub crater was formed by an inclined (45–60° to horizontal) impact from the northeast. The site of the crater at the time of impact was a marine 562:

Penfield presented his findings to Pemex, who rejected the crater theory, instead deferring to findings that ascribed the feature to volcanic activity. Pemex disallowed release of specific data, but let Penfield and Camargo present the results at the 1981

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A cloud of hot dust, ash and steam would have spread from the crater, with as much as 25 trillion metric tons of excavated material being ejected into the atmosphere by the blast. Some of this material escaped orbit, dispersing throughout the

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with interbedded anhydrite and gypsum, with the upper part being limestone, with dolomite and anhydrite in part. The thickness of the Lower Cretaceous varies from 750 meters (2,460 ft) up to 1,675 meters (5,495 ft) in the boreholes. The

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Although Penfield had plenty of geophysical data sets, he had no rock cores or other physical evidence of an impact. He knew Pemex had drilled exploratory wells in the region. In 1951, one bored into what was described as a thick layer of

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group. The longest of the lines, Chicx-A, was shot parallel to the coast, while Chicx-B and Chicx-C were shot NW–SE and SSW–NNE respectively. In addition to the conventional seismic reflection imaging, data was recorded onshore to allow

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found in the peak ring borehole shows many deformation features that record the extreme strains associated with the formation of the crater and the subsequent development of the peak ring. The granitoid has an unusually low density and

1453:. They proposed that the Chicxulub asteroid was also a member of this group. Subsequent evidence has cast doubt on this theory. A 2009 spectrographic analysis revealed that 298 Baptistina has a different composition more typical of an 1349:

On the Yucatán peninsula, the inner rim of the crater is marked by clusters of cenotes, which are the surface expression of a zone of preferential groundwater flow, moving water from a recharge zone in the south to the coast through a

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velocity compared to typical granitic basement rocks. Study of the core from M0077A shows the following deformation features in apparent order of development: pervasive fracturing along and through grain boundaries, a high density of

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In 2016, a joint United Kingdom–United States team obtained the first offshore core samples, from the peak ring in the central zone of the crater with the drilling of the borehole known as M0077A, part of Expedition 364 of the

633:. Thick, jumbled deposits of coarse rock fragments were also present, thought to have been scoured from one place and deposited elsewhere by an impact event. Such deposits occur in many locations but seemed concentrated in the 4422:

Guzmán-Hidalgo, E.; Grajales-Nishimura, J.M.; Eberli, G.P.; et al. (2021). "Seismic stratigraphic evidence of a pre-impact basin in the Yucatán Platform: morphology of the Chicxulub crater and K/Pg boundary deposits".

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of non-avian dinosaurs and many other species on Earth. The impact spewed hundreds of billions of tons of sulfur into the atmosphere, producing a worldwide blackout and freezing temperatures which persisted for at least a

478:. The Alvarezes' impact hypothesis was rejected by many paleontologists, who believed that the lack of fossils found close to the K–Pg boundary—the "three-meter problem"—suggested a more gradual die-off of fossil species. 4850:

Hildebrand, A.R.; Pilkington, M.; Ortiz-Aleman, C.; et al. (1998). "Mapping Chicxulub crater structure with gravity and seismic reflection data". In Grady, M.M.; Hutchinson, R.; McCall, G.J.H.; Rothery, D.A. (eds.).

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with average wavelengths of 600 meters (2,000 ft) and average wave heights of 16 meters (52 ft), the largest ripples documented. Material shifted by subsequent earthquakes and the waves reached to what are now

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In 1990, Carlos Byars told Hildebrand of Penfield's earlier discovery of a possible impact crater. Hildebrand contacted Penfield and the pair soon secured two drill samples from the Pemex wells, which had been stored in

5332:"Where Did the Dinosaur-Killing Impactor Come From? – A new study blames a comet fragment for the death of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. But most experts maintain that an asteroid caused this cataclysmic event" 682:

the nearby town of Chicxulub. Penfield also recalled that part of the motivation for the name was "to give the academics and NASA naysayers a challenging time pronouncing it" after years of dismissing its existence.

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conference. That year's conference was under-attended and their report attracted scant attention, with many experts on impact craters and the K–Pg boundary attending the Snowbird conference instead. Carlos Byars, a

641:, Hildebrand suggested it could be a telltale feature of a nearby impact. Tests on samples retrieved from the K–Pg boundary revealed more tektite glass, formed only in the heat of asteroid impacts and high-yield 3680: 1986:; Asaro, F.; Michel, H.V. (1979). "Anomalous iridium levels at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary at Gubbio, Italy: Negative results of tests for a supernova origin". In Christensen, W.K.; Birkelund, T. (eds.). 550:. Penfield's job was to use geophysical data to scout possible locations for oil drilling. In the offshore magnetic data, Penfield noted anomalies whose depth he estimated and mapped. He then obtained onshore 997:

have also been used that were originally acquired for hydrocarbon exploration. A set of three long-record 2D lines was acquired in October 1996, with a total length of 650 kilometers (400 mi), by the

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deformation. This makes it one of the three largest impact structures on Earth. Moving into the center, the next ring is the main crater rim, also known as the "inner rim" which correlates with a ring of

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A long-term local effect of the impact was the creation of the Yucatán sedimentary basin which "ultimately produced favorable conditions for human settlement in a region where surface water is scarce".

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journalist who was familiar with Penfield and had seen the gravitational and magnetic data himself, wrote a front-page story on Penfield and Camargo's claim, but the news did not disseminate widely.

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Hildebrand, Alan R.; Penfield, Glen T.; Kring, David A.; et al. (September 1991). "Chicxulub Crater; a possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico".

2270: 333: 1445:, argued that a collision in the asteroid belt 160 million years ago between a 170 km (110 mi) diameter parent body and another 60 km (37 mi) diameter body resulted in the 916:, 2,500 kilometers (1,600 mi) away from the impact site, indicating that death and burial under debris occurred suddenly and quickly over wide distances on land. Field research from the 370:, about ten kilometers (six miles) in diameter, struck Earth. The crater is estimated to be 200 kilometers (120 miles) in diameter and 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) in depth. It is believed to be 944:

The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of Earth for several years, possibly up to a decade, creating a harsh environment for living things. Production of

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over 100 meters (330 ft) tall, with one simulation suggesting the immediate waves from the impact may have reached up to 1.5 kilometers (0.93 mi) high. The waves scoured the

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Hildebrand, A.; Pilkington, M.; Conors, M.; Ortiz-Aleman, C.; Chavez, R.E. (1995). "Size and structure of the Chicxulub crater revealed by horizontal gravity gradients and cenotes".

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about 1.3 kilometers (4,300 ft) down. This layer could have resulted from the intense heat and pressure of an Earth impact, but at the time of the borings it was dismissed as a

3800: 760:, Colombia, obtained a slightly different result of 66,051,000 ± 31,000 years ago. The impact has been interpreted to have occurred in Northern Hemisphere spring based on annual 5428:"A New Timeline of the Day the Dinosaurs Began to Die Out – By drilling into the Chicxulub crater, scientists assembled a record of what happened just after the asteroid impact" 1538: 920:

in North Dakota published in 2019 shows the simultaneous mass extinction of myriad species combined with geological and atmospheric features consistent with the impact event.

956:. For over a decade or longer, sunlight would have been blocked from reaching the surface of Earth by the dust particles in the atmosphere, cooling the surface dramatically. 3961:

The Chicxulub meteor impact and ancient locational decisions on the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico: The application of remote sensing, GIS, and GPS in settlement pattern Studies

4374:"Geochemistry, geochronology and petrogenesis of Maya Block granitoids and dykes from the Chicxulub Impact Crater, Gulf of México: Implications for the assembly of Pangea" 1010:

In 2005, another set of profiles was acquired, bringing the total length of 2D deep-penetration seismic data up to 2,470 kilometers (1,530 mi). This survey also used

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estimated the age of the impact as 66,043,000 ± 11,000 years ago (± 43,000 years ago considering systematic error), based on multiple lines of evidence, including

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and Florida, and may have disturbed sediments as far as 6,000 kilometers (3,700 mi) from the impact site. The impact triggered a seismic event with an estimated

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and limestone, reaching a thickness of about 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The K–Pg boundary inside the crater is significantly deeper than in the surrounding area.

