History of Chinese Americans

3857: 3084:. Nevertheless, these young men had no idea that they had been brought from San Francisco by the superintendent of the shoe factory to act as strikebreakers at their destination. This incident provided the trade unions with propaganda, later repeatedly cited, calling for the immediate and total exclusion of the Chinese. This particular controversy slackened somewhat as attention focused on the economic crises in 1875 when the majority of cigar and boots manufacturing companies went under. Mainly, just the textile industry still employed Chinese workers in large numbers. In 1876, in response to the rising anti-Chinese hysteria, both major political parties included Chinese exclusion in their campaign platforms as a way to win votes by taking advantage of the nation's industrial crisis. Rather than directly confronting the divisive problems such as class conflict, economic depression, and rising unemployment, this helped put the question of Chinese immigration and contracted Chinese workers on the national agenda and eventually paved way for the era's most racist legislation, the 6113:, 169 U.S. at 705. "The evident intention, and the necessary effect, of the submission of this case to the decision of the court upon the facts agreed by the parties were to present for determination the single question stated at the beginning of this opinion, namely, whether a child born in the United States, of parent "" of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China, becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States. For the reasons above stated, this court is of opinion that the question must be answered in the affirmative." 2552: 2141:

few were women. In 1850, the Chinese community of San Francisco consisted of 4,018 men and only seven women. By 1855, women made up only two percent of the Chinese population in the United States, and even by 1890 this had only increased to 4.8 percent. The lack of visibility of Chinese women in general was due partially to the cost of making the voyage when there was a lack of work opportunities for Chinese women in America. This was exacerbated by the harsh working conditions and the traditional female responsibility of looking after the children and extended family back in China. The only women who did go to America were usually the wives of merchants. Other factors were cultural in nature, such as having

3974:, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), applied to a person of Chinese ancestry, born in and a citizen of the United States. The court held that Miss Lum was not denied equal protection of the law because she was given the opportunity to attend a school which "receive only children of the brown, yellow or black races". However, Chinese Americans in the Mississippi Delta began to identify themselves with whites and ended their friendship with the black community in Mississippi. By the late 1960s, Chinese American children attended white schools and universities. They joined Mississippi's infamous White citizen's councils, became members of white churches, were defined as white on driver's licenses, and could marry whites. 2767:. Just as with the railway construction, there was a dire manpower shortage in the expanding Californian agriculture sector, so the white landowners began in the 1860s to put thousands of Chinese migrants to work in their large-scale farms and other agricultural enterprises. Many of these Chinese laborers were not unskilled seasonal workers, but were in fact experienced farmers, whose vital expertise the Californian fruit, vegetables and wine industries owe much to this very day. Despite this, the Chinese immigrants could not own any land on account of the laws in California at the time. Nevertheless, they frequently pursued agricultural work under leases or profit-sharing contracts with their employers. 2529:

California, the taxes were primarily aimed at them and tax revenue was therefore generated almost exclusively by the Chinese. This tax required a payment of three dollars each month at a time when Chinese miners were making approximately six dollars a month. Tax collectors could legally take and sell the property of those miners who refused or could not pay the tax. Fake tax collectors made money by taking advantage of people who could not speak English well, and some tax collectors, both false and real, stabbed or shot miners who could not or would not pay the tax. During the 1860s, many Chinese were expelled from the mine fields and forced to find other jobs. The Foreign Miner's Tax existed until 1870.

6101:, 169 U.S. at 653. "The question presented by the record is whether a child born in the United States, of parents of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China, becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States by virtue of the first clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, 'All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.'" 1962:, with the choice usually being decided by distance of either city. Only merchants were able to take their wives and children overseas. The vast majority of Chinese immigrants were peasants, farmers and craftsmen. Young men, who were usually married, left their wives and children behind since they intended to stay in America only temporarily. Wives also remained behind to fulfill their traditional obligation to care for their husbands' parents. The men sent a large part of the money they earned in America back to China. Because it was usual at that time in China to live in confined social nets, families, unions, guilds, and sometimes whole village communities or even regions (for instance, 3469: 3535: 5641:

against the exploitation of Chinese labor by the Central Pacific Railroad, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson. Monopsonists are buyers whose share of the market is large enough to affect prices, or whose supply curves are not completely elastic. By setting different wages for whites and Chinese – each having different elasticities of supply – and using Chinese in the menial and dangerous jobs, with whites in the better positions, the two groups were complementary rather than interchangeable. Calculations thus prove higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than in previous studies.

3041: 3028:, a federal U.S. law adopted in 1888, established that the Chinese migrants, even when they had entered and were living the United States legally, could not re-enter after having temporarily left U.S. territory. The Chinese fishermen, in effect, could therefore not leave with their boats the 3-mile (4.8 km) zone of the west coast. Their work became unprofitable, and gradually they gave up fishing. The only area where the Chinese fishermen remained unchallenged was shark fishing, where they stood in no competition to the European Americans. Many former fishermen found work in the salmon 2090: 1926: 4263: 2242: 2576: 2513:

individuals or in small groups, the Chinese formed large teams, which protected them from attacks and, because of good organization, often gave them a higher yield. To protect themselves even further against attacks, they preferred to work areas that other gold seekers regarded as unproductive and had given up on. Because much of the gold fields were exhaustingly gone over until the beginning of the 20th century, many of the Chinese remained far longer than the European miners. In 1870, one-third of the men in the Californian gold fields were Chinese.

2686:. However construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, then by the mountains themselves and most importantly by winter snowstorms. Consequently, the Central Pacific expanded its efforts to hire immigrant laborers (many of whom were Chinese). The immigrants seemed to be more willing to tolerate the horrible conditions, and progress continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling then began to slow progress of the line yet again. To combat this, Central Pacific began to use the newly invented and very unstable 2695: 4125:

to a white woman. At the start of the 20th century there was a 55% rate of Chinese men in New York engaging in interracial marriage, which was maintained in the 1920s, but by the 1930s it had fallen to 20%. It is after the migration of Chinese females in equal number to Chinese males that intermarriage became more balanced. The 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men. The census also showed 300 Chinese men married black women and 100 black men married Chinese women.

3807: 2402: 2319: 1988: 3581: 1831: 3097: 2744: 4153:, and child quieters. However, many 19th century doctors and opium experts, such as Dr. H.H. Kane and Dr. Leslie E. Keeley, made a distinction between opium used for smoking and that used for medicinal purposes, though they found no difference in addictive potential between them. As part of a larger campaign to rid the United States of Chinese influence, white American doctors claimed that opium smoking led to increased involvement in prostitution by young white women and to genetic contamination via 2906: 4032:. Slummers often frequented the brothels and opium dens of Chinatown in the late 1880s and early 1890s. However, by the mid-1890s, slummers rarely participated in Chinese brothels or opium smoking, but instead were shown fake opium joints where Chinese actors and their white wives staged illicit and exaggerated scenes for their audiences. Quite often such shows, which included gunfights that mimicked those of local tongs, were staged by professional guides or "lobbygows"—often 4533: 2449: 37: 1500: 1461: 1510: 82: 2547:... a race of people whom nature has marked as inferior, and who are incapable of progress or intellectual development beyond a certain point, as their history has shown; differing in language, opinions, color, and physical conformation; between whom and ourselves nature has placed an impassable difference" and as such had no right " to swear away the life of a citizen" or participate" with us in administering the affairs of our Government. 3508:" whose work caused wage dumping and thereby prevented American men from "gaining work". After the 1893 economic downturn, measures adopted in the severe depression included anti-Chinese riots that eventually spread throughout the West from which came racist violence and massacres. Most of the Chinese farm workers, which by 1890 comprised 75% of all Californian agricultural workers, were expelled. The Chinese found refuge and shelter in the 4412: 4175: 1703: 3554:

to physically threaten foreigners' mines or gold diggings. Most, after being forcibly driven from the mines, settled in Chinese enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low end wage labor such as restaurant work and laundry. A few settled in towns throughout the west. With the post Civil War economy in decline by the 1870s, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader (and famous anti-Chinese advocate)

3461: 3761:, 66 Cal. 473 (1885) was a landmark court case in the California Supreme Court in which the Court found the exclusion of a Chinese American student, Mamie Tape, from public school based on her ancestry unlawful. However, state legislation passed at the urging of San Francisco Superintendent of Schools Andrew J. Moulder after the school board lost its case enabled the establishment of a segregated school. 4324:, of the 237,293 Chinese Americans (immigrants and natural-born citizens) who lived in the United States in 1960, three-fourths resided in California (40% of the 237,293), New York (16%), and Hawaii (16%). This shows how concentrated Chinese American populations remained during the second wave of immigration and illustrates how most people of Chinese descent stayed close to Chinese American communities. 2707:

better working conditions, their share of the workforce was never more than 10%. As the Chinese railroad workers lived and worked tirelessly, they also managed the finances associated with their employment, and Central Pacific officials responsible for employing the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the hiring policy, came to appreciate the cleanliness and reliability of this group of laborers.

6054: 2655:, hiring Chinese as opposed to whites kept labor costs down by a third, since the company would not pay their board or lodging. This type of steep wage inequality was commonplace at the time. Crocker overcame shortages of manpower and money by hiring Chinese immigrants to do much of the back-breaking and dangerous labor. He drove the workers to the point of exhaustion, in the process 2440:. This immigration may have been as high as 90% male as most immigrated with the thought of returning home to start a new life. Those that stayed in America faced the lack of suitable Chinese brides as Chinese women were not allowed to emigrate in significant numbers after 1872. As a result, the mostly bachelor communities slowly aged in place with very low Chinese birth rates. 2186:, documents show that only 24 percent of 3,171 Chinese women in California were classified as prostitutes, many of whom married Chinese Christians and formed some of the earliest Chinese American families in mainland America. Nevertheless, American legislation used the prostitution issue to make immigration far more difficult for Chinese women. On March 7251: 4091:, those purchased for high-class Chinese brothels catering exclusively to Chinese men, or those purchased for prostitution in lower-class establishments frequented by a mixed clientele. In late-19th century San Francisco, most notably Jackson Street, prostitutes were often housed in rooms 10×10 or 12×12 feet and were often beaten or 5413: 2508:, 金山). Because anarchic conditions prevailed in the gold fields, the robbery by European miners of Chinese mining area permits were barely pursued or prosecuted and the Chinese gold seekers themselves were often victim to violent assaults. At that time, "Chinese immigrants were stereotyped as degraded, exotic, dangerous, and 2086:. Historically, to the Manchus, the policy was both an act of submission and, in practical terms, an identification aid to tell friend from foe. Because Chinese immigrants returned as often as they could to China to see their family, they could not cut off their often hated braids in America and then legally re-enter China. 4432:, and there is often very little contact between these Chinese and those higher-educated Chinese professionals. Quantification of the magnitude of this modality of immigration is imprecise and varies over time, but it appears to continue unabatedly on a significant basis. In the 1980s, there was widespread concern by the 3553:

At first, when surface gold was plentiful, the Chinese were well tolerated and well received. As the easy gold dwindled and competition for it intensified, animosity to the Chinese and other foreigners increased. Organized labor groups demanded that California's gold was only for Americans, and began

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led the expansion of the railway network further into the American West, and many of the Chinese who had built the transcontinental railroad remained active in building the railways. After several projects were completed, many of the Chinese workers relocated and looked for employment elsewhere, such

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mountains — where long tunnels had to be bored through solid granite using only hand tools and black powder. The explosions had caused many of the Chinese laborers to lose their lives. Due to the wide expanse of the work, the construction had to be carried out at times in the extreme heat and also in

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The Central Pacific track was constructed primarily by Chinese immigrants. Even though at first they were thought to be too weak or fragile to do this type of work, after the first day in which Chinese were on the line, the decision was made to hire as many as could be found in California (where most

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However, their displacement had begun already in 1869 when white miners began to resent the Chinese miners, feeling that they were discovering gold that the white miners deserved. Eventually, protest rose from white miners who wanted to eliminate the growing competition. From 1852 to 1870 (ironically

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that forbade the entry of all Chinese women considered "obnoxious" by representatives of U.S. consulates at their origins of departure. In effect, this led to American officials erroneously classifying many women as prostitutes, which greatly reduced the opportunities for all Chinese women wishing to

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women who worked as prostitutes for foreigners also commonly kept a "nursery" of Tanka girls specifically to export them to overseas Chinese communities in Australia or America for prostitution work, or to serve as a Chinese or foreigner's concubine. Of the first wave of Chinese who moved to America,

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who had already been converted in China where foreign Christian missionaries (who had first come in mass in the 19th century) had strived for centuries to wholly Christianize the nation with relatively minor success. Christian missionaries had also worked in the Chinese communities and settlements in

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into mainstream American society. This in turn led to the creation, cohesion, and cooperation of many Chinese benevolent associations and societies whose existence in the United States continued far into the 20th century as a necessity both for support and survival. There were also many other factors

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is seen to be a main point of entry for Chinese immigrants with both India and China dominating this visa category over the last ten years. Unsurprisingly, Chinese immigrants entering the United States via the diversity lottery are low. This means of entry prioritises those entering into the US from

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As pursuant to the Department of Homeland security 2016 immigration report the major class of admission for those Chinese immigrants entering into the US is through Immediate Relatives of US citizens. Just over a third (30,456) of those immigrants gained entry via this means. As legislation in the

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6, 1906 that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabiting. Research carried out in 1900 by Liang showed that of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married

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had collected five million dollars from the Chinese. Another anti-Chinese law was "An Act to Discourage Immigration to this State of Persons Who Cannot Become Citizens Thereof", which imposed on the master or owner of a ship a landing tax of fifty dollars for each passenger ineligible to naturalized

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mines, as seamen on board the ships of American shipping companies or in the consumer goods industry, especially in the cigar, boots, footwear and textile manufacturing. During the economic crises of the 1870s, factory owners were often glad that the immigrants were content with the low wages given.

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The entry of the Chinese into the United States was, to begin with, legal and uncomplicated and even had a formal judicial basis in 1868 with the signing of the Burlingame Treaty between the United States and China. But there were differences compared with the policy for European immigrants, in that

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Between 1850 and 1875, the most frequent complaint against Chinese residents was their involvement in prostitution. There was a great excess of Chinses men in America, which was caused by coolie trade and anti-miscegenation law against Chinese men. High demand in sex inevitably led to prostitution.

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thereby running counter to the interests of the trade unions. In fact, many employers used the threat of importing Chinese strikebreakers as a means to prevent or break up strikes, which caused further resentment against the Chinese. A notable incident occurred in 1870, when 75 young men from China

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for agricultural production. Chinese workers were used to construct hundreds of miles of levees throughout the delta's waterways in an effort to reclaim and preserve farmland and control flooding. These levees therefore confined waterflow to the riverbeds. Many of the workers stayed in the area and

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Region in southern China, where they had learned how to develop fertile farmland in inaccessible river valleys. This know-how was used for the reclamation of the extensive valleys of the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. During the 1870s, thousands of Chinese laborers played an indispensable role

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explosives—which accelerated both the rate of construction and the mortality of the Chinese laborers. Appalled by the losses, the Central Pacific began to use less volatile explosives, and developed a method of placing the explosives in which the Chinese blasters worked from large suspended baskets

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In 1852, a special foreign miner's tax aimed at the Chinese was passed by the California legislature that was aimed at foreign miners who were not U.S. citizens. Given that the Chinese were ineligible for citizenship at that time and constituted the largest percentage of the non-white population of

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Wong Kim Ark, who was born in San Francisco in 1873, was denied re-entry to the United States after a trip abroad, under a law restricting Chinese immigration and prohibiting immigrants from China from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens. However, he challenged the government's refusal to recognize

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Ong, Paul M. "The Central Pacific Railroad and Exploitation of Chinese Labor." Journal of Ethnic Studies 1985 13(2): 119–124. ISSN 0091-3219. – Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and

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It was far more common for Chinese males to marry non-white females in many states. One of the U.S. censuses of Louisiana alone in 1880 showed 57% Chinese American men were married to African American women, and 43% to White American women. As a result of miscegenation laws against Chinese males.

