248:
88:
215:"The vast majority of entrepreneurs in post-Mao China are men. This is largely due to the fact that business networking requires entering spaces (such as nightclubs and saunas) and participating in activities (drinking, gambling, and sex consumption) that are not viewed as appropriate for "proper" women....these networks constitute a key component of business...the bulk of the relationships of these networks are forged and maintained through ritualized leisure-experiences of shared pleasures catering to the desires and enjoyments of elite men, including karaoke clubs, saunas, nightclubs, high-end restaurants, and teahouses.
72:
61:
53:. The term double eyelid refers to the prominent crease natural to approximately 66.7% and 83.1% of Chinese women. For the minority that does not naturally have them, this look can be achieved temporarily by using specific cosmetic products such as tape or glue. A permanent option is to undergo a procedure titled
303:
were renowned for their small waists and continue to be glorified to this day. Similar to the aforementioned feet binding, waist binding was common practice; men were attracted to women who swayed when they walked due to improper hip growth. In the later Tang dynasty, fuller figures were more popular
255:
A study looked at which type of eyelid was considered most attractive on
Chinese women. Edited photographs of young Chinese women's eyes were presented to the test participants. It found that there was significant preference for the double eyelid while the single eyelid was considered to be the least
197:
that assailed the practice, claiming, "during the long historical period when foot binding became common women's way of life, foot binding was just considered the most natural physical behavior for girls. Foot binding was as common as eating and dressing. Foot binding was also a way for women to seek
131:
that inhibits the attainment of sexual harmony. In her article "Female Bodily
Aesthetics, Politics, and Feminine Ideals of Beauty," Eva Kit Wah Man articulates how Confucianism and Taoism played essential roles in the creation of Chinese beauty ideals: "In the Chinese tradition, as in other cultures,
184:
with
Chinese characteristics. The rise of Chinese feminist development is highly influenced by the claims of the "new " China (since the early 19th century) and its government that it would save the Chinese woman from the "old society" and set women's minds free (Chun, 2008). An article published in
311:
Modern
Chinese people have long considered the ideal woman's body to be relatively tall, slim, and curvaceous. Fascination towards height has continued to increase as evidenced by Chinese beauty pageant winners, but this could correlate more to global pageant standards rather than cultural ideals.
243:
Double eyelids are unconditionally considered beautiful in East Asian society. The double eyelid is a crease in the small flap of skin that covers the eye. It has been estimated that 17–32% of
Chinese women lack this upper eyelid crease, giving them a monolid appearance. However, this is not ideal
273:
In ancient times, skin tone was known to indicate social class. Women of wealthy backgrounds did not have to perform agricultural work, and thus did not acquire a dark complexion. Thus a lighter skin became associated with power, social status, and wealth. Due to this perception, there has been
222:
further expands on these areas and this culture. In many cases, relationships between employees, co-workers, partners, etc. are forged through these settings. Based on these traditional practices, it can be stated that it is of utmost importance then for the women to be aesthetically pleasing,
148:
also expands on these ideals, delving into the impact women have in
Chinese society. Thus, historically, the religious influences on Chinese beauty ideals closely tied outer beauty to inner beauty. Historically, an oval face, willow leaf eyebrows, long thin eyes, small lips, and a slim,
281:
has emerged as the new female beauty ideal among younger women, who view their tan skin as healthier and more attractive than pale skin. According to Tai Wei Lim, Chinese women in media now sport bronze complexions, and this is viewed as a reclamation of women's autonomy within China.
446:"<italic>The Life of Moses Coit Tyler</italic>. By <sc>Howard Mumford Jones</sc>. Based upon an Unpublished Dissertation from Original Sources by <sc>Thomas Edgar Casady</sc>. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1933. Pp. xi, 354. $ 2.50.)"
298:
often starved themselves to death in order to capture his attention. Historic trends of women developing anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder, to fit trends of beauty represents systemic psychology still influence today's culture surrounding body image. Chinese figures such as
211:
explores the gender relations in Post Mao China, documenting the well-known disparity that exists between men and women. A theme of his work is that the objectification of women as a commonplace in
Chinese culture creates the gender inequalities that are still prevalent today.
35:, and obtuse jaw angle. The importance of feminine beauty in China has been deeply ingrained into the culture: historically, a woman's livelihood was often determined by her ability to find an eligible husband, a feat aided by fitting into the cultural ideals of beauty.
260:, typically costs around $ 3,000. During this 30 minute surgery, doctors cut, fold, and stitch the upper eyelids, creating a small crease above the eyelids. This operation makes the eye appear larger and more round, giving the woman a more desirable look.