514:, in 1981. Unknown to them, evidence of the crater they were looking for was being presented the same week, and would be largely missed by the scientific community. 461:

levels in this layer were as much as 160 times above the background level. It was hypothesized that the iridium was spread into the atmosphere when the impactor was

3420: 1473:, as a possible remnant cohort of the K–Pg impactor. In 2021, a numerical simulation study argued that the impactor likely originated in the outer main part of the 5341: 3915:; Upchurch, G. Jr.; Otto-Bliesner, B. (2001). "Rapid (10-yr) recovery of terrestrial productivity in a simulation study of the terminal Cretaceous impact event". 5437: 5269:

Nesvorný, David; Bottke, William F.; Marchi, Simone (November 1, 2021). "Dark primitive asteroids account for a large share of K/Pg-scale impacts on the Earth".

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system. From the cenote locations, the karstic aquifer is clearly related to the underlying crater rim, possibly through higher levels of fracturing, caused by

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of Earth's crust and lasted for hundreds of thousands of years. These hydrothermal systems may provide support for the impact origin of life hypothesis for the

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Red beds of variable thickness, up to 115 meters (377 ft), overlay the granitic basement, particularly in the southern part of the area. These continental

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age and size, spurring a search for a suitable candidate. Recognizing the scope of the work, Lee Hunt and Lee Silver organized a cross-discipline meeting in

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from the Chicxulub impact with isotopes in ash from the K–Pg boundary, concluding that they were dated almost exactly the same within experimental error.

5591: 4518:"New insights into the formation and emplacement of impact melt rocks within the Chicxulub impact structure, following the 2016 IODP-ICDP Expedition 364" 3551: 2787: 2130: 3839: 1461:

revised the date of the collision which created the Baptistina family to about 80 million years ago, allowing only 15 million years for the process of

1957: 5247: 3470: 1052:. The borehole was cored continuously, passing through 100 meters (330 ft) of impactites. Three fully-cored boreholes were also drilled by the 605:

Alvarez and other scientists continued their search for the crater, although they were searching in oceans based on incorrect analysis of glassy

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by plants would also have been interrupted, affecting the entire food chain. A model of the event developed by Lomax et al (2001) suggests that

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Marchi, S.; Bottke, W.F.; Elkins-Tanton, L.T.; et al. (2014). "Widespread mixing and burial of Earth's Hadean crust by asteroid impacts".

2733:"High-resolution chronostratigraphy of the terrestrial Cretaceous-Paleogene transition and recovery interval in the Hell Creek region, Montana" 5087: 3710: 2068:

Alvarez, Luis; Alvarez, Walter; Asaro, Frank; Michel, Helen (June 6, 1980). "Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction".

1764: 4517: 3972: 3094: 5647: 5217: 4468:"Formation of the crater suevite sequence from the Chicxulub peak ring: A petrographic, geochemical, and sedimentological characterization" 1004: 932:. The researchers stated that the impact generated an environmental calamity that extinguished life, but it also induced a vast subsurface 5677: 3796: 3656: 1558: 4670:

Kring, David; Tikoo, Sonia M.; Schmieder, Martin; et al. (2020). "Probing the hydrothermal system of the Chicxulub impact crater".

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The impactor was around 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) in diameter—large enough that, if set at sea level, it would have reached taller than

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the impact, and the role of the Deccan Traps was instead shaping the evolution of surviving species post-impact. A 2013 study compared

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Sharpton, Vernon L.; Marin, Luis E. (May 1997). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary impact crater and the cosmic projectile that produced it".

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The peak ring drilling below the sea floor also discovered evidence of a massive hydrothermal system, which modified approximately

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In 1978, geophysicists Glen Penfield and Antonio Camargo were working for the Mexican state-owned oil company Petróleos Mexicanos (

4215: 4191: 3391: 1202:(the distinctive "pink granite") were found in the peak ring borehole M0077A, with an estimated age of 326 ± 5 million years ago ( 5642: 5584: 4929: 637:

at the K–Pg boundary. When Haitian professor Florentine Morás discovered what he thought to be evidence of an ancient volcano on

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and collision, which takes many tens of millions of years. In 2010, another hypothesis implicated the newly discovered asteroid

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rates may have increased to higher than pre-impact levels over the long term because of the high carbon dioxide concentrations.

5652: 2271:"Catastrophic Events in the History of Life: Toward a New Understanding of Mass Extinctions in the Fossil Record – Part I" 1602: 371: 4136: 1048:, known as Yaxcopoil-1 (or more commonly Yax-1), to a depth of 1,511 meters (4,957 ft) below the surface, as part of the 5515: 4060: 3453: 2479: 2365: 2187: 1736: 1568: 1061: 529:. The aftermath of the asteroid collision, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago, is believed to have caused the 386:

in 1990, Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature. Evidence for the crater's impact origin includes

4788:"Regional Hydrogeochemical Evolution of Groundwater in the Ring of Cenotes, Yucatán (Mexico): An Inverse Modelling Approach" 5019: 3125:

Desch, Steve; Jackson, Alan; Noviello, Jessica; Anbar, Ariel (June 1, 2021). "The Chicxulub impactor: comet or asteroid?".

1024: 564: 3756:"Probing the impact-generated hydrothermal system in the peak ring of the Chicxulub crater and its potential as a habitat" 706:

occurred before and after the Chicxulub impact; dissenting studies argue that the worst of the volcanic activity occurred

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Collins, G. S.; Patel, N.; Davison, T. M.; et al. (2020). "A steeply-inclined trajectory for the Chicxulub impact".

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was caused by an impact event. The main evidence of such an impact was contained in a thin layer of clay present in the

269: 6249: 5672: 5632: 5600: 5577: 4582: 1553: 490: 5427: 2240: 6259: 5954: 4868: 4240:; Warner, M.; the Chicxulub Working Group; et al. (1997). "Size and morphology of the Chicxulub impact crater". 2318: 446: 402: 338: 124: 4828: 4996: 1906: 1593: 1358: 1031:(UNAM) and the Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán (CICY – Yucatán Center for Scientific Investigation). 2788:"Multi-proxy record of the Chicxulub impact at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary from Gorgonilla Island, Colombia" 1155:, sometimes referred to as the "target rocks", consisted of a sequence of mainly Cretaceous limestones, overlying 937:

with the vaporized anhydrite. This could have made the impact even deadlier by cooling the climate and generating

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groups of carbonaceous chondrites. A 2021 paper suggested, based on geochemical evidence including the excess of

320: 4121: 3884: 3497:"Chicxulub impact tsunami megaripples in the subsurface of Louisiana: Imaged in petroleum industry seismic data" 2448: 1056:(Federal Electricity Commission) with UNAM. One of them, (BEV-4), was deep enough to reach the ejecta deposits. 2322: 1108: 2732: 1543: 609:

from the K–Pg boundary that suggested the impactor had landed in open water. Unaware of Penfield's discovery,

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isotope ratios found in impact layers also support a carbonaceous chondrite composition for the impactor.

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980 ft) in the north, northeast and east. The central part of the crater lies above a zone where the

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eon, when the entire surface of Earth was affected by impactors much larger than the Chicxulub impactor.

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than the presumed carbonaceous chondrite composition of the Chicxulub impactor. In 2011, data from the

31: 4373: 3496: 5898: 5733: 5508: 3959: 3345: 3267: 1630: 1563: 1504: 757: 500: 17: 5091: 6087: 5838: 5708: 3059:"Emission spectra of a simulated Chicxulub impact-vapor plume at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary" 1991: 1819: 1335: 1011: 961: 933: 307: 147: 66:

reveals part of the diameter ring of the crater in the form of a shallow circular trough. Numerous

3729: 6004: 5873: 5803: 5488: 3834: 3587:"Evidence for ocean water invasion into the Chicxulub crater at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary" 3559: 3058: 3057:

Navarro, Karina F.; Urrutia-Fucugauchi, Jaime; Villagran-Muniz, Mayo; et al. (August 2020).

2609:"Mercury linked to Deccan Traps volcanism, climate change and the end-Cretaceous mass extinction" 405:(commonly known as the K–Pg or K–T boundary). It is now widely accepted that the devastation and 5843: 5163: 6107: 5984: 5848: 5763: 3861:

Pope KO; Ocampo AC; Kinsland GL; Smith R (1996). "Surface expression of the Chicxulub crater".