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Chinese carved out a distinct role in the predominantly biracial society of the Mississippi Delta. In a few communities, Chinese children were able to attend white schools, while others studied under tutors, or established their own Chinese schools. In 1924, a nine-year-old Chinese American named

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In addition to students and professionals, a third wave of recent immigrants consisted of people who are living in or entered the country without documentation, who went to the United States in search of lower-status manual jobs. These undocumented immigrants tend to concentrate in heavily urban

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as the sole legitimate government of all of China, and immigration from Taiwan was counted under the same quota as that for mainland China, which had little immigration to the United States from 1949 to 1977. In the late 1970s, the opening up of the People's Republic of China and the breaking of

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Manufacturers depended on the Chinese workers because they had to reduce labor cost to save money and the Chinese labor was cheaper than the Caucasian labor. The labor from the Chinese was cheaper because they did not live like the Caucasians, they needed less money because they lived with lower

3075:, and so they formed their own Chinese organizations (called "guilds") that represented their interests with the employers. The American trade unionists were nevertheless still wary as the Chinese workers were willing to work for their employers for relatively low wages and incidentally acted as 2706:

The well organized Chinese teams still turned out to be highly industrious and exceedingly efficient; at the peak of the construction work, shortly before completion of the railroad, more than 11,000 Chinese were involved with the project. Although the white European workers had higher wages and

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until 1882—when an American federal law ended the Chinese influx—approximately 300,000 Chinese arrived in the United States. Because the chances to earn more money were far better in America than in China, these migrants often remained considerably longer than they had planned initially, despite

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by demanding that these Chinese students be prevented from returning to "Red China". It was feared by these politicians (and no small amount of their constituents) that, if they were allowed to return home to the PRC, they would furnish America's newfound Cold War enemy with valuable scientific

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Supporters and opponents of Chinese immigration affirm that Chinese labor was indispensable to the economic prosperity of the west. The Chinese performed jobs which could be life-threatening and arduous, for example working in mines, swamps, construction sites and factories. Many jobs that the

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for not attracting enough business or refusing to work for any reason. In San Francisco, "highbinders" (various Chinese gangs) protected brothel owners, extorted weekly tributes from prostitutes and caused general mayhem in Chinatown. However, many of San Francisco's Chinatown whorehouses were

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who could not assimilate into civilized western culture, regardless of citizenship or duration of residency in the USA". In response to this hostile situation these Chinese miners developed a basic approach that differed from the white European gold miners. While the Europeans mostly worked as

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in Manhattan Chinatown, while in San Francisco, by 1876, Chinatown supported over 200 opium dens, each with a capacity of between five and fifteen people. After the Burlingame Commercial Treaty of 1880, only American citizens could legally import opium into the United States, and thus Chinese

2022:" meant that the money advanced by the agencies to cover the cost of the passage was to be paid back by wages earned by the laborers later during their time in the U.S. The credit-ticket system had long been used by indentured migrants from South China who left to work in what Chinese called 2663:

were gold miners or in service industries such as laundries and kitchens). Many more were imported from China. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, but the workers from China received much less. Eventually, they went on strike and gained small increases in salary.

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was passed in 1875, which placed restrictions on female Chinese immigration. Those who supported the Page Act were attempting to protect American family values, while those who opposed the Act were concerned that it might hinder the efficiency of the cheap labor provided by Chinese males.

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subgroups. Immigration from Mainland China was almost non-existent until 1977 when the PRC removed restrictions on emigration leading to the immigration of college students and professionals. These recent groups of Chinese tended to cluster in suburban areas and avoided urban Chinatowns.

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of large cities. The vacant agricultural jobs subsequently proved to be so unattractive to the unemployed white Europeans that they avoided the work; most of the vacancies were then filled by Japanese workers, after whom in the decades later came Filipinos, and finally Mexicans. The term

2018:(founded 1874). The money to fund their journey was mostly borrowed from relatives, district associations or commercial lenders. In addition, American employers of Chinese laborers sent hiring agencies to China to pay for the Pacific voyage of those who were unable to borrow money. This " 3451:

The Chinese were often in competition with African Americans in the labor market. In July 1869, in the Southern United States, at an immigration convention at Memphis, a committee was formed to consolidate schemes for importing Chinese laborers into the South like the African Americans.

2567:. The Chinese living in California were with this decision left practically in a legal vacuum, because they had now no possibility to assert their rightful legal entitlements or claims—possibly in cases of theft or breaches of agreement—in court. The ruling remained in force until 1873. 1591:

Newspapers condemned employers who were initially pro-Chinese. When clergy ministering to the Chinese immigrants in California supported the Chinese, they were severely criticized by the local press and populace. So hostile was the opposition that in 1882, the U.S. Congress passed the

3024:, which, finally, expelled the Chinese fishermen with a whole array of taxes, laws and regulations. They had to pay special taxes (Chinese Fisherman's Tax), and they were not allowed to fish with traditional Chinese nets nor with junks. The most disastrous effect occurred when the 2646:

Since there was a lack of white European construction workers, in 1865 a large number of Chinese workers were recruited from the silver mines, as well as later contract workers from China. The idea for the use of Chinese labor came from the manager of the Central Pacific Railroad,

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lifted national origin quotas. After World War II, anti-Asian prejudice began to decrease, and Chinese immigrants, along with other Asians (such as Japanese, Koreans, Indians and Vietnamese), have adapted and advanced. Currently, the Chinese constitute the largest ethnic group of

3936:. Under all this persecution, almost half of the Chinese Americans born in the United States moved to China seeking greater opportunities. Even to this day, discrimination is still talked about, especially for matters like Xenophobia that we still experience in the 21st century. 2166:

as an occupation. The existence of Chinese prostitution was detected early, after which the police, legislature and popular press singled out Chinese prostitutes for criticism. This was seen as further evidence of the depravity of the Chinese and the repression of women in their

1780:, Chinese came into contact with American sailors and merchants at the commercial port of Canton (Guangzhou). There, local individuals heard about opportunities and became curious about America. The main trade route between the United States and China then was between Canton and 4340:, which placed Taiwan under a separate immigration quota from the People's Republic of China. Emigration from Hong Kong was also considered a separate jurisdiction for the purpose of recording such statistics, and this status continued until the present day as a result of the 2432:. The Chinese population rose from 2,716 in 1851 to 63,000 by 1871. In the decade 1861–1870, 64,301 were recorded as arriving, followed by 123,201 in 1871–1880 and 61,711 in 1881–1890. 77% were located in California, with the rest scattered across the West, the South, and 3671:, 1862), and it imposed a $ 2.50 tax per month on all Chinese residing in the state, except Chinese operating businesses, licensed to work in mines, or engaged in the production of sugar, rice, coffee or tea. In 1886, the Supreme Court struck down a Californian law, in 3650:

laws was the Foreign Miners' License tax, which required a monthly payment of three dollars from every foreign miner who did not desire to become a citizen. Foreign-born Chinese could not become citizens because they had been rendered ineligible to citizenship by the

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businessmen had to rely on non-Chinese importers to maintain opium supply. Ultimately, it was European Americans who were largely responsible for the legal importation and illegal smuggling of opium via the port of San Francisco and the Mexican border, after 1880.

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The members of the tongs were marginalized, poor, had lower educational levels and lacked the opportunities available to wealthier Chinese. Their organizations formed without any clear political or benevolent motives and soon found themselves involved in lucrative

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did not exist). These Chinese were mainly merchants, sailors, seamen, and students who wanted to see and acquaint themselves with a strange foreign land they had only heard about. However, their presence was mostly temporary and only a few settled permanently.

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with the United States in 1868 effectively lifted any former restrictions and large-scale immigration to the United States began. In order to avoid difficulties with departure, most Chinese gold-seekers embarked on their transpacific voyage from the docks of

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was passed in 1865, Chinese women brought to the United States for prostitution signed a contract so that their employers would avoid accusations of slavery. Many Americans believed that Chinese prostitutes were corrupting traditional morality, and thus the

2377:, and prostitution. Prostitution proved to be an extremely profitable business for the tongs, due to the high male-to-female ratio among the early immigrants. The tongs would kidnap or purchase females (including babies) from China and smuggle them over the 4103:, who took a percentage of the proceeds in exchange for protection from prosecution. From the 1850s to the 1870s, California passed numerous acts to limit prostitution by all races, yet only Chinese were ever prosecuted under these laws. After the 3700:

had made it unlawful for Chinese laborers to enter the United States for the next 10 years and denied naturalized citizenship to Chinese already here. Initially intended for Chinese laborers, it was broadened in 1888 to include all persons of the

2424:. The Chinese laborers worked out well and thousands more were recruited until the railroad's completion in 1869. Chinese labor provided the massive labor needed to build the majority of the Central Pacific's difficult railroad tracks through the 4519:

notes that 54% of Asian immigrants ages five and over who have been in the United States for five years or less say they speak English proficiently. This means that some of the main challenges Asian immigrants face in the United States today are

2315:, birthplace of the CCBA, formed in 1882, the CCBA had effectively assumed the function of an unofficial local governing body, which even used privately hired police or guards for protection of inhabitants at the height of anti-Chinese excesses. 2835:. Of the approximately 200 Chinese people in the eastern United States at the time, fifty-eight are known to have fought in the Civil War, many of them in the Navy. Most fought for the Union, but a small number also fought for the Confederacy. 4010:

language and culture to sell newspapers, exploit Chinese labor and promote Americans of European birth. The press in particular greatly exaggerated the prevalence of opium smoking and prostitution in New York's Chinatown, and many reports of

2130:, less than 20% of Chinese immigrants had accepted Christian teachings. Their difficulties with integration were exemplified by the end of the first wave in the mid-20th century when only a minority of Chinese living in the U.S. could speak 7205:

Noe-Bustamante, Luis, Lauren Mora, and Neil G. Ruiz. “In Their Own Words: Asian Immigrants' Experiences Navigating Language Barriers in the United States.” Pew Research Center Race & Ethnicity. Pew Research Center, December 19, 2022.

3492:. The party took particular aim against Chinese immigrant labor and the Central Pacific Railroad that employed them. Its famous slogan was "The Chinese must go!" Kearney's attacks against the Chinese were particularly virulent and openly 2542:

in 1854 that the Chinese were not allowed to testify as witnesses before the court in California against white citizens, including those accused of murder. The decision was largely based upon the prevailing opinion that the Chinese were:

2279:(also known as the "Chinese Six Companies" because of the original six founding associations). It quickly became the most powerful and politically vocal organization to represent the Chinese not only in San Francisco but in the whole of 4129:

Many Chinese males either cohibited their relationship in secret or married with black females. Of the Chinese men who lived in Mississippi, 20% and 30% of the Chinese males had married black women in many different years before 1940.

2635:. This network caused the wagon trains of previous decades to become obsolete, exchanging it for a modern transportation system. The building of the railway required enormous labor in the crossing of plains and high mountains by the 3990:

called the Chinese of New York "a constant and terrible menace to society", "in no sense a desirable element of the population". Riis referred to the reputation of New York's Chinatown as a place full of illicit activity, including

2271:, lodgings and job finding services for newcomers. In 1849, the first Chinese merchants' association was formed, but it did not last long. In less than a few years it petered out as its role was gradually replaced by a network of 7751:"Carved in Silence" (Producer/Director/Writer of National Endowment for the Humanities funded documentary with dramatic re-creations about the impact of detention on Chinese immigrants at Angel Island Immigration Station), 1987 1913:. In regard to their legal situation, the Chinese immigrants were far more imposed upon by the government than most other ethnic minorities in these regions. Laws were made to restrict them, including exorbitant special taxes ( 2651:, who at first had trouble persuading his business partners of the fact that the mostly weedy, slender looking Chinese workers, some contemptuously called "Crocker's pets", were suitable for the heavy physical work. For the 2145:

and not leaving the home. Another important consideration was that most Chinese men were worried that by bringing their wives and raising families in America they too would be subjected to the same racial violence and

3733:, 169 U.S. 649 (1898), the Court ruled regarding him that "a child born in the United States, of parents of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent 4347:

Chinese Muslims have immigrated to the United States and lived within the Chinese community rather than integrating into other foreign Muslim communities. Two of the most prominent Chinese American Muslims are the

7223: 4019:

were simply fictitious. Casual observers of Chinatown believed that opium use was rampant since they constantly witnessed Chinese smoking with pipes. In fact, local Chinatown residents often were instead smoking

1874:. 323 more immigrants came in 1849, 450 in 1850 and 20,000 in 1852 (2,000 in 1 day). By 1852, there were 25,000; over 300,000 by 1880: a tenth of the Californian population—mostly from six districts of Canton ( 3924:, which prohibited Chinese from occupying a sleeping room with less than 500 cubic feet (14 m) of breathing space between each person, the Queue Ordinance, which forced Chinese with long hair worn in a 2499:

was only a transit station on the way to the gold fields in the Sierra Nevada. According to estimates, there were in the late 1850s 15,000 Chinese mine workers in the "Gold Mountains" or "Mountains of Gold"

1601: 4278:, which set immigration from an allowed country at 2% of the number of people of that nationality who already lived in the United States in 1890. Chinese immigration later increased with the passage of the 4132:

Another major concern of European Americans in relation to Chinatowns was the smoking of opium, even though the practice of smoking opium in America long predated Chinese immigration to the United States.

2920:

Region also came countless numbers of experienced Chinese fishermen. In the 1850s they founded a fishing economy on the Californian coast that grew exponentially, and by the 1880s extended along the whole

3878:, which he had co-written, and prohibited "aliens ineligible for citizenship" (i.e. all Asian immigrants) from owning land or property. The law was struck down by the Supreme Court of California in 1946 ( 3856: 5827:"Chinese Fishermen, Monterey, California. 1875": From Monterey County Photographs: Chinese Fishing Village Images. California Historical Society. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. 2310:

to fight discriminatory legislation and treatment. The associations also took their cases to the press and worked with government institutions and Chinese diplomatic missions to protect their rights. In

1608:. These laws not only prevented new immigration but also the reunion of the families of thousands of Chinese men already living in the United States who had left China without their wives and children. 1742:

belonged to Mexico until 1848, and historians have asserted that a small number of Chinese had already settled there by the mid-18th century. Also later, as part of expeditions in 1788 and 1789 by the

1658:

begin to improve, as restrictions on entry into the country, naturalization, and mixed marriage were lessened. In 1943, Chinese immigration to the United States was once again permitted—by way of the

2290:, lending, health, and education and funeral services. The latter became especially significant for the Chinese community because for religious reasons many of the immigrants laid value to burial or 6123: 2026:(South Seas), the region to the south of China that included the Philippines, the former Dutch East Indies, the Malay Peninsula, and Borneo, Thailand, Indochina, and Burma. The Chinese who left for 6060: 3667:

citizenship. "To Protect Free White Labor against competition with emigrant Chinese Labor and to Discourage the Immigration of Chinese into the State of California" was another such law (aka the

3071:

The Chinese took the bad wages, because their wives and children lived in China where the cost of living was low. As they were classified as foreigners they were excluded from joining American

4087:, purchased from poor families, or lured to ports like San Francisco with the promise of marriage. Prostitutes fell into three categories, namely, those sold to wealthy Chinese merchants as 2306:

repression. By resisting overt discrimination enacted against them, the local chapters of the national CCBA helped to bring a number of cases to the courts from the municipal level to the

7207: 2267:") to help immigrants to relocate others from their native towns, socialize, receive monetary aid and raise their voices in community affairs. At first, these organizations only provided 3932:

of 1922, which terminated citizenship for white American women who married an Asian man. The majority of these laws were not fully overturned until the 1950s, at the dawn of the modern

3737:

and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China", automatically became a

3956:

was being developed. They gradually came to operate grocery stores in mainly African American neighborhoods. The Chinese population in the delta peaked in the 1870s, reaching 3000.