41:
that is long, thick and shiny is seen as particularly beautiful among
Chinese women. Similarly, pale, ivory skin, and a slim body figure have historical implications as being a physical representation of wealth and affluence. More recently, however,
206:
In
Chinese culture, there is a significant emphasis placed on the appearance and physical allure of women, which is apparent in both business and social settings. John Osburg, Director of Anthropology at the University of Rochester in his book,
308:(環肥燕瘦, literally "plump Huan, slender Fei") is used to refer to the range of types of beauties. Yang Yuhuan, the "plump Huan", is estimated by unofficial records to have been 1.65 meters tall and weighed 69 kilograms.
315:
In recent times there are new aesthetic trends for shapes of certain body features which are not considered medically healthy, such as square shoulder (直角肩) and butterfly shoulder (蝴蝶肩, visibly protruding scapula).
1045:"Dorothy Ko. <italic>Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China</italic>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1994. Pp. ix, 395. Cloth $ 45.00, paper $ 16.95"
114:
and outer beauty has influenced the creation of the
Chinese female beauty ideal. To further see the history of this culture, as well as how these ideals came into place see
218:
As Osburg details, karaoke clubs, saunas, nightclubs, etc. are meant to attract the businessmen, as there are also multiple red light districts around these areas.
256:
attractive. Because of this, many Chinese women go through a surgery that creates a fold in the upper eyelid giving them the double eyelid. This procedure, called
1190:
247:
87:
164:
country, nor a purely Marxist country. They fundamentally ignore this type of question about the essence of its political position, and develop their
729:
46:
has emerged as the preferred beauty ideal among some younger Chinese women, who view their tan skin as healthier and more attractive than pale skin.
999:<385::aid-eat3>3.0.co;2-i "Beyond body image: The integration of feminist and transcultural theories in the understanding of self starvation"
983:
Department of Asian Art. "Han Dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.)." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
762:
1318:
1183:
777:
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both the external sexual and inner moral dimensions determine the beauty of a woman…The notion of female beauty comes from both (
925:
1176:
962:
548:
493:
849:
Li, F. C.; Ma, L. H. (2008). "Double eyelid blepharoplasty incorporating epicanthoplasty using Y-V advancement procedure".
144:" does not refer to an aspect of a dichotomy between mind and body, as there is no such dichotomy in Chinese philosophy.
1256:
223:
further highlighting women's attempt to capture beauty, or at least capture the way it is perceived by Chinese Culture.
1323:
1274:
833:
1246:
1226:
193:) into the first decades of the twentieth century, despite the elite, male-dominated discourse of liberation and
689:
778:"From Foot-binding to High-heeled Shoes——The Transition of Modern Chinese Women's Physical Aesthetic Symbols"
295:
189:
uses an earlier nativist satire to argue that women themselves voluntarily desired the beauty of small feet (
1370:
738:
1297:
1411:
1241:
1416:
566:"The Prevalence of Double Eyelid and the 3D Measurement of Orbital Soft Tissue in Malays and Chinese"
325:
27:. A 2018 survey conducted by the Great British Academy of Aesthetic Medicine concluded that Chinese
1473:
1436:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1350:
291:
194:
181:
788:(1): 47–50 – via China Academic Journals (CD Edition) Electronic Publishing House Co., Ltd.
118:. Outer beauty was thought to represent virtuousness, talent, and other positive characteristics.
1483:
1355:
1292:
540:
Women Hold Up Half The Sky: The Political-economic And Socioeconomic Narratives Of Women In China
1478:
1391:
1345:
1282:
1267:
516:
952:
677:
483:
390:"Ideals of Facial Beauty Amongst the Chinese Population: Results from a Large National Survey"
235:
is regarded as exceptionally beautiful, particularly when its growth is strong and luxuriant.
1386:
1287:
926:
https://www.plasticsurgery.org/cosmetic-procedures/eyelid-surgery?sub=Eyelid%2Bsurgery%2Bcost
924:"What Is Eyelid Surgery?" American Society of Plastic Surgeons. 2014. Web. 26 Oct. 2016. <
886:"The effect of "single" vs "double" eyelids on the perceived attractiveness of Chinese women"
538:
363:
341:
219:
938:
1448:
1441:
1431:
1421:
822:
The Search for the Beautiful Woman : A Cultural History of Japanese and Chinese Beauty
577:
312:
Values of fragility in Chinese culture have proven to be relatively prevalent and stable.