2497:"Energy, volatile production, and climatic effects of the Chicxulub Cretaceous/Tertiary impact" 1374: 889: 863:

formed a crater mainly under the sea and currently covered by ~1,000 meters (3,300 ft) of

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formations in northeastern Montana. A 2018 study based on argon–argon dating of spherules from

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paper, Penfield wrote to Walter Alvarez about the Yucatán structure, but received no response.

161: 3636: 3443: 2471: 6128: 6112: 6060: 3711:"Chicxulub and the Exploration of Large Peak-Ring Impact Craters through Scientific Drilling" 3635:

Range, Molly M.; Arbic, SAND-Brian K.; Johnson, Brandon C.; et al. (December 14, 2018).

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Kinsland, Gary L.; Egedahl, Kaare; Strong, Martell Albert; Ivy, Robert (September 15, 2021).

3004:"Importance of pre-impact crustal structure for the asymmetry of the Chicxulub impact crater" 1304: 1303:. This deformation sequence is interpreted to result from initial crater formation involving 993:

datasets have been acquired over the offshore parts of the crater since its discovery. Older

990: 610: 5130: 3928: 3602: 3512: 1999: 1381:. These types of asteroids originally formed in the outer Solar System, beyond the orbit of 521:

Artist's impression of the asteroid slamming into tropical, shallow seas of the sulfur-rich

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Bates, Robin (series producer); Chesmar, Terri and Baniewicz, Rich (associate producers);

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in Mexico. Its center is offshore, but the crater is named after the onshore community of

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During, Melanie A.D.; Smit, Jan; Voeten, Dennis F.A.E.; et al. (February 23, 2022).

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Gulick, Sean P. S.; Barton, Penny J.; Christeson, Gail L.; et al. (February 2008).

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Hull, Pincelli M.; Bornemann, André; Penman, Donald E.; et al. (January 17, 2020).

2624: 2569: 2518: 2440: 2220: 2083: 2018: 1838: 1783: 1765:"The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary" 1649: 1437:

report proposed a specific astronomical origin for the Chicxulub asteroid. The authors,

1152: 744:, United States. This date was supported by a 2015 study based on argon–argon dating of 6284: 6024: 5929: 5533: 5432: 5404: 5371: 5362: 5357: 5336: 5312: 5278: 5209: 5175: 5144: 5139: 5114: 5060: 4988: 4874: 4738: 4687: 4652: 4548: 4498: 4448: 4404: 4354: 4311: 4265: 4164: 4135:

Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J.; Chavez-Aguirre, J.M.; Pérez-Cruz, L.; De la Rosa, J.L. (2008).

4029: 3940: 3624: 3611: 3586: 3532: 3312: 3224: 3183: 3160: 3134: 3086: 3039: 2979: 2911: 2875: 2842: 2823: 2768: 2713: 2638: 2589: 2577: 2232: 2111: 1811: 1677: 1498: 1160: 1015: 828: 781: 654: 614: 517: 383: 5828: 5788: 4901: 4785: 3936: 2026: 1400:

of the Chicxulub impactor. Analysis suggested that it best fitted the criteria of the

1338:

that characterised it before the impact. The sequence, which dates back as far as the

1111:

is shallower by about 1–2 kilometers (0.62–1.24 mi) compared to regional values.

923:

Due to the relatively shallow water, the rock that was vaporized included sulfur-rich

858:

The impactor's velocity was estimated at 20 kilometers per second (12 mi/s). The

6077: 5883: 5833: 5818: 5718: 5409: 5316: 5304: 5213: 5201: 5197: 5052: 4980: 4921: 4878: 4864: 4742: 4730: 4691: 4644: 4552: 4502: 4452: 4408: 4303: 4168: 4056: 4001: 3944: 3888: 3863: 3721: 3672: 3616: 3536: 3524: 3471:"Fossilized Tsunami 'Megaripples' Reveal The Devastation From The Chicxulub Asteroid" 3449: 3304: 3229: 3211: 3164: 3152: 3090: 3043: 3031: 2971: 2915: 2880: 2827: 2815: 2772: 2760: 2717: 2705: 2697: 2642: 2581: 2532: 2475: 2427: 2387: 2361: 2282: 2183: 2103: 2095: 2070: 2030: 1803: 1795: 1669: 1661: 1484:, not an asteroid. Two papers in 1984 proposed it to be a comet originating from the 1462: 1446: 1438: 1104: 976: 953: 909: 821: 728: 678: 570: 495: 363: 303: 5813: 5148: 4656: 4421: 4315: 4137:"Impact ejecta and carbonate sequence in the eastern sector of the Chicxulub crater" 4134: 3628: 2983: 2633: 2608: 2593: 2115: 1588: 1442: 669:

that matched the one Penfield saw earlier; the cenotes were thought to be caused by

6216: 6168: 6102: 5974: 5808: 5753: 5558: 5399: 5389: 5296: 5193: 5134: 5064: 5044: 5027: 4992: 4972: 4913: 4856: 4799: 4722: 4679: 4636: 4540: 4490: 4440: 4396: 4358: 4346: 4295: 4269: 4257: 4156: 4100: 4033: 4021: 3932: 3880: 3673:"Generation and propagation of a tsunami from the Cretaceous-Tertiary impact event" 3606: 3516: 3316: 3296: 3219: 3203: 3144: 3078: 3056: 3023: 2961: 2903: 2870: 2862: 2807: 2752: 2687: 2677: 2628: 2573: 2522: 2444: 2353: 2236: 2224: 2087: 2022: 1815: 1787: 1681: 1653: 1489: 1433: 1250: 1241: 1215: 1133: 761: 666: 555: 530: 505: 359: 355: 5113:

Reddy, Vishnu; Emery, Joshua P.; Gaffey, Michael J.; et al. (December 2009).

4860: 2091: 1724: 1085:, throwing down towards the crater center, marking the outer limit of significant 310:

over the Chicxulub structure (coastline and state boundaries shown as black lines)

6279: 6082: 6070: 5959: 5793: 5466: 5300: 4902:"Ruthenium isotopes show the Chicxulub impactor was a carbonaceous-type asteroid" 4444: 3082: 2607:

Keller, Gerta; Mateo, Paula; Monkenbusch, Johannes; et al. (November 2020).

2561: 1943: 1454: 1370: 1282: 1245: 1211: 1128: 1095: 1086: 797: 634: 551: 454: 414: 391: 4855:. Special Publications. Vol. 140. London: Geological Society. p. 160. 3754:

Shaulis, Barry J.; Riller, Ulrich; Cockell, Charles; Coolen, Marco J.L. (2017).

1420:

found in marine impact layers, that the impactor matched the characteristics of

586:—a feature uncharacteristic of the region's geology. Penfield was encouraged by 6204: 6156: 6029: 5989: 5964: 5949: 5768: 5728: 5542: 5394: 5164:"Main belt asteroids with WISE / NEOWISE. I. Preliminary albedos and diameters" 4786:

Pérez-Ceballos, R.; Canul-Macario, C.; Pacheco-Castro, R.; et al. (2021).

4613: 4160: 3912: 3520: 3251: 3207: 3148: 2907: 2866: 1979: 1952: 1450: 1417: 1226: 957: 945: 859: 793: 657:

materials. A team of California researchers surveying satellite images found a

642: 626: 625:. Their evidence included greenish-brown clay with surplus iridium, containing 543: 511: 471: 430: 387: 5783: 5472:

Chicxulub: Variations in the magnitude of the gravity field at sea level image

5162:

Masiero, Joseph R.; Mainzer, A.K.; Grav, T.; et al. (November 10, 2011).

4756: 4640: 4236: 2786:

Renne, Paul R.; Arenillas, Ignacio; Arz, José A.; et al. (June 1, 2018).

1072: 6238: 6228: 6092: 5969: 5888: 5611: 5308: 5205: 4984: 4925: 4400: 4237: 4076: 3997: 3825: 3725: 3706: 3620: 3528: 3308: 3263: 3215: 3179: 3156: 3035: 2975: 2819: 2764: 2701: 2286: 2099: 1978: 1892: 1888: 1799: 1665: 1474: 1396: 1331: 1203: 905: 839: 406: 347: 195: 182: 5569: 5020:"An asteroid breakup 160 Myr ago as the probable source of the K/T impactor" 4917: 4583:"Drilling into the Chicxulub Crater, Ground Zero of the Dinosaur Extinction" 2940:

Gulick, S.P.S.; Christeson, G.L.; Barton, P.J.; et al. (January 2013).