1917:), prohibiting them from marrying white European partners (so as to prevent men from marrying at all and increasing the population) and barring them from acquiring U.S. citizenship. 8856: 4083:

During this time, Hip Yee Tong, a secret society, imported over six-thousand Chinese women to serve as prostitutes. Most of these women came from southeastern China and were either

4051:

with rooms upstairs available for gambling and opium smoking. A few decades later, local tongs, which originated in the California goldfields around 1860, controlled most gambling (

3550:. Large numbers came from the Taishan area that proudly bills itself as the No. 1 Home of Overseas Chinese. An estimated half a million Chinese Americans are of Taishanese descent. 7947: 4499:

governments on Taiwan have served to split the older Chinese American community, as some pro-reunification Chinese Americans with ROC origins began to identify more with the PRC.

1909:

From the outset, they were met with the distrust and overt racism of settled European populations, ranging from massacres to pressuring Chinese migrants into what became known as

4274:, when China was a welcome ally to the United States. It limited Chinese immigrants to 105 visas per year selected by the government. That quota was supposedly determined by the 1612:

in many Western states also prohibited the Chinese men from marrying white women. In the South, many Chinese American men married African American women. For example, the tenth

7221: 6342: 4463:. However, instead of joining existing Chinese American associations, the recent immigrants formed new cultural, professional, and social organizations which advocated better 1539: 2065:. The racism they experienced from the European Americans from the outset increased continuously until the turn of the 20th century, and with lasting effect prevented their 4503:

US is seen to favour this point of entry. Furthermore, employment based preferences is seen to be the third largest. This means of entry accounts for 23% of the total. The

3677:; this was the first case where the Supreme Court ruled that a law that is race-neutral on its face, but is administered in a prejudicial manner, is an infringement of the 2261:, respectable Chinese merchants—the most prominent members of the Chinese community of the time—made the first efforts to form social and welfare organizations (Chinese: " 5033:

Gabriel J. Chin, "The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965," 75 North Carolina Law Review 273(1996)

4079:

in exchange for weekly payoffs of around five dollars per week. Such gambling-houses were frequented by as many whites as Chinamen, though whites sat at separate tables.

4285:

Many of the first Chinese immigrants admitted in the 1940s were college students who initially sought simply to study in, not immigrate to, America. However, during the

1678:, there are more than 4.2 million Chinese in the United States, above 1.2% of the total population. The influx continues, where each year ethnic Chinese people from the 3608:

to those already settled in the country. Renewed in 1892 and extended indefinitely in 1902, the Chinese population declined until the act was repealed in 1943 by the

8711: 5580:

Wu, Y., Sun, I. Y., & Smith, B. W. (2011). Race, Immigration, and Policing: Chinese Immigrants' Satisfaction with Police. JQ: Justice Quarterly, 28(5), 745–774.

4161:

believed America faced a dual dilemma: opium smoking was ruining moral standards, and Chinese labor was lowering wages and taking jobs away from European Americans.

4036:—with paid actors. Especially in New York, the Chinese community was unique among immigrant communities in so far as its illicit activity was turned into a cultural 3480:

In the 1870s, several economic crises came about in parts of the United States, and many Americans lost their jobs, from which arose throughout the American West an

3032:, which until the 1930s were major employers of Chinese migrants, because white workers were less interested in such hard, seasonal and relatively unrewarding work. 2759:

was the primary crop grown in California. The favorable climate allowed the beginning of the intensive cultivation of certain fruits, vegetables and flowers. In the

1945:

from establishing bases overseas. However, these decrees were widely ignored. Large-scale immigration of Chinese laborers began after China began to receive news of

800: 352: 5454: 3719:" doctrine. Despite this, Chinese laborers and other migrants still entered the United States illegally through Canada and Latin America, in a path known as the 3639:, proclaimed the Chinese "an element ignorant of our constitution and laws, impossible of assimilation with our people and dangerous to our peace and welfare." 7264: 4104: 3796: 3750: 3682: 3444:

Caucasians did not want to do were left to the Chinese. Some believed that the Chinese were inferior to the white people and so should be doing inferior work.

2563:

The ruling effectively made white violence against Chinese Americans unprosecutable, arguably leading to more intense white-on-Chinese race riots, such as the

662: 519: 7769:, founded in 1987 as a non-profit organization to promote and preserve Chinese American and Chinese history and culture through community outreach activities. 7072: 6041: 4043:

Perhaps the most pervasive illicit activity in Chinatowns of the late-19th century was gambling. In 1868, one of the earliest Chinese residents in New York,

3521:" came to symbolize the unfairness Chinese experienced in the American justice system as some were murdered largely due to hatred of their race and culture. 1090: 7772: 7028: 5981: 7954: 6169: 3826:" and "Paper Daughters" was allegedly introduced. Chinese would declare themselves to be United States citizens whose records were lost in the earthquake. 1941:

Decrees by the Qing dynasty issued in 1712 and 1724 forbade emigration and overseas trade and were primarily intended to prevent remnant supporters of the

4394:. During the late 1960s and early and mid-1970, Chinese immigration into the United States came almost exclusively from Hong Kong and Taiwan creating the 2275:

when more immigrants came in greater numbers. Eventually some of the more prominent district associations banded together under one umbrella known as the

1796:

American missionaries in China also sent small numbers of Chinese boys to the United States for schooling. From 1818 to 1825, five students stayed at the

5318: 3052:, many Chinese migrants made their living as domestic servants, housekeepers, running restaurants, laundries (leading to the 1886 Supreme Court decision 826: 816: 7208:

https://www.pewresearch.org/race-ethnicity/2022/12/19/in-their-own-words-asian-immigrants-experiences-navigating-language-barriers-in-the-united-states/

4067:

left under a cup after a pile of cards had been counted off four at a time. Most popular, however, was the lottery. Players purchased randomly assigned

3885:

One of the few cases in which Chinese immigration was allowed during this era were "Pershing's Chinese", 527 people who were allowed to immigrate from

1891: 1532: 1059: 622: 8759: 5524: 4944:

Chin, Gabriel J., (1998) UCLA Law Review vol. 46, at 1 "Segregation's Last Stronghold: Race Discrimination and the Constitutional Law of Immigration"

4480: 4137:

established opium regulation, and in 1842 opium was taxed at seventy-five cents per pound. In New York, by 1870, opium dens had opened on Baxter and

1662:—thereby repealing 61 years of official racial discrimination against the Chinese. Large-scale Chinese immigration did not occur until 1965 when the 1464: 7780: 2476:, which saw many Chinese emigrate to other countries to flee the fighting. As a result, many Chinese made the decision to emigrate from the chaotic 4298:

knowledge. Therefore, Chinese students were heavily encouraged to undergo naturalization. One famous Chinese immigrant of the 1940s generation was

1017: 647: 596: 5857: 3062:) and a wide spectrum of shops, such as food stores, antique shops, jewelers, and imported goods stores. In addition, the Chinese often worked in 2820: 2381:

to work in brothels and similar establishments. There were constant internecine battles over territory, profits, and women in feuds known as the

657: 473: 6211: 5107:– harbor crowded with sampans. Jackson, William Henry, 1843–1942. World's Transportation Commission photograph collection (Library of Congress). 5002: 4006:. To some extent, Riis' characterization was true, though the sensational press quite often exploited the great differences between Chinese and 5047: 792: 6248: 4375:

is another Chinese Muslim writer who moved to the United States after fleeing from China to Taiwan, his father was the Chinese Muslim General

8561: 8521: 8171: 8092: 8010: 7978: 7044:

Liu, Qing (May 2020). "To Be an Apolitical Political Scientist: A Chinese Immigrant Scholar and (Geo)politicized American Higher Education".

4192: 1605: 1525: 7111: 5730: 5307:

Thomas W. Chinn, ed., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969), p.72.

1854:

began the history of Chinese Americans. At first only a handful of Chinese came, mainly as merchants, former sailors, to America. The first

7794: 7728: 5662:

Kraus, George. "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific." Utah Historical Quarterly 1969 37(1): 41–57. ISSN 0042-143X.

4382:

Ethnic Chinese immigration to the United States since 1965 has been aided by the fact that the United States maintains separate quotas for

2126:

America, but nevertheless their religious message found few who were receptive. It was estimated that during the first wave until the 1882

687: 627: 512: 451: 429: 396: 363: 308: 264: 242: 209: 176: 143: 5140: 3517:", originally coined as a self-referential term by the Chinese, came to be used as a term against the Chinese in America as the new term " 8754: 8075: 7973: 6202:, 617 (California Supr. 1952) ("...we hold that the alien land law is invalid as in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment."). 5510: 5473: 5289:

Robert Alan Nash, "The Chinese Shrimp Fishery in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1973), p. 182.

4962:

vol. 9 "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950"

4841: 4158: 3575: 2345:

associations, business guilds, or legitimate enterprises. As a result, they organized themselves into their own secret societies, called

2323: 2303: 2295: 2276: 2061:

and life; they often came from rural China and therefore had difficulty in adjusting to and finding their way around large towns such as

2039: 1825: 1573: 1481: 1438: 806: 568: 5480: 5478: 5476: 8384: 8325: 8047: 8017: 7866: 7073:"Championing the Causes of Chinese Americans: The William Yukon Chang Papers – News from Columbia's Rare Book & Manuscript Library" 1719: 1136: 1081: 1054: 632: 8774: 8042: 8024: 2015: 1834:

Chinese emigration to America: sketch on board the steam-ship Alaska, bound for San Francisco. From "Views of Chinese"" published in

705: 642: 637: 604: 590: 525: 6346: 8515: 7985: 4886: 4866: 2049:

Although the newcomers arrived in America after an already established small community of their compatriots, they experienced many

971: 957: 821: 772: 725: 720: 667: 617: 562: 17: 5700: 8726: 8555: 8127: 8060: 8052: 7996: 4279: 3617: 3613: 2763:

a strong demand for these products existed. However, the supply of these markets became possible only with the completion of the

2711: 1663: 1428: 1049: 652: 611: 582: 5166: 2294:(including the scattering of ashes) in China. In the 1880s many of the city and regional associations united to form a national 8627: 5497: 4846: 3964:, solely because she was of Chinese descent. The ensuing lawsuit eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. In 2780: 715: 554: 539: 6022: 4451:

Starting from the 1990s, the demographics of the Chinese American community have shifted in favor of immigrants with roots in

4071:

numbers from gambling-houses, with drawings held at least once a day in lottery saloons. There were ten such saloons found in

8734: 8701: 7490: 6992: 6902: 6803: 6677: 6526: 6446: 6417: 6152: 3928:

to pay a tax or to cut it, and Anti-Miscegenation Act of 1889 that prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women, and the

3784: 2236: 1929:

A tomb for some 400 Chinese laborers who died in 1852 during a rebellion aboard a ship that was carrying them to California.

1503: 1131: 1095: 1036: 944: 694: 576: 533: 341: 131: 7799: 5675: 4317:

newspaper in 1955 to provide a venue through which Chinese American communities could read and write about their own lives.

8485: 8303: 8289: 5878: 3765: 5596:

Takaki, Ronald. Strangers from a Different Shore. A History of Indian Americans. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989.

3559: 3485: 2174:

Laws passed by the California state legislature in 1866 to curb the brothels worked alongside missionary activity by the

1647:, and prevented from owning land. In many Western states, Asian immigrants were even prevented from marrying Caucasians. 1491: 978: 733: 113: 5653:

Saxton, Alexander. "The Army of Canton in the High Sierra" Pacific Historical Review 1966 35(2): 141–151. ISSN 0030-8684

5451: 2886:

Christopher Wren Bunker and Stephen Decatur Bunker (Siam-born of partial Chinese ancestry), the sons of conjoined twins

8739: 8547: 8037: 6924:

Yee, Mark Gregory. "Opium in America and the Chinese". Chinese America: History and Perspectives, Online Journal, 1997.

6083: 5817:

Chinese serving in the Confederate arm force – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

2807:

were predominantly Chinese in the turn of the 20th century. Also Chinese farmers contributed to the development of the

2675:

other times in the bitter winter cold. So harsh were the conditions that sometimes even entire camps were buried under

2307: 1914: 1486: 1043: 811: 672: 544: 1761:, several Chinese sailors and craftsmen contributed to building the first European-designed boat that was launched in 8877: 8789: 7684: 7670: 7656: 7635: 7618: 7601: 7575: 7558: 7532: 7518: 7504: 7476: 7462: 7428: 7414: 7400: 7386: 7370: 7346: 7329: 7310: 7295: 6967: 6841: 6767: 6724: 6603: 6572: 6480: 6290: 5934:

Aarim-Heriot, Najia, "Chinese immigrants, African Americans, and racial anxiety in the United States, 1848–82", p.123

5423: 5234: 4464: 4303: 4214: 3875: 3686: 3566:, both of whom blamed Chinese "coolies" for depressed wage levels and causing European Americans to lose their jobs. 1851: 710: 700: 101: 7261: 8784: 8537: 8398: 8214: 6631:

Light, Ivan (1974). "From Vice District to Tourist Attraction: The Moral Career of American Chinatown, 1880–1940".

6368: 5521:

Roy D. Graves pictorial collection: Chinese and Chinatown. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley

5437:

or among Chinese residents as their concubines, or to be sold for export to Singapore, San Francisco, or Australia.

4861: 3738: 3501: 2643:, the two privately chartered federally backed enterprises that built the line westward and eastward respectively. 2551: 2035: 1004: 779: 418: 2631:. It created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the 1866:

became the first female Chinese immigrant to the United States; she was brought to New York City from her home of

8435: 8246: 8031: 7744:(a three-part documentary film by Bill Moyers about the history of the Chinese immigration into the USA), 2003. ( 7025: 5985: 4548:

The table shows the ethnic Chinese population of the United States (including persons with mixed-ethnic origin).

3916:

banned all immigration from many parts of Asia, including parts of China (see map on left), and foreshadowed the

2922: 2760: 2596: 2580: 2457: 2257:

and guilds, where people had a duty to protect and help one another. Soon after the first Chinese had settled in

1887: 1197: 939: 890: 6173: 8779: 8542: 7859: 6282: 5369: 4441: 4196: 4059:) in New York's Chinatown. One of the most popular games of chance was fan-tan where players guessed the exact 3868: 3629: 3496:, and found considerable support among white people in the American West. This sentiment led eventually to the 3100:

Chinese American miners in the Colorado School of Mines' Edgar Experimental Mine near Idaho Springs, Colorado,

3008:

Again, this initial success was met with a hostile reaction. Since the late 1850s, European migrants—above all

2011: 1631:

In 1924, the law barred further entries of Chinese. Those already in the United States had been ineligible for

680: 549: 6877: 5954: 5916:

LI, Peter S."Occupational mobility and kinship assistance: a study of Chinese immigrants in Chicago", p. 35–37

5325: 4976: 4444:. However, since the start of the 21st century, there have been an increasing number of returnees producing a 4231:, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943, was proposed by U.S. Representative (later Senator) 4024:

through such pipes. In the late 19th century, many European Americans visited Chinatown to experience it via "

3111:

This table describes the occupation partitioning among Chinese males in the twenty most reported occupations.