8:
998:
49:
A relatively new ideal ingrained into Chinese culture consists of the notion of having a
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1365:
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Hays, Jeffrey. "Cosmetic Surgery in China." Home. July 2015. Web. 26 Oct. 2016. <
662:
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790:但在缠足成为普通 女性生活方式的那段漫长的历史时期恰恰缠足才 被认为是女孩子最天然的身体行为缠足就如同吃 饭穿衣一样平常缠足亦是女性寻求身体美的一种 方式
358:
157:
115:
24:
1168:
1218:
1095:
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589:
389:
346:
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social pressure in Chinese cultures to avoid direct sunlight in the outdoors.
257:
145:
122:
54:
32:
31:
prioritizes an oval face shape, pointed, narrow chin, plump lips, well defined
1056:
405:
1467:
1150:
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1064:
1044:
1022:
954:
Framing the Bride: Globalizing Beauty and Romance in Taiwan's Bridal Industry
902:
885:
646:
465:
413:
335:
92:
50:
1142:
678:"Female Bodily Aesthetics, Politics, and Feminine Ideals of Beauty in China"
621:
Rohrich, Rod J.; Coberly, Dana M.; Fagien, Steven; Stuzin, James M. (2004).
1261:
1158:
1103:
911:
870:
654:
607:
457:
431:
150:
137:
111:
76:
1030:
445:
60:
731:
On Feminism and China: Foot-Binding as an Aesthetic, History and Dialogue
485:
Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought
300:
190:
64:
1015:
10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199712)22:4<385::aid-eat3>3.0.co;2-i
232:
161:
141:
38:
156:
Modern Chinese society is highly influenced by Western capitalist and
1231:
103:
304:
due to associations with good fortune and wealth. The Chinese idiom
1125:
Chang, K. S. F.; Lee, Marjorie M. C.; Low, W. D.; Kvan, E. (1963).
330:
278:
177:
169:
43:
173:
165:
133:
107:
99:
1203:
488:. Routledge Dictionaries. Taylor & Francis. p. 163.
294:(722–481 BC), Emperor Chu desired a slim waist; women in his
186:
160:. The Chinese would not describe themselves as a completely
851:
Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery
620:
564:
Lu, Ting Yin; Kadir, Kathreena; Ngeow, Wei Cheong (2017).
939:
http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat11/sub75/item136.html
808:
Anxious Wealth: Money and Morality among China's New Rich
517:"The end of the queue: hair as symbol in Chinese history"
121:
In Taoist thought, women with masculine voices make poor
57:, which utilizes cosmetic surgery to reshape the eyelid.
705:"Future Faces: Vogue China and Curating Chinese Beauty"
127:
477:
475:
1080:"Cultural Expectations of Thinness in Chinese Women"
828:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 224.
623:"Current Concepts in Aesthetic Upper Blepharoplasty"
16:
Beauty standards within China or Chinese communities
1078:Leung, Freedom; Lam, Sharon; Sze, Sherrien (2001).
472:
201:
944:
1198:
985:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hand/hd_hand.htm
1465:
1127:"Height and weight of Southern Chinese children"
675:
388:Samizadeh, Souphiyeh; Wu, Woffles (2018-07-09).
1124:
957:. University of California Press. p. 165.
149:fragile-looking body were preferred during the
1184:
883:
563:
1077:
387:
125:, because this trait suggests an excess of
1191:
1177:
996:
761:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
737:. New York. pp. 23–30. Archived from
180:in their own way. They call themselves a
1131:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1003:International Journal of Eating Disorders
901:
597:
532:
530:
421:
110:beauty place on the relationship between
819:
481:
246:
86:
70:
59:
997:Katzman, Melanie A.; Lee, Sing (1997).
1466:
950:
782:Journal of Shandong Women's University
527:
1172:
884:Hwang, H. S.; Spiegel, J. H. (2014).
802:
800:
798:
848:
727:
684:, Indiana Univ Pr, pp. 169–96,
543:. World Scientific. pp. 47–48.
23:have become a well-known feature of
536:
13:
813:
795:
775:
639:10.1097/01.PRS.0000105684.06281.32
627:Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
514:
14:
1495:
1275:Three Obediences and Four Virtues
537:Lim, Tai Wei (22 February 2021).
244:when it comes to Chinese beauty.