2682: 2657: 1791: 1657: 792:

marine sediments, 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) thick. They were predominantly

6180: 6097: 6019: 6009: 5616: 5553: 5489:

Papers and presentations resulting from the 2016 Chicxulub drilling project

5413: 5056: 4734: 4683: 4648: 4307: 3892: 3279: 3255: 3233: 2884: 2709: 2585: 2536: 2494: 2204: 2107: 2034: 1807: 1673: 1548: 1470: 1421: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1233: 1188: 1184: 1082: 901: 825: 777: 715: 695: 687: 618: 503:

and Jan Hertogen published their iridium findings from Caravaca, Spain, in

157: 153: 3679:. Special Paper of the Geological Society of America 356. pp. 69–77. 5868: 5773: 5687: 5358:"Breakup of a long-period comet as the origin of the dinosaur extinction" 4614:"Rock fluidization during peak-ring formation of large impact structures" 4105: 4080: 3003: 1631:"Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary" 1589:"PIA03379: Shaded Relief with Height as Color, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico" 1466: 1296: 1292: 1099: 1040: 872: 854:

An animation showing the Chicxulub impact and subsequent crater formation

650: 482: 434: 5048: 5017: 4726: 4119: 4075: 2731:

Sprain, C.J.; Renne, P.R.; Wilson, G.P.; Clemens, W.A. (March 1, 2015).

2391:(Newspaper ). Vol. 81, no. 61 (Final ed.). pp. 1, 18 1512:. had ignored that the amount of iridium deposited around the globe, 2.0 1064:. The borehole reached 1,335 meters (4,380 ft) below the seafloor. 653:

for decades. Hildebrand's team tested the samples, which clearly showed

6034: 5934: 5115:"Composition of 298 Baptistina: Implications for the K/T impactor link" 4952: 3259: 1502:

that the impactor was a fragment from a disrupted comet. A rebuttal in

1485: 1334:

in the Chicxulub area returned to the shallow water platform carbonate

1308: 1300: 1164: 929: 913: 867:. The impact, expansion of water after filling the crater, and related 789: 769: 670: 591: 6151: 4849: 4804: 4787: 4328: 3671:

Matsui, T.; Imamura, F.; Tajika, E.; Nakano, Y.; Fujisawa, Y. (2002).

2966: 2941: 2527: 2496: 850: 223: 53: 5999: 5994: 5979: 4544: 4494: 4350: 4055:. Special Publication. Vol. 339. Geological Society of America. 3300: 2811: 2756: 2228: 1425: 1339: 1307:

followed by shear faulting with the development of cataclasites with

1267: 1219: 1199: 1196: 1181: 1045: 949: 938: 880: 817: 809: 805: 801: 737: 703: 583: 467: 462: 375: 4299: 3830:"Scientists say they know where dinosaur-killing asteroid came from" 3272:"Triggering of the largest Deccan eruptions by the Chicxulub impact" 3027: 1159:

of uncertain age above an unconformity with the dominantly granitic

617:

and faculty adviser William V. Boynton looked for a crater near the

6199: 5376: 5283: 3552:"We Finally Know How Much the Dino-Killing Asteroid Reshaped Earth" 3386: 3139: 2400: 1896: 1493: 1237: 1169: 1140: 864: 785: 765: 662: 606: 579: 418: 367: 326: 71: 5693: 5180: 4976: 4261: 4081:"Chicxulub Crater Seismic Survey prepares way for future drilling" 4025: 3910: 3860: 2658:"On impact and volcanism across the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary" 6044: 6039: 5944: 5939: 5459: 4898: 4704: 3585:

Goto, Kazuhisa; Tada, Ryuji; Tajika, Eiichi; et al. (2004).

2424: 1902: 1529:

support an asteroid rather than a comet nature for the impactor.

1382: 1354: 1271: 1223: 1207: 1156: 868: 832: 741: 711: 630: 458: 395: 4466:

Kaskes, P.; de Graaf, S.J.; Feignon, J.-G.; et al. (2022).

3797:"Seismic Images Show Dinosaur-Killing Meteor Made Bigger Splash" 820:(3–4%) underlain by approximately 35 kilometers (22 mi) of 559:

corporate policy prevented him from publicizing his conclusion.

5018:

Bottke, W.F.; Vokrouhlicky, D.; Nesvorny, D. (September 2007).

3417:"Huge Global Tsunami Followed Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Impact" 2464:

The End of the Dinosaurs: Chicxulub Crater and Mass Extinctions

2205:"An extraterrestrial event at the Cretaceous-tertiary boundary" 1319: 1287: 1173: 1147:

in the main square of Chicxulub Puerto commemorating the impact

1091: 924: 876: 745: 674: 658: 450: 67: 63: 4208:"Chicxulub 'dinosaur' crater drill project declared a success" 4049:"Deep seismic reflection profiles across the Chicxulub crater" 2606: 1244:. The lower part of the Lower Cretaceous sequence consists of 4612:

Riller, U.; Poelchau, M.H.; Rae, A.S.P.; et al. (2018).

2942:"Geophysical characterization of the Chicxulub impact crater" 1763:

Schulte, P.; Alegret, L.; Arenillas, I.; et al. (2010).

1629:

Renne, P. R.; Deino, A.L.; Hilgen, F.J.; et al. (2013).

1481: 1378: 1351: 1144: 999: 885: 813: 638: 622: 539: 453:. The Alvarezes and colleagues reported that it contained an 4516:

de Graaf, S.J.; Kaskes, P.; Déhais, T.; et al. (2022).

3249: 3001: 2939: 1492:

of comets could potentially increase impact rates. In 2021,

1210:

composition and are interpreted to represent the effects of

457:, a chemical element rare on Earth but common in asteroids. 5088:"Traced: The asteroid breakup that wiped out the dinosaurs" 4515: 4465: 3885:

10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0527:SEOTCC>2.3.CO;2

2449:

10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0867:CCAPCT>2.3.CO;2

2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 1895:; Moras, Florentine; Penfield, Glen (interviewees) (1992). 1598: 1369:

There is broad consensus that the Chicxulub impactor was a

1364: 1343: 1254: 1076:

Schematic cross-section over the Chicxulub impact structure

417:

of 75% of plant and animal species on Earth, including all

378:

is intact and directly accessible for scientific research.

59: 6175: 4079:; Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J.; Gulick, S.; et al. (2005). 3996: 3753: 3178:

Collins, G. S.; Patel, N.; Davison, T. M.; Rae, A. S. P.;

2655: 2495:

Pope KO; Baines, K.H.; Ocampo, A.C.; Ivanov, B.A. (1997).

1762: 1539:

Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research

694:, have proposed an alternate culprit: the eruption of the 5523: 3670: 3637:"The Chicxulub Impact Produced a Powerful Global Tsunami" 3270:; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Gibson, Sally A. (November 2015). 3124: 2131:"Asteroid Rained Glass Over Entire Earth, Scientists Say" 2067: 1842: 772:

bones found in an ejecta-bearing sedimentary unit at the

629:

grains and small weathered glass beads that looked to be

74:) cluster around the trough marking the inner crater rim. 4779: 4611: 4415: 4372:

Zhao, J.; Xiao, L.; Gulick, S.P.S.; et al. (2020).

4184:"Project to drill into 'dinosaur crater' gets under way" 3494: 3184:"A steeply-inclined trajectory for the Chicxulub impact" 2840: 2730: 2407: 2383:"Mexican site may be a link to dinosaurs' disappearance" 5161: 4046: 3704: 1449:

of asteroids, the largest surviving member of which is

1385:. In 1998, a meteorite, approximately 2.5 millimeters ( 1330:

After the immediate effects of the impact had stopped,

1176:

ages are consistent with the presence of an underlying

409:

resulting from the impact was the primary cause of the

5112: 3969:

American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

3634: 3584: 3578: 3177: 2897: 2785: 2196: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1628: 1044:

2001–2002, a scientific borehole was drilled near the

740:

horizons overlying the impact horizon in northeastern

6140: 5240:"Smashed asteroids may be related to dinosaur killer" 4040: 3820: 3818: 3705:

Kring, David A; Claeys, Philippe; Gulick, Sean P.S.;

1050:

International Continental Scientific Drilling Program

339: 5268: 4843: 4371: 4322: 4002:"Size and morphology of the Chicxulub impact crater" 2063: 2061: 2059: 1240:-to-Jurassic age, although they may extend into the 1115:

significantly deeper than 100 meters (330 ft).