8764: 8706: 8422: 8207: 7990: 7832: 4488: 4472: 3819: 3811: 3791:(1899–1903) and local businesses, fought the quarantine through numerous federal court battles, claiming the 3729: 3589: 3584:

A political cartoon by cartoonist L. M. Glackens criticizing the United States government (portrayed here as

3059: 2715: 2331: 1691: 1382: 999: 984: 914: 904: 875: 865: 2330:

Following a law enacted in New York, in 1933, in an attempt to evict Chinese from the laundry business, the

2253:

Chinese society was distinctively collectivist and composed of close networks of extended families, unions,

8685: 8458: 4876: 4496: 4416: 4028:", wherein guided groups of affluent New Yorkers explored vast immigrant districts of New York such as the 3720: 3021: 2522: 2034:

if the Chinese migrants had children born in the United States, those children would automatically acquire

1862:

around 1815. Subsequent immigrants that came from the 1820s up to the late 1840s were mainly men. In 1834,

989: 963: 949: 919: 909: 786: 319: 69: 6009: 2555:

Adobe building constructed in the 1870s by Chinese workers living in the railroad-adjacent mining town of

2468:, while southern China suffered from severe political and economic instability due to the weakness of the 2436:. Most came from Southern China looking for a better life; escaping a high rate of poverty left after the 1726:(1565–1815), during which they had established themselves as fishermen, sailors, and merchants on Spanish 1564:

to the United States, beginning in the 19th century. Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked in the

8579: 8003: 7777: 6124:"Donald Trump meet Wong Kim Ark, the Chinese American Cook who is the father of 'birthright citizenship'" 5538: 5075: 4871: 4512: 4352: 3961: 3960:

Martha Lum, daughter of Gong Lum, was prohibited from attending the Rosedale Consolidated High School in

3810:

1910 decision denying an application for admission to the U.S. by Wong Yoke Fun (eldest son of U.S.-born

2533: 2097:

The first Chinese immigrants usually remained faithful to traditional Chinese beliefs, which were either

1816:

of the 1870s-'80s continued this tradition, sending some 120 boys to be educated in New England schools.

1813: 1413: 1307: 880: 870: 7246: 8696: 8478: 8262: 8158: 6313: 6199: 5925:

Saxton, Alexander, "The indispensable enemy; labor and the anti-Chinese movement in California", p. 5–6

5854: 4508:

countries with historically low number of immigrants. As such, China does not fall into this category.

4360: 4252: 3652: 3081: 2994: 2564: 1769: 1009: 994: 854: 5193: 8851: 8820: 8510: 8148: 7852: 7356: 6633: 5010: 4309:

With the rise in immigration and expansion of communities, newspaper and media outlets grew as well.

2764: 2699: 2421: 2204: 2183: 2159: 1899: 1886:. The Chinese did not, however, only come for the gold rush in California, but also helped build the 1675: 1588:

between the U.S. and China, political and labor organizations rallied against "cheap Chinese labor".

1418: 1347: 1312: 885: 374: 5116: 5055: 3849:

of the Sailor's Union. The League was almost immediately successful in pressuring the San Francisco

3468: 2349:, for mutual support and protection of their members. These first tongs modeled themselves upon the 8749: 8619: 8527: 8500: 8311: 8153: 7942: 7815: 3830: 3772: 3621: 3473: 2800: 2656: 2652: 2640: 2518: 2417: 2312: 1870:

by Nathaniel and Frederick Carne, who exhibited her as "the Chinese Lady". By 1848, there were 325

1569: 1387: 1292: 1252: 847: 90: 4116:

In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese lived in New York City, of which 11 married Irish women. The

1596:

prohibiting immigration from China for the following ten years. This law was then extended by the

8744: 8690: 8592: 8463: 8225: 8112: 7724: 7108: 6716: 6710: 6595: 6589: 5727: 4917:(1). University of California Press: Pacific Historical Review Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 49-66: 49–66. 4341: 4275: 4185: 3917: 3913: 3902: 3861: 3792: 3678: 3534: 2350: 2298:(CCBA), an umbrella organization, which defended the political rights and legal interests of the 2268: 1609: 1352: 1342: 1337: 1317: 52: 8267: 7511:

In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America

2150:

they had faced. With the heavily uneven gender ratio, prostitution grew rapidly and the Chinese

8835: 8648: 8585: 8473: 8446: 8429: 8405: 8378: 8231: 5254: 5144: 3647: 3481: 3040: 2804: 2724: 2636: 2620: 2556: 2195: 2102: 2038:. However, the immigrants themselves would legally remain as foreigners "indefinitely". Unlike 1797: 1454: 1433: 1267: 1182: 1126: 198: 30: 7166:

Department of Human Services Immigration and Citizenship. (2018). Yearbook 2016. Available at:

6892: 6864: 6831: 6023:"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875" 5226: 5218: 5127: 2623:, and the two sections were merged and ceremonially completed on May 10, 1869, at the famous " 2089: 1958:, a major trading port in the region. Less frequently, they left from the neighboring port of 8495: 8360: 8200: 8176: 8102: 7894: 7483:

Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917

6793: 6276: 6045: 5400: 4492: 4244: 3933: 3697: 3636: 3601: 3497: 3092:

Statistics on Employed Male Chinese in the Twenty, Most Frequently Reported Occupations, 1870

3085: 2632: 2604: 2127: 2066: 1925: 1801: 1593: 1302: 1297: 1172: 898: 462: 407: 385: 5757:

Edward Day Cohota – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

3642:

Many Western states also enacted discriminatory laws that made it difficult for Chinese and

2416:, with 40,400 being recorded as arriving from 1851 to 1860, and again in the 1860s when the 1987: 8825: 8799: 8716: 8635: 8505: 8451: 8441: 8367: 8272: 8187: 7589: 7240: 7167: 6959: 6223: 5816: 5778: 5768:

Antonio Dardelle – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

4445: 4437: 4420: 4337: 4048: 3518: 3049: 2910: 2887: 2792:, until they were driven out during an outbreak of anti-Chinese violence in the mid-1890s. 2465: 2413: 2337:

A minority of Chinese immigrants did not join the CCBA as they were outcasts or lacked the

2287: 2212: 2019: 1971: 1946: 1883: 1613: 1565: 1513: 1392: 1357: 1262: 1237: 934: 924: 231: 220: 165: 6314:"Xenophobia in America: How we got here and what's at stake | Erika Lee | TEDxMinneapolis" 5790:

Thomas Sylvanus – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

5627: 5484: 4262: 3538:

1892 certificate of residence for Hang Jung: From Papers relating to Chinese in California

2241: 8: 8769: 8669: 8661: 8348: 8317: 8182: 7924: 7919: 7824: 6253: 6227: 5864:, Hans Konrad Van Tilburg, University of Hawaiêi at Manoa; Brownstone, p.74; McCunn, p.47 5534: 5083: 4516: 4399: 4395: 3693: 3505: 2795:

Chinese immigrants settled a few small towns in the Sacramento River delta, two of them:

2575: 2509: 2346: 2082:

customs including shaving the front of their heads and combing the remaining hair into a

1377: 1327: 1282: 1272: 1257: 1247: 1232: 1212: 1187: 1177: 1167: 929: 754: 744: 154: 6396: 5779:

Hong Neok Woo – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

5745: 4527: 8573: 8532: 8490: 8468: 8417: 8354: 8343: 8297: 8193: 7789: 6650: 6373: 6048: 6036: 5390:

California Historical Society. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley

5280:"Chinese Fisheries in California," Chamber's Journal, Vol. L (January 21, 1954), p. 48. 4926: 4851: 4236: 4097: 3970:(1927), the Supreme Court affirmed that the separate-but-equal doctrine articulated in 3949: 3921: 3850: 3746: 3716: 3707: 3673: 3054: 2832: 2808: 2224: 1963: 1895: 1842: 1625: 1561: 1397: 1372: 1277: 1217: 1192: 1162: 1152: 764: 759: 749: 739: 275: 253: 44: 7192:

USCIS. (2018). Green Card Through the Diversity Immigrant Visa Program. Available at:

5789: 5767: 4286: 3020:—moved into fishing off the American West Coast too, and they exerted pressure on the 2420:

recruited large labor gangs, many on five-year contracts, to build its portion of the

8566: 8372: 8338: 8331: 8283: 7889: 7875: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7680: 7666: 7652: 7631: 7614: 7597: 7571: 7554: 7528: 7514: 7500: 7486: 7472: 7458: 7447: 7424: 7410: 7396: 7382: 7366: 7342: 7325: 7306: 7291: 6988: 6963: 6898: 6837: 6799: 6763: 6720: 6673: 6599: 6568: 6522: 6476: 6442: 6286: 6148: 6079: 5959: 5746:

John Tommy – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

5419: 5230: 5170: 4881: 4076: 3945: 3925: 3597: 3067: 2917: 2796: 2771: 2683: 2473: 2437: 2299: 2220: 2083: 1996: 1950: 1930: 1903: 1871: 1655: 1621: 1585: 1584:" rhetoric. Despite provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868 1509: 1332: 1287: 1227: 1202: 1157: 1100: 119: 41: 6170:"A Chinese American immigration secret emerges from the dark days of discrimination" 5907:

1870 U.S. census, Population and social Statistics, Volume I, Table XXIX, pp 704–715

5756: 2219:

showed that 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese American men were to

1635:

since the previous year. Also by 1924, all Asian immigrants (except people from the

8277: 8219: 8132: 7904: 7836: 7551:

Surviving on the Gold Mountain. A History of Chinese American Women and Their Lives

7053: 6985:

The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth Century American West

6670:

The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth Century American West

6642: 5581: 5411: 4918: 4856: 4521: 4440:

as graduate students were not returning to the PRC. This exodus worsened after the

4310: 4247:

of 1882, and permitted Chinese nationals already residing in the country to become

4109: 4007: 3898: 3806: 3632: 3604:

of 1882. This act outlawed all Chinese immigration to the United States and denied

3025: 2969:, which were built in large numbers on the American west coast. The catch included 2628: 2532:

The position of the Chinese gold seekers also was complicated by a decision of the

2401: 2374: 2318: 2199: 2191: 2155: 2131: 2054: 2023: 1773: 1758: 1643:

by the United States in 1898) were utterly excluded by law, denied citizenship and

1557: 1362: 1242: 1207: 1105: 1028: 1023: 505: 330: 86: 4336:

diplomatic relations with the Republic of China led to the passage in 1979 of the

3822:

allowed a critical change to Chinese immigration patterns. The practice known as "

3580: 2694: 8097: 7914: 7909: 7809: 7784: 7193: 7134: 7115: 7032: 6952: 6128: 5861: 5734: 5679: 5671: 5585: 5458: 4232: 4033: 4029: 3871: 3846: 3842: 3668: 3643: 3514: 2990: 2816: 2732: 2648: 2616: 2385:, which began in the 1850s and lasted until the 1920s, notably in San Francisco, 2342: 2283:. In other large cities and regions in America similar associations were formed. 2250: 2179: 2058: 1992: 1809: 1668: 1423: 1367: 1322: 1222: 297: 5895: 5882: 2856:

Hong Neok Woo, 50th Regiment Infantry, Pennsylvania Volunteer Emergency Militia.

2207:

of 1863, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly

1830: 8830: 8794: 8656: 8164: 7899: 7234: 4907:"Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California, 1856-1892" 4468: 4452: 4383: 4372: 4248: 4134: 3834: 3780: 3757: 3734: 3656: 3625: 3096: 2905: 2847:

Corporal John Tomney/Tommy, 70th Regiment Excelsior Brigade, New York Infantry.

2600: 2592: 2537: 2286:

The Chinese associations mediated disputes and soon began participating in the

2147: 2043: 1934: 1855: 1735: 1687: 1644: 1110: 187: 4483:

is now celebrated in some Chinatowns, and flag raising ceremonies feature the

2182:

Churches to help reduce the number of Chinese prostitutes. By the time of the

8871: 7640: 7255: 7227: 4484: 4429: 4321: 4154: 4150: 4072: 3953: 3890: 3838: 3555: 3547: 3489: 3076: 2789: 2687: 2671: 2612: 2496: 2461: 2425: 2378: 2258: 2162:

show that 61 percent of 3,536 Chinese women in California were classified as

2122: 2079: 2062: 2050: 2000: 1859: 1715: 1577: 81: 48: 7180: 1650:

Only since the 1940s, when the United States and China became allies during

8122: 7469:

At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943

7334: 7179:

Workpermit.com. (2018). US H-1B visa for specialty workers. Available at:

7130: 6827: 4271: 4228: 4100: 4025: 3996: 3906: 3814:). The immigration board concluded that he was not really his father's son. 3768: 3609: 2946: 2783:

in California. These levees opened up thousands of acres of highly fertile

2743: 2624: 2469: 2354: 2163: 2151: 2142: 2137: 2118: 2114: 2098: 2071: 2003: 1942: 1789: 1777: 1707: 1659: 1651: 1581: 1572:

in the 1860s. They also worked as laborers in Western mines. They suffered

7844: 7322:

The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium

5350:

California Historical Society. Library of Congress (The Bancroft Library).

3692:

However, this Supreme Court decision was only a temporary setback for the

2659:

and finishing the project seven years ahead of the government's deadline.

2591:

wound down in the 1860s, the majority of the work force found jobs in the

8815: 7546: 6116: 5701:"Historian Recounts Role of Chinese Americans Who Fought in US Civil War" 5250: 4532: 4376: 4364: 4240: 4138: 4088: 3977: 3966: 3894: 3702: 3605: 3563: 3072: 2966: 2942: 2812: 2748: 2501: 2433: 2390: 2338: 2254: 2075: 1879: 1836: 1781: 1750: 1743: 1723: 1636: 1632: 7745: 7444:

American Exodus: Second-Generation Chinese Americans in China, 1901-1949

7057: 6836:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Rutgers University Press. p. 123. 4145:

Since the early 19th century, opium was widely used as an ingredient in

2488:

province to the United States to find work, with the added incentive of

2448: 2070:

that hindered their assimilation, most notably their appearance. Under

36: 8411: 7731:. Compiled by Waverly B. Lowell. Reference Information. Paper 99. 1996. 7497:

Remaking Chinese America: Immigration, Family, and Community, 1940–1965

6654: 6519:

Slumming: Sexual and Racial Encounters in American Nightlife, 1885–1940

6278:

American Exodus Second-Generation Chinese Americans in China, 1901–1949

4930: 4906: 4537: 4356: 4302:, who would eventually become the leading American expert on China and 4199: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4146: 4084: 4068: 4064: 3987: 3823: 3788: 3776: 3663: 2720: 2608: 2489: 2477: 2280: 2168: 1976: 1967: 1739: 1640: 440: 286: 7804: 5605: 2751:

owes its development to the Chinese American horticulturalist Ah Bing.

8640: 8117: 8107: 7648: 7563: 5104: 4541: 4528:

Statistics of the Chinese population in the United States (1840–2010)

4504: 4460: 4391: 4299: 4037: 3929: 3742: 3585: 3543: 3509: 2998: 2962: 2676: 2588: 2485: 2481: 2386: 2382: 2366: 2291: 2216: 2175: 2027: 1955: 1910: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1805: 1785: 1762: 1754: 1747: 1617: 1597: 7377: 7339:

Becoming Chinese American. A History of Communities and Institutions

6646: 5032: 4943: 4922: 4411: 4289:, conservative American politicians reacted to the emergence of the 4174: 3612:. (Chinese immigration later increased more with the passage of the 7623: 5805: 4957: 4294: 4016: 3992: 3803:

against Kinyoun, director of the San Francisco Quarantine Station.

3017: 3013: 2954: 2370: 2357:, and adopted their codes of brotherhood, loyalty, and patriotism. 2208: 2106: 1819: 1702: 7260:

Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population

6890: 6145:

Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague: 1894–1901

6078:(Pbk. ed.). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p. 31. 3689:. The law aimed in particular against Chinese laundry businesses. 3460: 29:"Chinese in America" redirects here. For the Iris Chang book, see 8857:

List of U.S. cities with significant Chinese-American populations

8392: 7606: 6878:"Chinese blacks in the Americas - Americas - ColorQ's Color Club" 4092: 4056: 4052: 4044: 4021: 4012: 4003: 3800: 3029: 2986: 2978: 2938: 1727: 7568:

Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco

6343:"Chinese in Mississippi: An Ethnic People in a Biracial Society" 3628:

extended to the highest levels of the U.S. government: in 1888,

2698:

1969 Plaque to honor the Chinese railroad workers who built the

2595:

industry. Chinese labor was integral to the construction of the

1882:, p. 143)—who wanted to make their fortune in the 1849-era 7698:

Chinese Immigration Pamphlets in the California State Library.