263:
238:
202:Beauty ideals in Chinese culture
1118:
1071:
1037:
990:
977:
931:
918:
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842:
769:
721:
251:Blepharoplasty before and after
1049:The American Historical Review
697:
669:
614:
557:
508:
450:The American Historical Review
438:
381:
185:the widely circulated journal
1:
1257:In ancient and imperial times
374:
285:
1371:Traditional Chinese marriage
1227:All-China Women's Federation
268:
7:
319:
75:A Chinese woman during the
10:
1500:
1412:LGBTQ culture in Hong Kong
1096:10.1080/106402601753454903
863:10.1016/j.bjps.2007.05.008
590:10.1038/s41598-017-14829-4
231:On a woman, long, shining
82:
1417:LGBTQ culture in Shanghai
1379:
1319:Chinese-foreign marriages
1308:
1217:
1210:
890:Aesthetic Surgery Journal
676:Kit Wah Man, Eva (2000),
406:10.1007/s00266-018-1188-9
394:Aesthetic Plastic Surgery
326:Cosmetic surgery in China
1407:LGBTQ culture in Chengdu
1402:LGBTQ culture in Beijing
1351:Marriage in modern China
1324:Family planning policies
903:10.1177/1090820X14523020
292:Spring and Autumn period
277:More recently, however,
182:socialist market economy
21:Chinese beauty standards
1252:Ideals of female beauty
1247:Globalization and women
1143:10.1002/ajpa.1330210407
1057:10.1086/ahr/101.3.892-a
226:
98:The emphasis that both
1268:Good Wife, Wise Mother
1232:Female migrant workers
776:LI, Wei-xiang (2011).
252:
95:
79:
68:
482:Eberhard, W. (2006).
364:Feminine beauty ideal
342:Prostitution in China
250:
220:Prostitution in China
90:
74:
63:
458:10.1086/ahr/40.1.152
951:Adrian, B. (2003).
826:Selden, Kyoko Iriye
582:2017NatSR...714819L
515:Godley, Michael R.
67:, a Chinese actress
1366:Polyandry in Tibet
1339:Three-child policy
1298:Female infanticide
728:Chun, Lin (2008).
570:Scientific Reports
521:East Asian History
253:
198:physical beauty."
96:
91:Xishi, one of the
80:
69:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1456:
964:978-0-520-23834-3
820:Kyo, Cho (2012).
550:978-981-12-2620-5
495:978-1-134-98865-5
1491:
1361:New Marriage Law
1334:Two-child policy
1329:One-child policy
1215:
1214:
1193:
1186:
1179:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1122:
1116:
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1084:Eating Disorders
1075:
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1068:
1041:
1035:
1034:
994:
988:
981:
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935:
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905:
881:
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846:
840:
839:
824:. Translated by
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811:
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506:
505:
503:
502:
479:
470:
469:
442:
436:
435:
425:
400:(6): 1540–1550.
385:
369:Social influence
158:Marxist thoughts
1499:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1474:Chinese fashion
1464:
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1453:
1427:same-sex unions
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1123:
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359:Chinese culture
322:
306:huanfei yanshou
288:
271:
266:
241:
229:
209:Anxious Wealth,
204:
123:sexual partners
116:Chinese Culture
85:
25:Chinese culture
17:
12:
11:
5:
1497:
1487:
1486:
1484:Women in China
1481:
1476:
1459:
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1389:
1383:
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1363:
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1356:Naked marriage
1353:
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1346:Ghost marriage
1343:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1321:
1315:
1313:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1293:Son preference
1290:
1285:
1280:
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1278:
1271:
1264:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1223:
1221:
1212:
1208:
1207:
1202:and gender in
1196:
1195:
1188:
1181:
1173:
1165:
1164:
1137:(4): 497–509.
1117:
1090:(4): 339–350.
1070:
1036:
1009:(4): 385–394.
989:
987:(October 2000)
976:
963:
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930:
917:
876:
841:
834:
812:
806:Osburg, John.
794:
768:
720:
696:
690:
682:Beauty Matters
668:
633:(3): 32e–42e.
613:
556:
549:
526:
507:
494:
471:
437:
379:
378:
376:
373:
372:
371:
366:
361:
350:
349:
347:Women in China
344:
339:
333:
328:
321:
318:
287:
284:
270:
267:
265:
262:
258:blepharoplasty
240:
237:
228:
225:
203:
200:
146:Women in China
84:
81:
55:blepharoplasty
29:beauty culture
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1496:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1479:Female beauty
1477:
1475:
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1471:
1469:
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1400:
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1395:
1393:
1392:Homosexuality
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1378:
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1283:Missing women
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1004:
1000:
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980:
966:
960:
956:
955:
947:
940:
934:
927:
921:
913:
909:
904:
899:
896:(3): 374–82.
895:
891:
887:
880:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
845:
837:
835:9781442218932
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827:
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816:
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803:
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799:
791:
787:
783:
779:
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758:
744:on 2011-10-05
740:
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