4953:"A meteorite from the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary" 4669: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3112: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 1921: 1758: 1756: 1754: 4509: 4053:Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution II 3815: 3375: 3373: 3371: 1480:Some scholars have argued that the impactor was a 493:, published their paper on the iridium anomaly in 4120:Center for Lunar Science and Exploration (2019). 3543: 3488: 2693:20.500.11820/483a2e77-318f-476a-8fec-33a45fbdc90b 2600: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2056: 1898:The Dinosaurs! Episode 4: "Death of the Dinosaur" 904:, while some of it fell back to Earth, heated to 6236: 4605: 4459: 4230: 4069: 3967:. ASPRS 2007 Annual Conference. Tampa, Florida: 3109: 2990: 2922: 2461: 2319:"How an asteroid ended the age of the dinosaurs" 1751: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1395: in) across, was described from a deep sea 971: 542:) as part of an airborne magnetic survey of the 30:"Chicxulub" redirects here. For other uses, see 5085: 4000:; Warner, M.; Brittan, J.; et al. (1997). 3368: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 4763:(video). Earth: The biography. July 11, 2008. 4365: 4281: 4279: 3382:"Dinosaur asteroid hit 'worst possible place'" 3379: 2341: 1839:"Dinosaur extinction link to crater confirmed" 5599: 5585: 5509: 4853:Meteorites: Flux with Time and Impact Effects 4286:Melosh, J. (2001). "Deep down at Chicxulub". 3700: 3698: 3468: 2549: 1988:Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary Events Symposium 1617: 5323: 4051:. In Dressler, B.O.; Sharpton, V.L. (eds.). 3549: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2255: 2202: 2156: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1836: 1581: 1253:sequence is mainly platform limestone, with 372:the second largest impact structure on Earth 4818: 4276: 4122:"Classroom Illustrations: Chicxulub Crater" 3245: 3243: 2358:Impact!: The Threat of Comets and Asteroids 1559:List of possible impact structures on Earth 1027:(NERC) with logistical assistance from the 5592: 5578: 5516: 5502: 3957: 3695: 3346:"Chicxulub Impact Event: Regional Effects" 2843:"The Mesozoic terminated in boreal spring" 2553:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 554:from the 1940s. When the gravity maps and 401:The date of the impact coincides with the 52: 5403: 5393: 5375: 5282: 5179: 5138: 4803: 4581:St. Fleur, Nicholas (November 17, 2016). 4580: 4104: 3709:; Collins, Gareth S. (October 10, 2017). 3610: 3223: 3138: 2965: 2874: 2691: 2681: 2632: 2526: 2352: 2316: 2305: 1861: 980:Location of seismic surveys and boreholes 879:, leaving ripples underneath what is now 6275:Natural history of the Yucatán Peninsula 5426:Kornel, Katherine (September 10, 2019). 5329: 3240: 1722: 1365:Astronomical origin and type of impactor 1281:The "pink granite", a granitoid rich in 1139: 1127: 1071: 1029:National Autonomous University of Mexico 975: 849: 516: 455:abnormally high concentration of iridium 302: 276: 243: 5440:from the original on September 25, 2019 3899:a similar 1998 report by the same group 3824: 3794: 2891: 2293:from the original on September 18, 2024 2268: 2177: 1942: 1909:from the original on September 18, 2024 1703: 14: 6237: 5425: 5344:from the original on February 15, 2021 5090:. Agence France-Presse. Archived from 4593:from the original on November 19, 2016 4285: 3803:from the original on December 20, 2014 3566:from the original on February 28, 2016 3469:Koumoundouros, Tessa (July 14, 2021). 3441: 3435: 2737:Geological Society of America Bulletin 2128: 1997: 1325: 1180:age crust, with large amounts of late 1151:Before the impact, the geology of the 325: 5573: 5525:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 5497: 5474:(Lunar and Planetary Institute, USRA) 5355: 5330:Ferreira, Becky (February 15, 2021). 5220:from the original on January 16, 2022 5086:Ingham, Richard (September 5, 2007). 4894: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4767:from the original on October 17, 2015 3904: 3720:. The Geological Society of America. 3683:from the original on October 20, 2021 3411: 3409: 2380: 2044:from the original on December 8, 2003 1849:from the original on October 31, 2019 1739:from the original on January 16, 2021 1123: 1062:International Ocean Discovery Program 411:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 5250:from the original on October 4, 2019 4950: 4932:from the original on August 15, 2024 4205: 4181: 3978:from the original on August 10, 2017 1191:, interpreted to have formed in the 1034: 1025:Natural Environment Research Council 565:Society of Exploration Geophysicists 499:in June 1980. Almost simultaneously 62:'s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 5119:Meteoritics & Planetary Science 5074:from the original on April 24, 2020 3917:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3591:Meteoritics & Planetary Science 3501:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3394:from the original on March 18, 2018 3326:from the original on April 14, 2024 3182:; Gulick, S. P. S. (May 26, 2020). 2381:Byars, Carlos (December 13, 1981). 2329:from the original on April 26, 2022 1605:from the original on March 13, 2017 1488:, and it was proposed in 1992 that 1459:Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer 984: 721: 27:Prehistoric impact crater in Mexico 24: 5140:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2009.tb02001.x 4885: 4194:from the original on April 6, 2016 4047:Snyder, D.B.; Hobbs, R.W. (1999). 3842:from the original on April 4, 2012 3659:from the original on July 15, 2020 3612:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2004.tb00943.x 3550:Palmer, Jane (February 25, 2016). 3423:from the original on July 11, 2020 3406: 3356:from the original on July 26, 2019 2578:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48351.x 2360:. Oxford University Press (U.S.). 1994:, Copenhagen, Denmark. p. 69. 1691:from the original on April 3, 2018 1554:List of impact structures on Earth 491:University of California, Berkeley 441:, put forth their theory that the 362:). It was formed slightly over 66 25: 6296: 5453: 5356:Siraj, Amir (February 15, 2021). 4999:from the original on May 20, 2021 4562:from the original on May 18, 2022 4218:from the original on May 28, 2016 3795:Airhart, Marc (January 1, 2008). 3097:from the original on May 22, 2023 2203:Smit, Jan; Hertogen, Jan (1980). 2027:10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76 1960:from the original on May 18, 2019 1569:Permian–Triassic extinction event 1377:-like composition, rather than a 1163:. The basement forms part of the 1132:The center of the crater is near 952:rocks would have led to a sudden 6270:Natural history of the Caribbean 6222: 6210: 6198: 6186: 6174: 6162: 6150: 5692: 5686: 4951:Kyte, Frank T. (November 1998). 4182:Amos, Jonathan (April 5, 2016). 2269:Weinreb, David B. (March 2002). 2243:from the original on May 4, 2023 2129:Mayell, Hillary (May 15, 2005). 1594:Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 1218:, part of the collision between 1096:Bouguer gravity gradient anomaly 1054:Comisión Federal de Electricidad 358:(not the larger coastal town of 275: 268: 242: 235: 5262: 5232: 5155: 5106: 5011: 4944: 4812: 4749: 4698: 4663: 4574: 4206:Amos, Jonathan (May 25, 2016). 4175: 4113: 3990: 3958:Winemiller, Terance L. (2007). 3951: 3854: 3788: 3747: 3462: 3380:Amos, Jonathan (May 15, 2017). 3338: 3171: 3050: 2902:. Vol. 11, no. 1480. 2834: 2779: 2724: 2649: 2634:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103312 2543: 2502:Journal of Geophysical Research 2488: 2455: 2374: 1424:or CR carbonaceous chondrites. 1299:and ultra-cataclasite and some 1261: 1258:observed thickness variations. 800:(35–40% of total sequence) and 665:) ring centered on the town of 443:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction 3445:Tsunami: The underrated hazard 2275:Journal of Young Investigators 2182:. Princeton University Press. 2122: 1972: 1837:Rincon, Paul (March 4, 2010). 1222:and Gondwana that created the 812:25–30%), and minor amounts of 13: 1: 6245:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 6123:Lunar and Planetary Institute 5955:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 4861:10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.140.01.12 3937:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00447-2 3350:Lunar and Planetary Institute 2180:T. Rex and the Crater of Doom 2092:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095 1574: 1496:and a colleague suggested in 1094:onshore and a major circular 1067: 1005:wide-angle refraction imaging 972:Post-discovery investigations 948:caused by the destruction of 748:found in lignite beds in the 447:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 429:In the late 1970s, geologist 403:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 125:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 5301:10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114621 4445:10.1016/j.margeo.2021.106594 3442:Bryant, Edward (June 2014). 