7525:

Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act

5005:

Asian Pacific Americans-enriching the evolving American culture

4476: 4456: 4387: 4368: 4349: 4332: 4328: 3886: 3493: 3009: 3002: 2982: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2667: 2429: 2272: 2263: 2110: 1731: 1683: 5559:

Strangers From A Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans

5485:

The Chinese in California, 1850–1925 – Business & Politics

5447: 5445: 5412:

Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew; Katharine Caroline Bushnell (2006).

2456:

The last major immigration wave started around the 1850s. The

2353:, underground organizations dedicated to the overthrow of the 7948:

U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China

7455:

Chinese in the Post-Civil War South: A People Without History

6441:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 99. 4433: 4290: 4000: 3063: 2958: 2784: 2776: 2756: 2691:

that were rapidly pulled to safety after the fuses were lit.

2362: 2230: 1959: 1679: 7129: 4266:

A resident in San Francisco serves tea to a visitor in 1977.

2719:

as in farming, manufacturing firms, garment industries, and

2615:

coast. Construction began in 1863 at the terminal points of

2412:

The Chinese moved to California in large numbers during the

1808:

became the first Chinese graduate from an American college,

5442: 4415:

The Chinese American experience has been documented at the

4256: 4060: 3616:, which abolished direct racial barriers, and later by the 2974: 2970: 2728: 2464:

was being rapidly settled by European Americans during the

2396: 2117:

doctrines. The number of Chinese migrants who converted to

2010:

Chinese immigrants booked their passages on ships with the

7805:

Chinese-American Contribution to transcontinental railroad

7244:

Comparison of Asian Populations during the Exclusion Years

7099:, edited by Howard R. Lamar. Yale University Press, 1998. 6249:"Why China should recognize that dissent can be patriotic" 5470:

Ethnic Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley

2093:

Portrait of a married Chinese American woman in the 1870s.

5855:

Vessels of Exchange: the Global Shipwright in the Pacific

5529: 5527: 5319:"The Right to Leave and Return and Chinese Migration Law" 2950: 1706:

Canton (Guangzhou) was the trade center of China in that

7725:

Chinese Immigration and the Chinese in the United States

7168:

https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2016

6795:

Asian American children: a historical handbook and guide

6061:

public domain material from this U.S government document

4544:

of the USA – (click to enlarge). Source: US Census 2000.

2078:

men were forced under the threat of beheading to follow

7766: 7761: 7378:

Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans

5500:, By Ji Hyun Lim, AsianWeek Staff Writer, Mar 07, 2003. 2993:. They sold their catch in local markets or shipped it 2539:

The People of the State of California v. George W. Hall

1772:, as the United States had recently begun transpacific 6894:

Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media

6891:

Susan Dente Ross; Paul Martin Lester (19 April 2011).

5728:

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the U.S. Army

5452:

Prostitution in the Early Chinese Community, 1850–1900

3978:

Chinatown: Slumming, gambling, prostitution, and opium

2053:. The Chinese immigrants neither spoke nor understood 1620:

alone showed 57% Chinese American men were married to

7594:

The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts

7393:

Chinese Immigrants (Immigration to the United States)

5898:; McCunn, p.28, 54–57; Brownstone, p.75–79; Gyory p.4 5571:

Illustration: From Roy D. Graves pictorial collection

5169:. The National Women's History Museum. Archived from 4239:

and signed into law on December 17, 1943. It allowed

3488:

labor organization, which was led by the Californian

2989:—all of which, including shark, formed the staple of 2815:

area, followed by other Asian nationalities like the

7955:

One Hundred Years: History of the Chinese in America

5649: 5647: 4495:, growing prosperity in the PRC, and successive pro- 3829:

A year before, more than 60 labor unions formed the

3542:

Across the country, Chinese immigrants clustered in

3504:. Their propaganda branded the Chinese migrants as " 2666:

The route laid not only had to go across rivers and

2006:

emperor. Photo in San Francisco Chinatown from 1910.

1995:

in 1911 Chinese living abroad were forced to wear a

5896:

Chinese Workers Arrive in North Adams, Jun 13, 1870

5141:"The Life Experiences of Chinese Women in the U.S." 4971: 4969: 3646:immigrants to own land and find work. One of these 2727:discrimination and violence from whites, including 2472:, along with massive devastation brought on by the 1560:in the United States includes three major waves of 7679:, Kensington Publishing Corporation (Neuausgabe), 7421:Coming to America. The Chinese-American Experience 7391:Teitelbaum, Michael and Robert Asher, eds. (2004) 6951: 6369:"Neither Black Nor White in the Mississippi Delta" 5982:"The Chinese-American Experience: An Introduction" 5324:. Sydney: University of Technology. Archived from 4164: 3741:at birth. This decision established an important 2844:Corporal Joseph Pierce, 14th Connecticut Infantry. 2682:The Central Pacific made great progress along the 8760:Chinese Historical Society of Southern California 6760:Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border 6418:"The "Race" Notion's Role in Ethnic Assimilation" 6340: 5644: 5265: 3592:while excluding Chinese immigration domestically. 2775:in the construction of a vast network of earthen 8869: 7831:. Chicago Public Library Omnibus Project of the 7527:, The University of North Carolina Press, 1998, 7471:: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, 7363:An Illustrated History of the Chinese in America 7248:; Estimation of the US-Census for the year 2004 7026:The Chinese-American Experience: An Introduction 6142: 6104: 6092: 4966: 4280:Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 3874:(1902–1939) put great effort into enforcing the 2670:, which had to be bridged, but also through the 2158:became a lucrative business. Documents from the 1820:First wave: the beginning of Chinese immigration 1600:in 1892. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the only 7141:. University of Illinois Press. pp. 49–51. 6494: 6492: 4251:citizens. This marked the first time since the 3727:his citizenship, and in the Supreme Court case 3080:were hired to replace striking shoe workers in 2850:Edward Day Cohota, 23rd Massachusetts Infantry. 2408:, an engraving made in 1870 by Leavitt Burnham. 2245:Member Certificate card of Sam Yup Association. 1982: 1580:. Many Americans were stirred to anger by the " 7419:Wu, Dana Ying-Hui and Jeffrey Dao-Sheng Tung, 7194:https://www.uscis.gov/greencard/diversity-visa 6936: 6934: 6932: 6930: 6825: 6695: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6617: 6615: 5167:"The First Chinese Women in the United States" 4481:National Day of the People's Republic of China 4406: 3464:"Chinese Must Go" pistol from the 19th century 8172:Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885 7860: 7423:, Brookfield, CT (The Millbrook Press) 1993, 7151: 6762:. University of Minnesota Press. p. 33. 6540: 6538: 6224:"Chinese Immigration: Legislative Harassment" 5801: 5799: 5797: 5672:The Chinese and the Transcontinental Railroad 4958:Chin, Gabriel and Hrishi Karthikeyan, (2002) 4327:Until 1979, the United States recognized the 4320:According to historian of the American West, 2579:Chinese workers in the snow constructing the 1533: 7795:A History of Chinese Americans in California 7729:National Archives and Records Administration 7553:: State University of New York Press, 1998, 7219:US Census: Race and Hispanic or Latino: 2000 6798:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 38–. 6489: 5498:"New President of the Chinese Six Companies" 3837:(mayor of San Francisco from 1910 to 1912), 2853:Antonio Dardelle, 27th Connecticut Regiment. 2831:A small number of Chinese fought during the 2570: 8755:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association 7874: 7816:Teachinghistory.org review of web resource 7365:, San Francisco (Design Enterprises) 1979, 7303:The Chinese in America. A Narrative History 6927: 6791: 6686: 6612: 6521:. University of Chicago Press. p. 17. 5723: 5721: 5194:"The Chinese Lady and China for the Ladies" 4842:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States 3939: 3841:(first president of the organization), and 3787:. Chinese residents, supported by governor 3596:The flow of immigration (encouraged by the 3576:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States 2406:Chinese Coolies Crossing the Missouri River 2296:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association 2277:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association 1999:, as an expression of their loyalty to the 1826:19th-century Chinese immigration to America 7963: 7867: 7853: 7727:, Records in the Regional Archives of the 7457:: Louisiana State University Press, 1984, 6987:. University of Nevada Press. p. 38. 6954:Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 6567:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 143. 6565:Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York 6535: 6475:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 144. 6473:Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York 6167: 5872: 5870: 5794: 5080:Pew Social and Demographic Trends: reports 5048:"Chinese communities shifting to Mandarin" 4096:located on property owned by high-ranking 3860:The Asiatic Barred Zone as defined by the 3833:in San Francisco, including labor leaders 3438: 3372:Employees of manufacturing establishments 2881:Confederate soldiers with Chinese heritage 2495:For most Chinese immigrants of the 1850s, 2231:Formation of Chinese American associations 1902:and fisheries. Many were also fleeing the 1540: 1526: 7841:(Selected newspaper articles, 1855–1938). 7742:Becoming American. The Chinese Experience 7181:http://workpermit.com/immigration/usa/us- 7097:The New Encyclopedia of the American West 6672:. University of Nevada Press. p. 3. 6394: 6147:. Sacramento: New York University Press. 5552: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5316: 4904: 4243:immigration for the first time since the 4215:Learn how and when to remove this message 3044:A Chinese cigar factory in San Francisco. 2755:Up until the middle of the 19th century, 2334:was founded as a competitor to the CCBA. 2016:Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company 7513:, University of California Press, 1996, 7095:Barth, Gunther. "Chinese Americans." In 6757: 6336: 6334: 6029: 5718: 5138: 5000: 4887:History of Chinese immigration to Canada 4867:Illegal immigration to the United States 4531: 4410: 4261: 4075:in 1876, which received protection from 4047:, opened a fruit and vegetable store on 3944:Chinese immigrants first arrived in the 3855: 3805: 3751:Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution 3579: 3533: 3467: 3459: 3455: 3246:Employees of railroad co., (not clerks) 3095: 3039: 2904: 2859:Thomas Sylvanus, 42nd New York Infantry. 2770:Many of these Chinese men came from the 2742: 2693: 2574: 2550: 2490:being able to aid their family back home 2447: 2400: 2397:Fields of work for first wave immigrants 2317: 2302:community, particularly during times of 2240: 2121:remained at first low. They were mainly 2088: 1986: 1966:) sent nearly all of their young men to 1924: 1829: 1730:that sailed between the Philippines and 1701: 35: 8128:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 7767:Chinese Historical and Cultural Project 7446:(University of California Press, 2019) 7139:Chinese American Transnational Politics 7125: 7123: 7037: 6949: 6865:Love's revolution: interracial marriage 6826:Steven Gregory (1994). Steven Gregory; 5952: 5867: 4892: 4282:, but was in fact set ten times lower. 3618:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 3614:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 3472:Chinese immigrants murdered during the 2443: 1920: 1664:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 63:This article is part of a series on the 14: 8870: 8775:Chinese Staff and Workers' Association 7570:University of California Press, 1995, 7353:The Making of Asian America: A History 7109:Washingtonpost: A Brain Gain for China 6366: 6274: 6246: 6073: 5556: 5543: 5487:, American Memory, Library of Congress 5185: 5159: 4540:(Year 2000); locations of the largest 4485:Flag of the People's Republic of China 3764:At the beginning of the 20th century, 3484:movement and its main mouthpiece, the 2273:Chinese district and clan associations 1784:, where the first Chinese arrived via 1690:move to the United States, surpassing 8735:List of Chinese American associations 8702:Chinese Historical Society of America 7848: 7829:Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey 7762:Chinese Historical Society of America 7300: 6982: 6667: 6630: 6562: 6470: 6415: 6331: 6247:Brooks, Charlotte (23 October 2019). 5876: 5298:D Ying-Hui Wu, J Dao-Sheng Tung, p.35 4898: 4847:History of Asian American immigration 3952:as cheap laborers when the system of 3853:to segregate Asian school children. 3795:was violating their rights under the 3232:Traders & dealers(not specified) 3058:and then to the 1933 creation of the 2933:. With entire fleets of small boats ( 2237:List of Chinese American associations 1697: 7156:. Taylor & Francis. p. 115. 7120: 6715:. Indiana University Press. p. 6708: 6594:. Indiana University Press. p. 6587: 6516: 6436: 6216: 5946: 5509:McCunn, p.113; Brownstone, p.52–56; 5216: 5042: 5040: 5028: 5026: 5001:Bernfeld, Beatrice (May–June 2000), 4953: 4951: 4197:adding citations to reliable sources 4168: 3035: 2937:; 舢舨), the Chinese fishermen caught 2839:Union soldiers with Chinese heritage 2211:, to work on plantations. The tenth 2030:also used the credit-ticket system. 1947:deposits of gold found in California 1602:U.S. law ever to prevent immigration 7070: 7064: 7043: 6958:. Oxford University Press. p. 6416:Sweet, Frank W. (3 November 2011). 5415:Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers 4905:Seager II, Robert (February 1959). 3918:Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 2893:John Fouenty, draftee and deserter. 2890:. 37th Battalion, Virginia Cavalry. 2203:enter the United States. After the 1898:, and participated in establishing 24: 8740:Chinese American Citizens Alliance 7800:The History of Chinese Immigration 7499:: Rutgers University Press, 2002, 7409:, Indiana University Press, 1986, 7272: 5674:Brownstone, p.65–68; McCunn, p.32 5249: 5225:. Little, Brown & Co. p. 5191: 2781:Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta 2113:, while others adhered to various 483: Modern Era 25: 8889: 8790:Organization of Chinese Americans 7773:The Chinese Experience: 1857–1892 7755: 7407:The Chinese Experience in America 7279:Introductions and general history 6712:The Chinese Experience in America 6591:The Chinese Experience in America 6397:"Origins of Chinese in the Delta" 5943:Brownstone, p.68–74; McCunn, p.39 5617:Brownstone, p.59–64; McCunn, p.27 5037: 5023: 4948: 4442:Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 3785:San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 3569: 2876:John Akomb, steward on a gunboat. 2788:made a living as farm workers or 2452:Chinese gold miners in California 8215:Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 7818:Chinese in California, 1850–1925 7735: 7691:Contemporary pamphlet literature 7212: 7199: 7186: 7173: 7160: 7145: 7102: 7089: 7019: 7010: 7001: 6976: 6943: 6918: 6884: 6870: 6858: 6819: 6785: 6776: 6751: 6742: 6733: 6702: 6661: 6624: 6581: 6195:Sei Fujii v. State of California 6076:The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 6052: 5608:1854, Ancestors in the Americas. 5221:The West: An Illustrated History 4862:Immigration to the United States 4173: 3880:Sei Fujii v. State of California 3546:. The largest population was in 3524: 3502:Angel Island Immigration Station 2657:setting records for laying track 1508: 1499: 1498: 1460: 1459: 80: 7481:Matthew Frye Jacobson. (2000). 7238:US Census: Population 1790–1990 6556: 6547: 6510: 6501: 6464: 6455: 6430: 6409: 6388: 6367:Estrin, James (13 March 2018). 6360: 6306: 6268: 6240: 6205: 6187: 6161: 6136: 6067: 6015: 5999: 5979: 5973: 5937: 5928: 5919: 5910: 5901: 5889: 5848: 5839: 5830: 5821: 5810: 5783: 5772: 5761: 5750: 5739: 5693: 5684: 5665: 5656: 5634: 5620: 5611: 5599: 5590: 5574: 5565: 5515: 5503: 5490: 5464: 5405: 5393: 5384: 5375: 5362: 5353: 5344: 5335: 5310: 5301: 5292: 5283: 5274: 5243: 5210: 5132: 5121: 5110: 4270:The Magnuson Act passed during 4184:needs additional citations for 4165:Second wave (1949 to the 1980s) 3982:In his book published in 1890, 3799:, and in the process, launched 2923:West Coast of the United States 2761:East Coast of the United States 2597:first transcontinental railroad 2581:first transcontinental railroad 2046:was withheld from the Chinese. 1915:Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1850 1888:First Transcontinental Railroad 1692:Hispanic and Latino immigration 8780:Chinese for Affirmative Action 8707:Kam Wah Chung & Co. Museum 7835:of Illinois. 1942 – via 7154:Chinese Transnational Networks 7046:History of Education Quarterly 6709:Tsai, Shin-shan Henry (1986). 6588:Tsai, Shin-shan Henry (1986). 6283:University of California Press 5955:"Taishan's U.S. well runs dry" 5836:Brownstone, p.74; McCunn, p.44 5461:; Teitelbaum; Asher, pp. 70–73 5399:McCunn, pp. 109–111; see also 5370:Pacific Mail Steamship Company 5098: 5068: 4994: 4981:Chinese blacks in the Americas 4937: 4259:were permitted to naturalize. 3344:Mill & factory operatives 2738: 2012:Pacific Mail Steamship Company 13: 1: 8765:Chinese Society Halls on Maui 8208:United States v. Wong Kim Ark 7833:Works Progress Administration 7665:. 1903, (HarperTrophy) 1977, 7596:, Vintage 1989 (Neuausgabe), 7288:The Chinese-American Heritage 7077:Columbia University Libraries 7071:Gao, Hong Deng (2019-09-23). 5953:Pierson, David (2007-05-11). 5877:Gyory, Andrew (Summer 2000). 5806:Chinese In The U.S. Civil War 5076:"The Rise of Asian Americans" 4536:Chinese population % in 4473:simplified Chinese characters 3820:1906 San Francisco earthquake 3745:in its interpretation of the 3730:United States v. Wong Kim Ark 3529: 3101: 3060:Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance 2803:located 15–20 miles south of 2731:and murders, drove many into 2716:Northwestern Pacific Railroad 2536:, which decided, in the case 2332:Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance 8686:Museum of Chinese in America 6867:by Maria P.P. Root. Page 180 6172:. L.A. Times. Archived from 6074:Romero, Robert Chao (2011). 5586:10.1080/07418825.2010.535009 5418:. Echo Library. p. 13. 5054:, 2003-12-29, archived from 4877:History of the United States 4417:Museum of Chinese in America 4367:after fleeing from China to 3721:Chinese Underground Railroad 3600:of 1868) was stopped by the 2961:. To catch larger fish like 2900: 2525:enforced a series of taxes. 1983:Arrival in the United States 1979:and hostility towards them. 1970:. From the beginning of the 1906:that affected their region. 1858:of this wave arrived in the 1554:history of Chinese Americans 958:Hispanic and Latino American 7: 7661:Laurence Yep, Dragonwings. 7183:h-1b-visa-specialty-workers 6897:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 144–. 5879:"A Reply to Stanford Lyman" 5561:. New York: Back Bay Books. 4872:Racism in the United States 4835: 4513:United States Census Bureau 4407:Third wave (1980s to today) 4353:National Revolutionary Army 3962:Bolivar County, Mississippi 3869:California Attorney General 3590:exclusion of Jews in Russia 3413:Sub-Total (20 occupations) 3316:Barbers & hairdressers 3218:Gardeners & nurserymen 2826: 2057:and were not familiar with 1814:Chinese Educational Mission 10: 8894: 8697:Chinese American Museum DC 8159:San Francisco riot of 1877 7663:Golden Mountain Chronicles 7582:Autobiographies and novels 6950:Burrows, Edwin G. (1999). 6275:Brooks, Charlotte (2019). 6059:This article incorporates 6025:. The Library of Congress. 5984:. HarpWeek. Archived from 5368:Brownstone, pp.37–44; see 4291:People's Republic of China 4253:Naturalization Act of 1790 3920:. Other laws included the 3783:; the early stages of the 3779:because of an outbreak of 3653:Naturalization Act of 1790 3573: 3358:Physicians & surgeons 3302:Fishermen & oystermen 3082:North Adams, Massachusetts 2869:William Hang, landsman on 2234: 2014:(founded in 1848) and the 1823: 1770:American Revolutionary War 1680:People's Republic of China 1604:and naturalization on the 28: 8852:List of Chinese Americans 8844: 8821:United International Bank 8808: 8725: 8678: 8609: 8258: 8254: 8245: 8149:1867 Chinese Labor Strike 8141: 8085: 8074: 7933: 7882: 7812:, by Patrick Radden Keefe 7790:The Chinese in California 7031:January 26, 2014, at the 6758:Luibheid, Eithne (2002). 6634:Pacific Historical Review 6143:Echenberg, Myron (2007). 4911:Pacific Historical Review 3773:San Francisco's Chinatown 3659:to "free white persons". 3386:Carpenters & joiners 3148:Laborers (not specified) 2765:transcontinental railroad 2712:Southern Pacific Railroad 2700:Transcontinental Railroad 2571:Transcontinental railroad 2422:transcontinental railroad 2341:to join more prestigious 2313:San Francisco's Chinatown 2205:Emancipation Proclamation 1686:, and to a lesser extent 8878:Chinese-American history 8750:Chinese Community Centre 8620:American Chinese cuisine 8496:Providence, Rhode Island 8154:Chinese massacre of 1871 8093:Anti-Chinese legislation 7943:Chinese American history 7381:. (Random House, 2007). 7341:: AltaMira Press, 2004, 7324:, AltaMira Press, 2002, 6983:Ahmad, Diane L. (2007). 6668:Ahmad, Diane L. (2007). 6439:How The Other Half Lives 5341:Brownstone, pp.26–35, 57 4517:Pew Research Data Center 3984:How The Other Half Lives 3940:Segregation in the South 3831:Asiatic Exclusion League 3622:National Origins Formula 3474:Chinese massacre of 1871 3426:Total (all occupations) 2862:John Earl, cabin boy on 2801:Walnut Grove, California 2653:Central Pacific Railroad 2641:Central Pacific Railroad 2534:California Supreme Court 2519:Civil Rights Act of 1866 2418:Central Pacific Railroad 1852:Sino–U.S. maritime trade 1654:, did the situation for 1570:Central Pacific Railroad 461: 439: 417: 406: 384: 373: 351: 340: 329: 318: 296: 285: 274: 252: 230: 219: 197: 186: 164: 153: 91:Chinatown, San Francisco 18:Chinese Railroad Workers 8745:Chinese American church 8691:Chinese American Museum 8528:San Francisco Chinatown 8226:Killing of Vincent Chin 8113:Immigration Act of 1924 7876:Chinese American topics 7810:China's Great Migration 7405:Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry. 7290:(Facts on File, 1988), 6341:Charles Reagan Wilson. 6012:. Retrieved 2008-03-01. 5678:August 4, 2008, at the 5557:Takaki, Ronald (1998). 5381:Lai Him Mark, pp. 23–31 5317:Guofu Liu (July 2005). 5217:Ward, Geoffrey (1997). 4465:Sino-American relations 4428:areas, particularly in 4342:Immigration Act of 1990 4304:Sino-American relations 4276:Immigration Act of 1924 3914:Immigration Act of 1917 3862:Immigration Act of 1917 3793:Marine Hospital Service 3696:movement. In 1882, the 3679:Equal Protection Clause 3657:naturalized citizenship 3562:as well as by Governor 3439:Indispensable workforce 3288:Farmers & planters 2702:, Promontory Point, UT. 2629:Promontory Summit, Utah 2565:1877 San Francisco riot 1788:(the only route as the 1610:Anti-miscegenation laws 979:Middle Eastern American 801:Technology and industry 8628:American Chinese films 8406:Montville, Connecticut 8232:Killing of Akai Gurley 7778:The Chinese in America 7630:, Vintage Books 1996, 7361:McCunn, Ruthanne Lum. 7152:Chee Beng Tan (2007). 5331:on September 18, 2007. 4557:Total U.S. population 4545: 4424: 4315:Chinese-American Times 4267: 4159:Anti-Chinese advocates 3897:as they aided General 3876:Alien Land Law of 1913 3865: 3835:Patrick Henry McCarthy 3815: 3620:, which abolished the 3593: 3539: 3477: 3465: 3260:Boot & shoemakers 3190:Agricultural laborers 3108: 3045: 3022:California legislature 2913: 2752: 2723:. However, widespread 2703: 2637:Union Pacific Railroad 2621:Sacramento, California 2584: 2560: 2549: 2523:California legislature 2453: 2409: 2327: 2246: 2196:United States Congress 2094: 2007: 1938: 1900:California agriculture 1847: 1798:Foreign Mission School 1711: 1091:Admission to the Union 56: 31:The Chinese in America 8201:Hells Canyon Massacre 8177:Rock Springs massacre 8103:Chinese Exclusion Act 7895:American-born Chinese 7675:Teresa Le Yung Ryan, 7613:, Putnam Adult 1989, 7286:Brownstone, David M. 7114:May 29, 2009, at the 5885:on November 26, 2010. 