3083:10.1016/j.icarus.2020.113813 1948:"The Day The Dinosaurs Died" 424: 256:Location of Chicxulub crater 7: 6015:Planar deformation features 3763:Lunar and Planetary Science 3667:– via agu.confex.com. 3384:. Science and Environment. 2613:Global and Planetary Change 1544:Tenejapa-Lacandón Formation 1532: 1107:was uplifted such that the 1021:National Science Foundation 1014:and land stations to allow 736:of tektites from Haiti and 10: 6301: 6118:Impact Field Studies Group 5395:10.1038/s41598-021-82320-2 5198:10.1088/0004-637X/741/2/68 4161:10.1016/j.crte.2008.09.001 3641:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 3521:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117063 3208:10.1038/s41467-020-15269-x 3127:Astronomy & Geophysics 2908:10.1038/s41467-020-15269-x 2867:10.1038/s41586-022-04446-1 2511:American Geophysical Union 2468:Cambridge University Press 1505:Astronomy & Geophysics 1441:, David Vokrouhlický, and 1118: 845: 726:A 2013 study published in 47:Chicxulub impact structure 32:Chicxulub (disambiguation) 29: 6250:Cretaceous impact craters 6053: 5922: 5701: 5684: 5625: 5607: 5601:Impact cratering on Earth 5531: 5168:The Astrophysical Journal 4641:10.1038/s41586-018-0607-z 4141:Comptes Rendus Geoscience 3448:. Springer. p. 178. 2462:Frankel, Charles (1999). 2317:Osterloff, Emily (2018). 1564:Barberton Greenstone Belt 1311:containing impact melts. 1266:The most common observed 1216:Marathon-Ouachita orogeny 1012:ocean bottom seismometers 702:. This period of intense 481:The Alvarezes, joined by 374:, and the only one whose 289:Chicxulub crater (Mexico) 259:Show map of North America 229: 219: 211: 172: 167: 146: 138: 130: 116: 108: 100: 96:200 km (120 mi) 92: 84: 79: 51: 46: 41: 6260:Impact craters of Mexico 6088:William Kenneth Hartmann 5754:Clearwater East and West 5702:Confirmed≥20 km diameter 4821:"Discovering the Crater" 4401:10.1016/j.gr.2019.12.003 3149:10.1093/astrogeo/atab069 2509:(E9). Washington, D.C.: 2178:Alvarez, Walter (2008). 1992:University of Copenhagen 1901:(TV-series). PBS Video, 1336:depositional environment 1301:ductile shear structures 1016:3D travel time inversion 962:net primary productivity 308:Free-air gravity anomaly 112:10 km (6.2 mi) 104:1 km (0.62 mi) 6005:Ordovician meteor event 5131:2009M&PS...44.1917R 4918:10.1126/science.adk4868 3929:2001E&PSL.192..137L 3835:San Francisco Chronicle 3603:2004M&PS...39.1233G 3560:Smithsonian Institution 3513:2021E&PSL.57017063K 3266:; Sprain, Courtney J.; 2683:10.1126/science.aay5055 1792:10.1126/science.1177265 1723:Penfield, Glen (2019). 1658:10.1126/science.1230492 1359:differential compaction 80:Impact crater/structure 6108:Eugene Merle Shoemaker 5985:Late Heavy Bombardment 5465:July 22, 2018, at the 4684:10.1126/sciadv.aaz3053 2466:. Cambridge, England: 2323:Natural History Museum 1998:Becker, Luann (2002). 1375:carbonaceous chondrite 1148: 1137: 1077: 981: 855: 535: 398:in surrounding areas. 350:buried underneath the 311: 162:carbonaceous chondrite 6129:Traces of Catastrophe 6113:Earth Impact Database 6061:Ralph Belknap Baldwin 5478:"Doubts on Dinosaurs" 3828:(September 6, 2007). 3419:. December 20, 2018. 3188:Nature Communications 2946:Reviews of Geophysics 2900:Nature Communications 2144:on September 18, 2016 1418:platinum group metals 1416:Cr and the ratios of 1305:acoustic fluidization 1236:are thought to be of 1143: 1131: 1075: 979: 853: 804:(25–30%), along with 611:University of Arizona 520: 327:[t͡ʃikʃuˈluɓ] 306: 196:21.40000°N 89.51667°W 5246:. February 2, 2010. 5094:on November 14, 2007 4757:"Meteor impact site" 4106:10.1029/2005EO360001 3784:on October 26, 2020. 3287:(11–12): 1507–1520. 2560:(1). New York City: 2354:Verschuur, Gerrit L. 1891:; Hildebrand, Alan; 1508:countered that Loeb 918:Hell Creek Formation 829:crystalline basement 692:Princeton University 596:Johnson Space Center 476:geomagnetic reversal 5483:Scientific American 5386:2021NatSR..11.3803S 5293:2021Icar..36814621N 5190:2011ApJ...741...68M 5049:10.1038/nature06070 5041:2007Natur.449...48B 4969:1998Natur.396..237K 4831:on October 10, 2007 4761:National Geographic 4727:10.1038/nature13539 4719:2014Natur.511..578M 4633:2018Natur.562..511R 4537:2022GSAB..134..293D 4487:2022GSAB..134..895K 4437:2021MGeol.44106594G 4393:2020GondR..82..128Z 4343:1995Natur.376..415H 4254:1997Natur.390..472M 4153:2008CRGeo.340..801U 4097:2005EOSTr..86..325M 4018:1997Natur.390..472M 3877:1996Geo....24..527P 3775:2017LPI....48.1212K 3735:on October 10, 2017 3653:2018AGUFMPP53B..07R 3293:2015GSAB..127.1507R 3258:; Karlstrom, Leif; 3250:Richards, Mark A.; 3200:2020NatCo..11.1480C 3075:2020Icar..34613813N 3020:2008NatGe...1..131G 2958:2013RvGeo..51...31G 2859:2022Natur.603...91D 2804:2018Geo....46..547R 2749:2015GSAB..127..393S 2674:2020Sci...367..266H 2625:2020GPC...19403312K 2570:1997NYASA.822..353S 2519:1997JGR...10221645P 2441:1991Geo....19..867H 2321:. London, England: 2221:1980Natur.285..198S 2136:National Geographic 2084:1980Sci...208.1095A 2078:(4408): 1095–1108. 2019:2002SciAm.286c..76B 2007:Scientific American 1825:on December 9, 2011 1784:2010Sci...327.1214S 1778:(5970): 1214–1218. 1650:2013Sci...339..684R 1326:Post-impact geology 1193:Pan-African orogeny 995:2D seismic datasets 934:hydrothermal system 700:Indian subcontinent 698:in what is now the 643:nuclear detonations 449:(K–Pg boundary) in 439:Luis Walter Alvarez 437:-winning scientist 419:non-avian dinosaurs 201:21.40000; -89.51667 192: / 6025:Shock metamorphism 5930:Alvarez hypothesis 5534:Alvarez hypothesis 5433:The New York Times 5363:Scientific Reports 5337:The New York Times 4587:The New York Times 1946:(March 29, 2019). 1499:Scientific Reports 1469:, a member of the 1149: 1138: 1124:Pre-impact geology 1078: 1046:Hacienda Yaxcopoil 991:seismic reflection 982: 856: 782:carbonate platform 734:argon–argon dating 615:Alan R. Hildebrand 588:William C. Phinney 556:magnetic anomalies 536: 407:climate disruption 384:Alan R. Hildebrand 312: 292:Show map of Mexico 6255:Extinction events 6138: 6137: 6078:Edward C. T. Chao 5567: 5566: 5125:(12): 1917–1927. 4963:(6708): 237–239. 4912:(6710): 752–756. 4805:10.3390/w13050614 4713:(7511): 578–582. 4627:(7728): 511–518. 4381:Gondwana Research 4337:(6539): 415–417. 4294:(6866): 861–862. 4248:(6659): 472–476. 4062:978-0-8137-2339-6 4012:(6659): 472–476. 3707:Morgan, Joanna V. 3455:978-3-319-06133-7 3008:Nature Geoscience 2967:10.1002/rog.20007 2668:(6475): 266–272. 2528:10.1029/97JE01743 2481:978-0-521-47447-4 2388:Houston Chronicle 2367:978-0-19-511919-0 2215:(5762): 198–200. 2189:978-0-691-13103-0 1889:Bakker, Robert T. 1725:"Unlikely Impact" 1644:(6120): 684–687. 1447:Baptistina family 1439:William F. Bottke 1206:). These have an 1035:Borehole drilling 954:greenhouse effect 871:activity spawned 822:continental crust 758:Gorgonilla Island 679:lithostratigraphy 655:shock-metamorphic 613:graduate student 590:, curator of the 571:Houston Chronicle 548:Yucatán Peninsula 525:in what is today 523:Yucatán Peninsula 364:million years ago 352:Yucatán Peninsula 301: 300: 122:66.043 ± 0.043 Ma 109:Impactor diameter 16:(Redirected from 6292: 6227: 6226: 6225: 6215: 6214: 6213: 6203: 6202: 6191: 6190: 6189: 6179: 6178: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6155: 6154: 6146: 6103:Peter H. Schultz 6066:Daniel Barringer 5975:Impact structure 5696: 5690: 5594: 5587: 5580: 5571: 5570: 5559:Silverpit crater 5548:Chicxulub crater 5518: 5511: 5504: 5495: 5494: 5460:Chicxulub Crater 5449: 5447: 5445: 5418: 5417: 5407: 5397: 5379: 5353: 5351: 5349: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5286: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5183: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5142: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5101: 5099: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5073: 5024: 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5004: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4896: 4883: 4882: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4827:. Archived from 4819:Kring, David A. 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4702: 4696: 4695: 4672:Science Advances 4667: 4661: 4660: 4618: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4561: 4545:10.1130/B35795.1 4531:(1–2): 293–315. 4522: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4495:10.1130/B36020.1 4481:(3–4): 895–927. 4472: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4378: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4351:10.1038/376415a0 4326: 4320: 4319: 4283: 4274: 4273: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4044: 4038: 4037: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3977: 3966: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3908: 3902: 3896: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3822: 3813: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3777:. Archived from 3760: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3734: 3728:. Archived from 3715: 3702: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3632: 3614: 3597:(8): 1233–1247. 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3413: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3377: 3366: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3342: 3336: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3325: 3301:10.1130/B31167.1 3276: 3247: 3238: 3237: 3227: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3142: 3133:(3): 3.34–3.37. 3122: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3054: 3048: 3047: 2999: 2988: 2987: 2969: 2937: 2920: 2919: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2878: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2812:10.1130/G40224.1 2783: 2777: 2776: 2757:10.1130/B31076.1 2743:(3–4): 393–409. 2728: 2722: 2721: 2695: 2685: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2636: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2547: 2541: 2540: 2530: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2422: 2405: 2404: 2398: 2396: 2378: 2372: 2371: 2350: 2339: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2314: 2303: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2266: 2253: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2229:10.1038/285198a0 2200: 2194: 2193: 2175: 2154: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2140:. Archived from 2126: 2120: 2119: 2065: 2054: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2043: 2004: 2000:"Repeated Blows" 1995: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1944:Preston, Douglas 1940: 1919: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1884: 1859: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1824: 1818:. Archived from 1769: 1760: 1749: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1720: 1701: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1690: 1635: 1626: 1615: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1585: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1490:tidal disruption 1414:chromium isotope 1394: 1393: 1389: 1317: 1251:Upper Cretaceous 1242:Lower Cretaceous 1134:Chicxulub Puerto 985:Geophysical data 890:moment magnitude 776:in southwestern 722:Impact specifics 667:Chicxulub Pueblo 527:Southeast Mexico 433:and his father, 360:Chicxulub Puerto 356:Chicxulub Pueblo 343: 337: 336: 335: 329: 324: 316:Chicxulub crater 293: 283:Chicxulub crater 279: 278: 272: 260: 250:Chicxulub crater 246: 245: 239: 207: 206: 204: 203: 202: 197: 193: 190: 189: 188: 185: 56: 42:Chicxulub crater 39: 38: 21: 6300: 6299: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6265:Mérida, Yucatán 6235: 6234: 6233: 6223: 6221: 6211: 6209: 6197: 6187: 6185: 6173: 6163: 6161: 6149: 6141: 6139: 6134: 6083:Robert S. Dietz 6071:Barringer Medal 6049: 5960:Cryptoexplosion 5918: 5849:Puchezh-Katunki 5829:Nördlinger Ries 5697: 5691: 5682: 5648:Asia and Russia 5621: 5603: 5598: 5568: 5563: 5527: 5522: 5467:Wayback Machine 5456: 5443: 5441: 5422: 5421: 5347: 5345: 5328: 5324: 5267: 5263: 5253: 5251: 5238: 5237: 5233: 5223: 5221: 5160: 5156: 5111: 5107: 5097: 5095: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5035:(7158): 23–25. 5022: 5016: 5012: 5002: 5000: 4949: 4945: 4935: 4933: 4897: 4886: 4871: 4848: 4844: 4834: 4832: 4825:lpl.arizona.edu 4817: 4813: 4784: 4780: 4770: 4768: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4703: 4699: 4668: 4664: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4596: 4594: 4579: 4575: 4565: 4563: 4559: 4520: 4514: 4510: 4470: 4464: 4460: 4420: 4416: 4376: 4370: 4366: 4327: 4323: 4300:10.1038/414861a 4284: 4277: 4235: 4231: 4221: 4219: 4197: 4195: 4180: 4176: 4147:(12): 801–810. 4126: 4124: 4118: 4114: 4091:(36): 325–328. 4074: 4070: 4063: 4045: 4041: 3995: 3991: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3964: 3956: 3952: 3909: 3905: 3859: 3855: 3845: 3843: 3823: 3816: 3806: 3804: 3793: 3789: 3781: 3758: 3752: 3748: 3738: 3736: 3732: 3713: 3703: 3696: 3686: 3684: 3662: 3660: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3556:Smithsonian.com 3548: 3544: 3493: 3489: 3479: 3477: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3440: 3436: 3426: 3424: 3415: 3414: 3407: 3397: 3395: 3378: 3369: 3359: 3357: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3274: 3252:Alvarez, Walter 3248: 3241: 3176: 3172: 3123: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3055: 3051: 3028:10.1038/ngeo103 3000: 2991: 2938: 2923: 2896: 2892: 2853:(7899): 91–94. 2839: 2835: 2784: 2780: 2729: 2725: 2654: 2650: 2605: 2601: 2562:Wiley-Blackwell 2548: 2544: 2493: 2489: 2482: 2460: 2456: 2423: 2408: 2394: 2392: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2351: 2342: 2332: 2330: 2315: 2306: 2296: 2294: 2267: 2256: 2246: 2244: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2176: 2157: 2147: 2145: 2127: 2123: 2066: 2057: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2002: 1990:. Vol. 2. 1977: 1973: 1963: 1961: 1941: 1922: 1912: 1910: 1886: 1885: 1862: 1852: 1850: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1767: 1761: 1752: 1742: 1740: 1721: 1704: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1633: 1627: 1618: 1608: 1606: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1535: 1525: 1521: 1520:10 kg (4.4 1517: 1513: 1455:S-type asteroid 1391: 1387: 1386: 1371:C-type asteroid 1367: 1328: 1315: 1283:alkali feldspar 1264: 1212:slab detachment 1126: 1121: 1070: 1037: 987: 974: 895: 848: 724: 635:Caribbean Basin 531:mass extinction 427: 415:mass extinction 392:gravity anomaly 341: 331: 330: 319: 297: 296: 295: 294: 291: 290: 287: 286: 285: 284: 280: 263: 262: 261: 258: 257: 254: 253: 252: 251: 247: 200: 198: 194: 191: 186: 183: 181: 179: 178: 123: 75: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6298: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6232: 6231: 6219: 6207: 6195: 6183: 6171: 6159: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6132: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6074: 6073: 6063: 6057: 6055: 6051: 6050: 6048: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6030:Shocked quartz 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5990:Lechatelierite 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5965:Ejecta blanket 5962: 5957: 5952: 5950:Complex crater 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5744:Chesapeake Bay 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5705: 5703: 5699: 5698: 5685: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5629: 5627: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5597: 5596: 5589: 5582: 5574: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5545: 5543:Boltysh crater 5539: 5537: 5529: 5528: 5521: 5520: 5513: 5506: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5486: 5475: 5469: 5455: 5454:External links 5452: 5451: 5450: 5420: 5419: 5370:(3803): 3803. 5322: 5261: 5231: 5154: 5105: 5010: 4943: 4884: 4869: 4842: 4811: 4778: 4748: 4697: 4662: 4604: 4573: 4508: 4458: 4425:Marine Geology 4414: 4364: 4321: 4275: 4229: 4174: 4112: 4068: 4061: 4039: 3989: 3950: 3923:(2): 137–144. 3903: 3871:(6): 527–530. 3853: 3826:Perlman, David 3814: 3787: 3769:(1964): 1212. 3746: 3694: 3577: 3542: 3487: 3461: 3454: 3434: 3405: 3367: 3337: 3264:Manga, Michael 3260:Renne, Paul R. 3239: 3170: 3108: 3049: 3014:(2): 131–135. 2989: 2921: 2890: 2833: 2798:(6): 547–550. 2778: 2723: 2648: 2599: 2542: 2487: 2480: 2454: 2435:(9): 867–871. 2406: 2373: 2366: 2340: 2304: 2254: 2195: 2188: 2155: 2121: 2055: 1971: 1953:The New Yorker 1920: 1860: 1750: 1702: 1616: 1579: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1534: 1531: 1451:298 Baptistina 1443:David Nesvorný 1366: 1363: 1342:, consists of 1327: 1324: 1263: 1260: 1227:supercontinent 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1069: 1066: 1036: 1033: 1019:funded by the 986: 983: 973: 970: 958:Photosynthesis 946:carbon dioxide 893: 860:kinetic energy 847: 844: 824:, composed of 794:carbonate rock 762:isotope curves 752:and overlying 723: 720: 627:shocked quartz 544:Gulf of Mexico 512:Snowbird, Utah 472:climate change 431:Walter Alvarez 426: 423: 388:shocked quartz 299: 298: 288: 282: 281: 274: 273: 267: 266: 265: 264: 255: 249: 248: 241: 240: 234: 233: 232: 231: 230: 227: 226: 221: 217: 216: 213: 209: 208: 176: 170: 169: 165: 164: 151: 144: 143: 140: 136: 135: 132: 128: 127: 120: 114: 113: 110: 106: 105: 102: 98: 97: 94: 90: 89: 86: 82: 81: 77: 76: 57: 49: 48: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6297: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6208: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6194: 6193:Palaeontology 6184: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6170: 6160: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6147: 6144: 6131: 