5860:June 6, 2008, at the 5511:Chinese Six Companies 5401:Christianity in China 5359:Cohen, LM. pp. 40–44. 4535: 4421:Manhattan's Chinatown 4414: 4306:during the Cold War. 4265: 4245:Chinese Exclusion Act 3934:Civil Rights Movement 3859: 3809: 3715:, by supporting the " 3711:effectively canceled 3698:Chinese Exclusion Act 3637:Chinese Exclusion Act 3602:Chinese Exclusion Act 3583: 3537: 3498:Chinese Exclusion Act 3471: 3463: 3456:Anti-Chinese movement 3099: 3086:Chinese Exclusion Act 3043: 2909:Chinese fishermen in 2908: 2746: 2697: 2605:Eastern United States 2578: 2554: 2545: 2451: 2428:mountains and across 2404: 2321: 2244: 2128:Chinese Exclusion Act 2092: 2042:, the possibility of 1990: 1928: 1850:In the 19th century, 1833: 1802:Cornwall, Connecticut 1720:Spanish colonial rule 1705: 1594:Chinese Exclusion Act 1574:racial discrimination 1568:of the 1850s and the 1082:Territorial evolution 375:Post-World War II Era 39: 8826:Global Commerce Bank 8800:Hip Sing Association 8188:Seattle riot of 1886 7590:Maxine Hong Kingston 7509:Charles J. McClain. 7301:Chang, Iris (2004). 6792:Benson Tong (2004). 6437:Riis, Jacob (2010). 6200:242 P.2d 718 6176:on February 12, 2019 5173:on September 5, 2014 5128:Brownstone, pp.2, 25 4893:Notes and references 4338:Taiwan Relations Act 4193:improve this article 4105:Thirteenth Amendment 3797:Fourteenth Amendment 3683:Fourteenth Amendment 3635:, who supported the 3506:perpetual foreigners 3500:and the creation of 3050:California Gold Rush 2911:Monterey, California 2888:Chang and Eng Bunker 2510:perpetual foreigners 2466:California Gold Rush 2444:California Gold Rush 2414:California Gold Rush 2288:hospitality industry 2036:American citizenship 2020:credit-ticket system 1972:California Gold Rush 1921:Departure from China 1892:Southern plantations 1884:California Gold Rush 1714:The Chinese reached 1566:California Gold Rush 1005:Palestinian American 221:Era of Good Feelings 166:Confederation period 103:Timeline and periods 8770:Ying On Association 8670:Chinatown bus lines 8662:Confucius Institute 8586:Rockville, Maryland 8574:Spokane, Washington 8183:Tacoma riot of 1885 7925:Hyphenated American 7920:Hong Kong Americans 7442:Charlotte Brooks,. 7320:Cassel, Susan Lan. 7058:10.1017/heq.2020.10 6563:Sante, Luc (2003). 6517:Heap, Chad (2009). 6471:Sante, Luc (2003). 6254:The Washington Post 6228:Library of Congress 6010:Chinese immigration 5690:Brownstone, p.68–74 5606:The People Vs. Hall 5535:Tong (organization) 5084:Pew Research Center 4977:"The United States" 4497:Taiwan independence 4455:, rather than from 4293:as a player in the 4135:Tariff acts of 1832 3922:Cubic Air Ordinance 2896:Charles K. Marshall 2599:, which linked the 2484:-speaking areas in 2363:criminal activities 2339:clan or family ties 2040:European immigrants 1562:Chinese immigration 940:Lithuanian American 891:Vietnamese American 155:American Revolution 55:in hand, June 1942. 47:posing alongside a 8593:Winnemucca, Nevada 8385:San Gabriel Valley 8304:West Argyle Street 8194:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 8059:Washington State ( 7783:2021-02-28 at the 7677:Love Made of Heart 6374:The New York Times 6132:. August 31, 2015. 6037:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 5733:2011-06-24 at the 5533:Brownstone, p.56; 5457:2014-12-02 at the 4852:Chinese emigration 4560:Of Chinese origin 4546: 4425: 4400:Taiwanese American 4396:Hong Kong American 4268: 4233:Warren G. Magnuson 4120:reported on August 3972:Plessy v. Ferguson 3950:Reconstruction Era 3866: 3851:Board of Education 3816: 3747:Citizenship Clause 3717:separate but equal 3713:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 3708:Plessy v. Ferguson 3674:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 3594: 3560:Workingman's Party 3540: 3486:Workingman's Party 3478: 3466: 3162:Domestic servants 3109: 3055:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 3046: 2914: 2833:American Civil War 2809:San Gabriel Valley 2753: 2704: 2585: 2561: 2454: 2410: 2328: 2251:1911 revolutionary 2247: 2223:women, and 43% to 2095: 2008: 1939: 1848: 1768:Shortly after the 1718:during the era of 1712: 1710:. Photo from 1895. 1698:Transpacific trade 1624:women, and 43% to 1576:at every level of 1556:or the history of 1060:Transgender people 623:Capital punishment 276:Reconstruction Era 57: 8865: 8864: 8636:Chinaman's chance 8605: 8604: 8601: 8600: 8538:Richmond District 8522:San Francisco Bay 8399:North Miami Beach 8373:Locke, California 8326:Dallas-Fort Worth 8241: 8240: 8070: 8069: 8048:Dallas-Fort Worth 8018:Mississippi Delta 7890:Chinese Americans 7611:The Joy Luck Club 7491:978-0-8090-1628-0 7485:. Hill and Wang, 6994:978-0-87417-844-9 6904:978-0-313-37892-8 6805:978-0-313-33042-1 6679:978-0-87417-844-9 6528:978-0-226-32244-5 6448:978-0-674-04932-1 6154:978-0-8147-2232-9 5960:Los Angeles Times 5628:"Charles Crocker" 4960:Asian Law Journal 4833: 4832: 4522:language barriers 4491:. The effects of 4350:Republic of China 4329:Republic of China 4225: 4224: 4217: 4098:European American 4077:corrupt policemen 3946:Mississippi Delta 3771:requested to put 3687:U.S. Constitution 3598:Burlingame Treaty 3588:) protesting the 3519:Chinaman's chance 3436: 3435: 3330:Clerks in stores 3036:Other occupations 2918:Pearl River Delta 2797:Locke, California 2772:Pearl River Delta 2684:Sacramento Valley 2521:was passed), the 2474:Taiping Rebellion 2438:Taiping Rebellion 2326:in San Francisco. 2255:clan associations 2225:European American 2171:cultural values. 2103:ancestral worship 1993:Xinhai Revolution 1951:Burlingame Treaty 1904:Taiping Rebellion 1872:Chinese Americans 1656:Chinese Americans 1639:, which had been 1626:European American 1586:Burlingame Treaty 1550: 1549: 1472: 1471: 1101:American frontier 1000:Lebanese American 985:Egyptian American 915:Estonian American 905:Albanian American 899:European American 876:Japanese American 866:Filipino American 490: 489: 463:Post-Cold War Era 120:Pre-Columbian Era 72: 16:(Redirected from 8885: 8785:Committee of 100 8712:Wing Luke Museum 8580:Washington, D.C. 8491:Portland, Oregon 8256: 8255: 8252: 8251: 8220:Bellingham riots 8133:China Initiative 8083: 8082: 7961: 7960: 7905:Fuzhou Americans 7869: 7862: 7855: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7837:Newberry Library 7628:On Gold Mountain 7375:Pfaelzer, Jean. 7316: 7267: 7216: 7210: 7203: 7197: 7190: 7184: 7177: 7171: 7164: 7158: 7157: 7149: 7143: 7142: 7135:Hsu, Madeline Y. 7127: 7118: 7106: 7100: 7093: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7083: 7068: 7062: 7061: 7041: 7035: 7023: 7017: 7014: 7008: 7007:Ahmad, p. 47–48. 7005: 6999: 6998: 6980: 6974: 6973: 6957: 6947: 6941: 6938: 6925: 6922: 6916: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6874: 6868: 6862: 6856: 6854: 6852: 6850: 6823: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6812: 6789: 6783: 6780: 6774: 6773: 6755: 6749: 6746: 6740: 6737: 6731: 6730: 6706: 6700: 6697: 6684: 6683: 6665: 6659: 6658: 6628: 6622: 6619: 6610: 6609: 6585: 6579: 6578: 6560: 6554: 6551: 6545: 6542: 6533: 6532: 6514: 6508: 6505: 6499: 6496: 6487: 6486: 6468: 6462: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6434: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6424: 6413: 6407: 6406: 6404: 6403: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6364: 6358: 6357: 6355: 6354: 6345:. Archived from 6338: 6329: 6328: 6326: 6324: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6299: 6272: 6266: 6265: 6263: 6261: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6234: 6220: 6214: 6209: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6168:Ching-Ching Ni. 6165: 6159: 6158: 6140: 6134: 6133: 6120: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6071: 6065: 6056: 6055: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6019: 6013: 6003: 5997: 5996: 5994: 5993: 5977: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5967: 5950: 5944: 5941: 5935: 5932: 5926: 5923: 5917: 5914: 5908: 5905: 5899: 5893: 5887: 5886: 5881:. Archived from 5874: 5865: 5852: 5846: 5843: 5837: 5834: 5828: 5825: 5819: 5814: 5808: 5803: 5792: 5787: 5781: 5776: 5770: 5765: 5759: 5754: 5748: 5743: 5737: 5725: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5712: 5705:Voice of America 5697: 5691: 5688: 5682: 5669: 5663: 5660: 5654: 5651: 5642: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5624: 5618: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5594: 5588: 5578: 5572: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5554: 5541: 5531: 5522: 5519: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5471: 5468: 5462: 5449: 5440: 5439: 5434: 5432: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5388: 5382: 5379: 5373: 5366: 5360: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5342: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5323: 5314: 5308: 5305: 5299: 5296: 5290: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5272: 5271:Brownstone, p.26 5269: 5263: 5262: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5214: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5203: 5198: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5180: 5178: 5163: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5147:on July 24, 2014 5136: 5130: 5125: 5119: 5117:Brownstone, p.25 5114: 5108: 5102: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5072: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5044: 5035: 5030: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5009:, archived from 4998: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4988: 4973: 4964: 4955: 4946: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4902: 4882:Chinese Canadian 4857:Overseas Chinese 4551: 4550: 4311:William Y. Chang 4287:Second Red Scare 4220: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4200: 4177: 4169: 4123: 3899:John J. Pershing 3705:". And in 1896, 3633:Grover Cleveland 3114: 3113: 3106: 3103: 2710:After 1869, the 2375:people smuggling 2322:Officers of the 2300:Chinese American 2221:African American 2192:Washington, D.C. 2189: 2184:1880 U.S. census 2160:1870 U.S. census 1846:. April 29, 1876 1759:Vancouver Island 1676:2020 U.S. census 1622:African American 1542: 1535: 1528: 1512: 1502: 1501: 1463: 1462: 1106:Manifest destiny 1096:Historic regions 1078: 1077: 1018:Native Americans 990:Iranian American 964:Mexican American 950:Serbian American 935:Italian American 920:Finnish American 910:English American 861:Chinese American 848:African American 648:Direct democracy 638:The Constitution 597:Higher education 506:American Century 408:Civil Rights Era 386:Civil Rights Era 342:Great Depression 331:Roaring Twenties 199:Jeffersonian Era 109: 108: 104: 87:Chinese American 84: 70: 59: 58: 53:M1928A1 Thompson 42:Chinese American 21: 8893: 8892: 8888: 8887: 8886: 8884: 8883: 8882: 8868: 8867: 8866: 8861: 8840: 8804: 8721: 8674: 8597: 8543:Sunset District 8486:Portland, Maine 8237: 8137: 8098:Anti-Coolie Act 8077: 8066: 8002:Massachusetts ( 7959: 7929: 7915:Hoklo Americans 7910:Hakka Americans 7878: 7873: 7823: 7785:Wayback Machine 7758: 7738: 7719:Primary sources 7716: 7495:Xiaojian Zhao, 7435:Specific topics 7313: 7275: 7273:Further reading 7270: 7232:US Census: 1990 7217: 7213: 7204: 7200: 7191: 7187: 7178: 7174: 7165: 7161: 7150: 7146: 7128: 7121: 7116:Wayback Machine 7107: 7103: 7094: 7090: 7081: 7079: 7069: 7065: 7042: 7038: 7033:Wayback Machine 7024: 7020: 7015: 7011: 7006: 7002: 6995: 6981: 6977: 6970: 6948: 6944: 6939: 6928: 6923: 6919: 6909: 6907: 6905: 6889: 6885: 6876: 6875: 6871: 6863: 6859: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6824: 6820: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6790: 6786: 6782:Luibheid, p.34. 6781: 6777: 6770: 6756: 6752: 6747: 6743: 6738: 6734: 6727: 6707: 6703: 6698: 6687: 6680: 6666: 6662: 6647:10.2307/3638262 6629: 6625: 6620: 6613: 6606: 6586: 6582: 6575: 6561: 6557: 6552: 6548: 6543: 6536: 6529: 6515: 6511: 6506: 6502: 6497: 6490: 6483: 6469: 6465: 6460: 6456: 6449: 6435: 6431: 6422: 6420: 6414: 6410: 6401: 6399: 6395:John Thornell. 6393: 6389: 6379: 6377: 6365: 6361: 6352: 6350: 6339: 6332: 6322: 6320: 6312: 6311: 6307: 6297: 6295: 6293: 6273: 6269: 6259: 6257: 6245: 6241: 6232: 6230: 6222: 6221: 6217: 6210: 6206: 6193: 6192: 6188: 6179: 6177: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6141: 6137: 6129:Washington Post 6122: 6121: 6117: 6109: 6105: 6097: 6093: 6086: 6072: 6068: 6053: 6034: 6030: 6021: 6020: 6016: 6004: 6000: 5991: 5989: 5978: 5974: 5965: 5963: 5951: 5947: 5942: 5938: 5933: 5929: 5924: 5920: 5915: 5911: 5906: 5902: 5894: 5890: 5875: 5868: 5862:Wayback Machine 5853: 5849: 5844: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5811: 5804: 5795: 5788: 5784: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5740: 5735:Wayback Machine 5726: 5719: 5710: 5708: 5699: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5685: 5680:Wayback Machine 5670: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5645: 5639: 5635: 5626: 5625: 5621: 5616: 5612: 5604: 5600: 5595: 5591: 5579: 5575: 5570: 5566: 5555: 5544: 5532: 5525: 5520: 5516: 5508: 5504: 5496:AsianWeek.com. 5495: 5491: 5483: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5459:Wayback Machine 5450: 5443: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5410: 5406: 5398: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5349: 5345: 5340: 5336: 5328: 5321: 5315: 5311: 5306: 5302: 5297: 5293: 5288: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5270: 5266: 5257:Made In America 5248: 5244: 5237: 5215: 5211: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5190: 5186: 5176: 5174: 5165: 5164: 5160: 5150: 5148: 5137: 5133: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5111: 5103: 5099: 5089: 5087: 5086:. June 19, 2012 5074: 5073: 5069: 5061: 5059: 5046: 5045: 5038: 5031: 5024: 5016: 5014: 4999: 4995: 4986: 4984: 4983:. Color Q World 4975: 4974: 4967: 4956: 4949: 4942: 4938: 4923:10.2307/3636239 4903: 4899: 4895: 4838: 4530: 4487:as well as the 4469:Chinese schools 4409: 4221: 4210: 4204: 4201: 4190: 4178: 4167: 4121: 4034:Irish Americans 4030:Lower East Side 3980: 3942: 3893:shortly before 3872:Ulysses S. Webb 3847:Walter McCarthy 3843:Andrew Furuseth 3766:Surgeon General 3669:Anti-Coolie Act 3578: 3572: 3532: 3527: 3458: 3441: 3104: 3038: 2991:Chinese cuisine 2903: 2829: 2741: 2733:self-employment 2688:nitro-glycerine 2649:Charles Crocker 2617:Omaha, Nebraska 2603:network of the 2573: 2470:Qing government 2446: 2399: 2343:Chinese surname 2239: 2233: 2187: 2059:Western culture 1985: 1923: 1843:Harper's Weekly 1828: 1822: 1810:Yale University 1736:Manila galleons 1700: 1669:Asian Americans 1546: 1474: 1473: 1075: 1067: 1066: 972:Jewish American 945:Polish American 925:German American 881:Korean American 871:Indian American 842: 834: 833: 688:Merchant Marine 658:Law enforcement 526:Racial violence 500: 492: 491: 298:Progressive Era 106: 102: 94: 73: 71:History of the 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8891: 8881: 8880: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8859: 8854: 8848: 8846: 8842: 8841: 8839: 8838: 8833: 8831:East West Bank 8828: 8823: 8818: 8812: 8810: 8806: 8805: 8803: 8802: 8797: 8795:Bing Kong Tong 8792: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8767: 8762: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8731: 8729: 8723: 8722: 8720: 8719: 8717:Wo Hing Museum 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8688: 8682: 8680: 8676: 8675: 8673: 8672: 8667: 8666:Transportation 8664: 8659: 8657:Chinese school 8654: 8651: 8646: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8630: 8625: 8622: 8617: 8613: 8611: 8607: 8606: 8603: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8596: 8595: 8590: 8589: 8588: 8576: 8571: 8570: 8569: 8564: 8556:Seattle-Tacoma 8552: 8551: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8518: 8513: 8511:Salt Lake City 8508: 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8482: 8481: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8455: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8432: 8427: 8426: 8425: 8420: 8408: 8403: 8402: 8401: 8389: 8388: 8387: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8364: 8363: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8335: 8334: 8322: 8321: 8320: 8308: 8307: 8306: 8294: 8293: 8292: 8280: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8259: 8249: 8243: 8242: 8239: 8238: 8236: 8235: 8229: 8223: 8217: 8212: 8204: 8198: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8174: 8169: 8165:Tape v. Hurley 8161: 8156: 8151: 8145: 8143: 8139: 8138: 8136: 8135: 8130: 8125: 8120: 8115: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8095: 8089: 8087: 8080: 8078:discrimination 8072: 8071: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8064: 8057: 8056: 8055: 8050: 8040: 8035: 8028: 8021: 8014: 8007: 8000: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7982: 7981: 7976: 7967: 7965: 7958: 7957: 7952: 7951: 7950: 7939: 7937: 7931: 7930: 7928: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7900:Asian American 7897: 7892: 7886: 7884: 7883:Related groups 7880: 7879: 7872: 7871: 7864: 7857: 7849: 7843: 7842: 7821: 7813: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7775: 7770: 7764: 7757: 7756:External links 7754: 7753: 7752: 7749: 7737: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7721: 7720: 7715: 7714: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7688: 7687: 7673: 7659: 7638: 7621: 7604: 7586: 7585: 7583: 7579: 7578: 7561: 7543: 7542: 7540: 7536: 7535: 7523:Andrew Gyory. 7521: 7507: 7493: 7479: 7465: 7453:Lucy M Cohen. 7451: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7432: 7431: 7417: 7403: 7389: 7373: 7359: 7349: 7332: 7318: 7311: 7298: 7283: 7282: 7280: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7254:2020-02-12 at 7226:2020-02-12 at 7211: 7198: 7185: 7172: 7159: 7144: 7119: 7101: 7088: 7063: 7036: 7018: 7009: 7000: 6993: 6975: 6968: 6942: 6926: 6917: 6903: 6883: 6869: 6857: 6842: 6818: 6804: 6784: 6775: 6768: 6750: 6741: 6732: 6725: 6701: 6685: 6678: 6660: 6641:(3): 367–394. 6623: 6611: 6604: 6580: 6573: 6555: 6546: 6534: 6527: 6509: 6500: 6488: 6481: 6463: 6454: 6447: 6429: 6408: 6387: 6359: 6330: 6305: 6291: 6267: 6239: 6215: 6212:Chinese Texans 6204: 6186: 6160: 6153: 6135: 6115: 6103: 6091: 6085:978-0816514601 6084: 6066: 6028: 6014: 6008:(06-19-2003). 5998: 5980:Wei, William. 5972: 5945: 5936: 5927: 5918: 5909: 5900: 5888: 5866: 5847: 5838: 5829: 5820: 5809: 5793: 5782: 5771: 5760: 5749: 5738: 5717: 5692: 5683: 5664: 5655: 5643: 5633: 5619: 5610: 5598: 5589: 5573: 5564: 5542: 5523: 5514: 5502: 5489: 5472: 5463: 5441: 5424: 5404: 5392: 5383: 5374: 5361: 5352: 5343: 5334: 5309: 5300: 5291: 5282: 5273: 5264: 5242: 5235: 5209: 5192:Haddad, John. 5184: 5158: 5143:Archived from 5139:Wei Chi Poon. 5131: 5120: 5109: 5097: 5067: 5036: 5022: 4993: 4965: 4947: 4936: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4890: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4837: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4827: 4824: 4821: 4817: 4816: 4813: 4810: 4807: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4788: 4785: 4782: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4732: 4729: 4726: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4715: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4704: 4701: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4687: 4684: 4681: 4677: 4676: 4673: 4670: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4659: 4656: 4653: 4649: 4648: 4645: 4642: 4639: 4635: 4634: 4631: 4628: 4625: 4621: 4620: 4617: 4614: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4578: 4575: 4574:not available 4572: 4569: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4529: 4526: 4489:older ROC flag 4453:mainland China 4408: 4405: 4384:Mainland China 4373:Pai Hsien-yung 4223: 4222: 4181: 4179: 4172: 4166: 4163: 4118:New York Times 4101:city officials 3979: 3976: 3941: 3938: 3781:bubonic plague 3758:Tape v. Hurley 3655:that reserved 3630:U.S. President 3626:discrimination 3574:Main article: 3571: 3570:Discrimination 3568: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3523: 3476:in Los Angeles 3457: 3454: 3440: 3437: 3434: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3417: 3414: 3411: 3408: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3394: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3380: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3366: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3328: 3324: 3323: 3320: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3300: 3296: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3268: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3258: 3254: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3240: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3226: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3170: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3156: 3155: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3128: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3077:strikebreakers 3037: 3034: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2867: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2828: 2825: 2740: 2737: 2572: 2569: 2445: 2442: 2398: 2395: 2269:interpretation 2232: 2229: 2148:discrimination 2115:ecclesiastical 2051:culture shocks 2044:naturalization 1984: 1981: 1935:Ryukyu Islands 1922: 1919: 1856:Chinese people 1824:Main article: 1821: 1818: 1774:maritime trade 1699: 1696: 1688:Southeast Asia 1671:(about 22%). 