6130: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6093:H. Jay Melosh 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6052: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5970:Impact crater 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5921: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5874:Slate Islands 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5695: 5689: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5668:South America 5666: 5664: 5663:North America 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5624: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5612:Impact crater 5610: 5609: 5606: 5602: 5595: 5590: 5588: 5583: 5581: 5576: 5575: 5572: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5530: 5526: 5519: 5514: 5512: 5507: 5505: 5500: 5499: 5496: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5484: 5479: 5476: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5464: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5444:September 25, 5439: 5435: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5423: 5415: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5343: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5326: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5265: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5235: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5158: 5150: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5109: 5098:September 27, 5093: 5089: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5029: 5021: 5014: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4977:10.1038/24322 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4870:9781862390171 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4846: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4782: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4752: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4701: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4615: 4608: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4577: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4519: 4512: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4469: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4418: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4325: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4282: 4280: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4262:10.1038/37291 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4123: 4116: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4072: 4064: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4026:10.1038/37291 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3962: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3907: 3900: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3865: 3857: 3841: 3837: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3821: 3819: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3750: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3682: 3678: 3677:Research Gate 3674: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3457: 3451: 3447: 3446: 3438: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3410: 3393: 3389: 3388: 3383: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3256:Self, Stephen 3253: 3246: 3244: 3235: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3180:Morgan, J. V. 3174: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2894: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2554: 2546: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2503: 2498: 2491: 2483: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2429: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2402: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2377: 2369: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2199: 2191: 2185: 2181: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2143: 2139: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2001: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1984:Alvarez, L.W. 1981: 1975: 1959: 1955: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1913:September 25, 1908: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1766: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1738: 1735:(12): 20–23. 1734: 1730: 1729:AAPG Explorer 1726: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1632: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595: 1590: 1584: 1580: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1530: 1511: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1475:asteroid belt 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1429: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1397:sediment core 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1332:sedimentation 1323: 1321: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1234:clastic rocks 1230: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1204:Carboniferous 1201: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1189:igneous rocks 1186: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1146: 1142: 1135: 1130: 1116: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1083:normal faults 1074: 1065: 1063: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1039:Intermittent 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1001: 996: 992: 978: 969: 965: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 942: 940: 935: 931: 926: 921: 919: 915: 911: 907: 906:incandescence 903: 897: 891: 887: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 861: 852: 843: 841: 840:Mount Everest 836: 834: 830: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 730: 719: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 683: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 646: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 575: 573: 572: 566: 560: 557: 553: 549: 546:north of the 545: 541: 532: 528: 524: 519: 515: 513: 508: 507: 502: 498: 497: 492: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 464: 460: 456: 452: 451:Gubbio, Italy 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 422: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 399: 397: 393: 389: 385: 379: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 348:impact crater 345: 344: 334: 328: 322: 317: 309: 305: 271: 238: 228: 225: 222: 218: 214: 210: 205: 177: 175: 171: 166: 163: 159: 155: 152: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 126: 121: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 78: 73: 69: 65: 61: 58:Imaging from 55: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 6127: 6098:Graham Ryder 6020:Shatter cone 6010:Philippinite 5859:Saint Martin 5854:Rochechouart 5759:Gosses Bluff 5748: 5714:Amelia Creek 5617:Impact event 5554:Shiva crater 5547: 5481: 5442:. Retrieved 5431: 5367: 5361: 5348:February 15, 5346:. Retrieved 5335: 5325: 5274: 5270: 5264: 5252:. Retrieved 5243: 5234: 5222:. Retrieved 5171: 5167: 5157: 5122: 5118: 5108: 5096:. Retrieved 5092:the original 5076:. Retrieved 5032: 5026: 5013: 5001:. Retrieved 4960: 4956: 4946: 4934:. Retrieved 4909: 4905: 4852: 4845: 4833:. Retrieved 4829:the original 4824: 4814: 4795: 4791: 4781: 4769:. Retrieved 4760: 4751: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4675: 4671: 4665: 4624: 4620: 4607: 4595:. Retrieved 4586: 4576: 4564:. Retrieved 4528: 4525:GSA Bulletin 4524: 4511: 4478: 4475:GSA Bulletin 4474: 4461: 4428: 4424: 4417: 4384: 4380: 4367: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4291: 4287: 4245: 4241: 4232: 4220:. Retrieved 4211: 4196:. Retrieved 4187: 4177: 4144: 4140: 4125:. Retrieved 4115: 4088: 4084: 4071: 4052: 4042: 4009: 4005: 3992: 3980:. Retrieved 3960: 3953: 3920: 3916: 3913:Beerling, D. 3906: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3844:. Retrieved 3833: 3807:November 29, 3805:. Retrieved 3790: 3779:the original 3766: 3762: 3749: 3737:. Retrieved 3730:the original 3717: 3685:. Retrieved 3676: 3661:. Retrieved 3644: 3640: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3570:February 26, 3568:. Retrieved 3555: 3545: 3504: 3500: 3490: 3478:. Retrieved 3475:ScienceAlert 3474: 3464: 3444: 3437: 3425:. Retrieved 3396:. Retrieved 3385: 3358:. Retrieved 3349: 3340: 3328:. Retrieved 3284: 3280:GSA Bulletin 3278: 3191: 3187: 3173: 3130: 3126: 3101:February 19, 3099:. Retrieved 3066: 3062: 3052: 3011: 3007: 2952:(1): 31–52. 2949: 2945: 2899: 2893: 2850: 2846: 2836: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2740: 2736: 2726: 2665: 2661: 2651: 2616: 2612: 2602: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2506: 2500: 2490: 2463: 2457: 2432: 2426: 2399:– via 2395:September 1, 2393:. Retrieved 2386: 2376: 2357: 2331:. Retrieved 2295:. Retrieved 2278: 2274: 2245:. Retrieved 2212: 2208: 2198: 2179: 2146:. Retrieved 2142:the original 2134: 2124: 2075: 2069: 2046:. Retrieved 2013:(3): 76–83. 2010: 2006: 1987: 1974: 1962:. Retrieved 1951: 1911:. Retrieved 1897: 1893:Melosh, Gene 1851:. Retrieved 1827:. 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