1645:naturalization 1558:ethnic Chinese 1548: 1547: 1545: 1544: 1537: 1530: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1517: 1516: 1506: 1495: 1494: 1492:Historiography 1489: 1484: 1476: 1475: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1457: 1449: 1448: 1444: 1443: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1147: 1146: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1139: 1137:The West Coast 1134: 1129: 1121: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1111:Indian removal 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1085: 1084: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1040: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1010:Saudi American 1007: 1002: 997: 995:Iraqi American 992: 987: 975: 968: 967: 966: 954: 953: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 930:Irish American 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 895: 894: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 855:Asian American 851: 843: 840: 839: 836: 835: 832: 831: 830: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 797: 796: 795: 793:Sexual slavery 783: 776: 769: 768: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 730: 729: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 691: 684: 677: 676: 675: 670: 665: 663:Postal service 660: 655: 653:Foreign policy 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 608: 601: 600: 599: 587: 586: 585: 573: 572: 571: 559: 558: 557: 552: 547: 542: 530: 529: 528: 516: 509: 501: 498: 497: 494: 493: 488: 487: 484: 480: 479: 477: 469: 468: 465: 458: 457: 455: 447: 446: 443: 436: 435: 433: 425: 424: 421: 414: 413: 410: 403: 402: 400: 392: 391: 388: 381: 380: 377: 370: 369: 367: 359: 358: 355: 348: 347: 344: 337: 336: 333: 326: 325: 322: 315: 314: 312: 304: 303: 300: 293: 292: 289: 282: 281: 278: 271: 270: 268: 260: 259: 256: 249: 248: 246: 238: 237: 234: 232:Jacksonian Era 227: 226: 223: 216: 215: 213: 205: 204: 201: 194: 193: 190: 188:Federalist Era 183: 182: 180: 172: 171: 168: 161: 160: 157: 150: 149: 147: 139: 138: 135: 127: 126: 123: 107: 100: 99: 96: 95: 85: 77: 76: 66: 65: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8890: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8843: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8811: 8807: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8732: 8730: 8728: 8727:Organizations 8724: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693:(Los Angeles) 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8683: 8681: 8677: 8671: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8615: 8614: 8612: 8608: 8594: 8591: 8587: 8584: 8583: 8582: 8581: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8525: 8524: 8523: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8501:Salem, Oregon 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8480: 8479:Squirrel Hill 8477: 8476: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8459:Oklahoma City 8457: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8439: 8438: 8437: 8436:New York City 8433: 8431: 8428: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8415: 8414: 8413: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8400: 8397: 8396: 8395: 8394: 8390: 8386: 8383: 8382: 8381: 8380: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8362: 8361:East Downtown 8359: 8358: 8357: 8356: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8328: 8327: 8323: 8319: 8316: 8315: 8314: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8302: 8301: 8300: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8288: 8287: 8286: 8285: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8260: 8257: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8244: 8233: 8230: 8227: 8224: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8210: 8209: 8205: 8202: 8199: 8196: 8195: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8167: 8166: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8140: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8090: 8088: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8073: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8033: 8032:New York City 8029: 8026: 8022: 8019: 8016:Mississippi ( 8015: 8012: 8008: 8005: 8001: 7998: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7980: 7979:San Francisco 7977: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7969: 7968: 7966: 7962: 7956: 7953: 7949: 7946: 7945: 7944: 7941: 7940: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7870: 7865: 7863: 7858: 7856: 7851: 7850: 7847: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7814: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7782: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7759: 7750: 7747: 7743: 7740: 7739: 7736:Documentaries 7730: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7718: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7696: 7693: 7690: 7689: 7686: 7685:0-7582-0217-2 7682: 7678: 7674: 7672: 7671:0-06-440085-9 7668: 7664: 7660: 7658: 7657:0-9759255-7-1 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7641:Ki Longfellow 7639: 7637: 7636:9780307950390 7633: 7629: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7619:0-399-13420-4 7616: 7612: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7602:0-679-72188-6 7599: 7595: 7591: 7588: 7587: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7577: 7576:0-520-08867-0 7573: 7569: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7559:0-7914-3864-3 7556: 7552: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7541: 7538: 7537: 7534: 7533:0-8078-4739-9 7530: 7526: 7522: 7520: 7519:0-520-20514-6 7516: 7512: 7508: 7506: 7505:0-8135-3011-3 7502: 7498: 7494: 7492: 7488: 7484: 7480: 7478: 7477:0-8078-5448-4 7474: 7470: 7466: 7464: 7463:0-8071-2457-5 7460: 7456: 7452: 7449: 7448:online review 7445: 7441: 7440: 7437: 7434: 7433: 7430: 7429:1-56294-271-9 7426: 7422: 7418: 7416: 7415:0-253-31359-7 7412: 7408: 7404: 7402: 7401:0-8160-5687-0 7398: 7394: 7390: 7388: 7387:1-4000-6134-2 7384: 7380: 7379: 7374: 7372: 7371:0-932538-01-0 7368: 7364: 7360: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7348: 7347:0-7591-0458-1 7344: 7340: 7336: 7335:Lai, Him Mark 7333: 7331: 7330:0-7591-0001-2 7327: 7323: 7319: 7314: 7312:0-14-200417-0 7308: 7304: 7299: 7297: 7296:0-8160-1627-5 7293: 7289: 7285: 7284: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7266: 7263: 7262: 7257: 7256:archive.today 7253: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7239: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7228:archive.today 7225: 7222: 7220: 7215: 7209: 7202: 7195: 7189: 7182: 7176: 7169: 7163: 7155: 7148: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7126: 7124: 7117: 7113: 7110: 7105: 7098: 7092: 7078: 7074: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7034: 7030: 7027: 7022: 7013: 7004: 6996: 6990: 6986: 6979: 6971: 6969:0-19-514049-4 6965: 6961: 6956: 6955: 6946: 6937: 6935: 6933: 6931: 6921: 6906: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6887: 6879: 6873: 6866: 6861: 6845: 6843:0-8135-2109-2 6839: 6835: 6834: 6829: 6822: 6807: 6801: 6797: 6796: 6788: 6779: 6771: 6769:0-8166-3804-7 6765: 6761: 6754: 6748:Light, p.372. 6745: 6736: 6728: 6726:0-253-31359-7 6722: 6718: 6714: 6713: 6705: 6696: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6681: 6675: 6671: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6635: 6627: 6618: 6616: 6607: 6605:0-253-31359-7 6601: 6597: 6593: 6592: 6584: 6576: 6574:0-374-52899-3 6570: 6566: 6559: 6550: 6541: 6539: 6530: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6507:Sante, p.145. 6504: 6498:Sante, p.144. 6495: 6493: 6484: 6482:0-374-52899-3 6478: 6474: 6467: 6458: 6450: 6444: 6440: 6433: 6419: 6412: 6398: 6391: 6376: 6375: 6370: 6363: 6349:on 2012-04-01 6348: 6344: 6337: 6335: 6319: 6315: 6309: 6294: 6292:9780520302686 6288: 6284: 6280: 6279: 6271: 6256: 6255: 6250: 6243: 6229: 6225: 6219: 6213: 6208: 6201: 6196: 6190: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6156: 6150: 6146: 6139: 6131: 6130: 6125: 6119: 6112: 6107: 6100: 6095: 6087: 6081: 6077: 6070: 6064: 6062: 6051: (1886). 6050: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6032: 6024: 6018: 6011: 6007: 6006:The Economist 6002: 5988:on 2014-01-26 5987: 5983: 5976: 5962: 5961: 5956: 5949: 5940: 5931: 5922: 5913: 5904: 5897: 5892: 5884: 5880: 5873: 5871: 5863: 5859: 5856: 5851: 5845:Cassel, p.435 5842: 5833: 5824: 5818: 5813: 5807: 5802: 5800: 5798: 5791: 5786: 5780: 5775: 5769: 5764: 5758: 5753: 5747: 5742: 5736: 5732: 5729: 5724: 5722: 5706: 5702: 5696: 5687: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5668: 5659: 5650: 5648: 5637: 5629: 5623: 5614: 5607: 5602: 5593: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5568: 5560: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5528: 5518: 5512: 5506: 5499: 5493: 5486: 5481: 5479: 5477: 5467: 5460: 5456: 5453: 5448: 5446: 5438: 5427: 5425:1-4068-0431-2 5421: 5417: 5416: 5408: 5402: 5396: 5387: 5378: 5371: 5365: 5356: 5347: 5338: 5327: 5320: 5313: 5304: 5295: 5286: 5277: 5268: 5260: 5259: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5238: 5236:0-316-92236-6 5232: 5228: 5224: 5223: 5220: 5213: 5195: 5188: 5172: 5168: 5162: 5146: 5142: 5135: 5129: 5124: 5118: 5113: 5106: 5101: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5071: 5058:on 2004-06-04 5057: 5053: 5049: 5043: 5041: 5034: 5029: 5027: 5013:on 2006-05-07 5012: 5008: 5007: 5004: 4997: 4982: 4978: 4972: 4970: 4963: 4961: 4954: 4952: 4945: 4940: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4901: 4897: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4828: 4825: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4780: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4769: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4758: 4755: 4752: 4749: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4724: 4721: 4720: 4716: 4713: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4685: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4660: 4657: 4654: 4651: 4650: 4646: 4643: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4632: 4629: 4626: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4584: 4581: 4580: 4576: 4573: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4525: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4506: 4500: 4498: 4494: 4493:Taiwanization 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4471:which taught 4470: 4467:, as well as 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4449: 4448:for the PRC. 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4430:New York City 4422: 4418: 4413: 4404: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4363:who moved to 4362: 4358: 4354: 4351: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4325: 4323: 4322:Gunther Barth 4318: 4316: 4312: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4264: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4219: 4216: 4208: 4205:December 2014 4198: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4182:This section 4180: 4176: 4171: 4170: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4155:miscegenation 4152: 4148: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4114: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4080: 4078: 4074: 4073:San Francisco 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3975: 3973: 3969: 3968: 3963: 3957: 3955: 3954:sharecropping 3951: 3947: 3937: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3891:United States 3888: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3870: 3863: 3858: 3854: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3839:Olaf Tveitmoe 3836: 3832: 3827: 3825: 3821: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3767: 3762: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3731: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3658: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3627: 3624:. ) Official 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3556:Denis Kearney 3551: 3549: 3548:San Francisco 3545: 3536: 3525:Exclusion era 3522: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3490:Denis Kearney 3487: 3483: 3475: 3470: 3462: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3431: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3395: 3391: 3388: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3354: 3353: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3335: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3311: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3274:Woodchoppers 3273: 3270: 3269: 3265: 3262: 3259: 3256: 3255: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3204:Cigar-makers 3203: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3157: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3112: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3089: 3087: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3056: 3051: 3042: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3006: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2967:Chinese junks 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2912: 2907: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2882: 2875: 2872: 2868: 2865: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2842: 2841: 2840: 2836: 2834: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2793: 2791: 2790:sharecroppers 2786: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2750: 2745: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2701: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2678: 2673: 2672:Sierra Nevada 2669: 2664: 2660: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2644: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2633:American West 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2577: 2568: 2566: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2497:San Francisco 2493: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2462:North America 2459: 2450: 2441: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2426:Sierra Nevada 2423: 2419: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2394: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2379:Pacific Ocean 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2325: 2324:Six Companies 2320: 2316: 2314: 2309: 2308:Supreme Court 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2259:San Francisco 2256: 2252: 2243: 2238: 2228: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2091: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2063:San Francisco 2060: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2005: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1980: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1860:United States 1857: 1853: 1845: 1844: 1839: 1838: 1832: 1827: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1766: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716:North America 1709: 1704: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1606:basis of race 1603: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1578:White society 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1531: 1529: 1524: 1523: 1521: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1505: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1487:List of years 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1477: 1466: 1458: 1456: 1455:Urban history 1453: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 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Systems 731: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 698: 697: 696: 692: 690: 689: 685: 683: 682: 678: 674: 673:Voting rights 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 615: 614: 613: 609: 607: 606: 602: 598: 595: 594: 593: 592: 588: 584: 581: 580: 579: 578: 574: 570: 567: 566: 565: 564: 560: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 537: 536: 535: 531: 527: 524: 523: 522: 521: 517: 515: 514: 510: 508: 507: 503: 502: 496: 495: 485: 482: 481: 478: 476: 475: 471: 470: 466: 464: 460: 459: 456: 454: 453: 449: 448: 444: 442: 438: 437: 434: 432: 431: 427: 426: 422: 420: 416: 415: 411: 409: 405: 404: 401: 399: 398: 394: 393: 389: 387: 383: 382: 378: 376: 372: 371: 368: 366: 365: 361: 360: 356: 354: 350: 349: 345: 343: 339: 338: 334: 332: 328: 327: 323: 321: 317: 316: 313: 311: 310: 306: 305: 301: 299: 295: 294: 290: 288: 284: 283: 279: 277: 273: 272: 269: 267: 266: 262: 261: 257: 255: 254:Civil War Era 251: 250: 247: 245: 244: 240: 239: 235: 233: 229: 228: 224: 222: 218: 217: 214: 212: 211: 207: 206: 202: 200: 196: 195: 191: 189: 185: 184: 181: 179: 178: 174: 173: 169: 167: 163: 162: 158: 156: 152: 151: 148: 146: 145: 141: 140: 136: 134: 133: 129: 128: 124: 122: 121: 116: 115: 111: 110: 105: 98: 97: 92: 88: 83: 79: 78: 75: 74:United States 68: 67: 64: 61: 60: 54: 50: 46: 43: 38: 32: 27: 19: 8578: 8554: 8520: 8464:Philadelphia 8434: 8410: 8391: 8377: 8353: 8324: 8310: 8296: 8282: 8206: 8192: 8163: 8123:Magnuson Act 8076:Anti-Chinese 7934: 7828: 7817: 7741: 7676: 7662: 7644: 7627: 7610: 7593: 7567: 7550: 7524: 7510: 7496: 7482: 7468: 7454: 7443: 7420: 7406: 7392: 7376: 7362: 7352: 7351:Lee, Erika. 7338: 7321: 7302: 7287: 7259: 7243: 7237: 7231: 7218: 7214: 7201: 7188: 7175: 7162: 7153: 7147: 7138: 7131:Him Mark Lai 7104: 7096: 7091: 7080:. Retrieved 7076: 7066: 7049: 7045: 7039: 7021: 7016:Ahmad, p.51. 7012: 7003: 6984: 6978: 6953: 6945: 6920: 6908:. Retrieved 6893: 6886: 6872: 6860: 6847:. Retrieved 6832: 6828:Roger Sanjek 6821: 6809:. Retrieved 6794: 6787: 6778: 6759: 6753: 6744: 6735: 6711: 6704: 6669: 6663: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6590: 6583: 6564: 6558: 6553:Heap, p.145. 6549: 6518: 6512: 6503: 6472: 6466: 6461:Riis, p.100. 6457: 6438: 6432: 6421:. Retrieved 6411: 6400:. Retrieved 6390: 6378:. Retrieved 6372: 6362: 6351:. Retrieved 6347:the original 6321:. Retrieved 6317: 6308: 6296:. Retrieved 6277: 6270: 6258:. Retrieved 6252: 6242: 6231:. Retrieved 6218: 6207: 6194: 6189: 6178:. Retrieved 6174:the original 6163: 6144: 6138: 6127: 6118: 6111:Wong Kim Ark 6110: 6106: 6099:Wong Kim Ark 6098: 6094: 6075: 6069: 6058: 6035: 6031: 6017: 6005: 6001: 5990:. Retrieved 5986:the original 5975: 5964:. Retrieved 5958: 5948: 5939: 5930: 5921: 5912: 5903: 5891: 5883:the original 5850: 5841: 5832: 5823: 5812: 5785: 5774: 5763: 5752: 5741: 5709:. Retrieved 5707:. 2011-04-19 5704: 5695: 5686: 5667: 5658: 5636: 5622: 5613: 5601: 5592: 5576: 5567: 5558: 5517: 5505: 5492: 5466: 5436: 5429:. Retrieved 5414: 5407: 5395: 5386: 5377: 5364: 5355: 5346: 5337: 5326:the original 5312: 5303: 5294: 5285: 5276: 5267: 5258: 5255: 5251:Bryson, Bill 5245: 5222: 5219: 5212: 5202:September 5, 5200:. Retrieved 5187: 5177:September 5, 5175:. Retrieved 5171:the original 5161: 5151:September 5, 5149:. Retrieved 5145:the original 5134: 5123: 5112: 5100: 5088:. Retrieved 5079: 5070: 5060:, retrieved 5056:the original 5051: 5015:, retrieved 5011:the original 5006: 5003: 4996: 4985:. Retrieved 4980: 4959: 4939: 4914: 4910: 4900: 4823:331,449,281 4809:308,745,538 4795:281,421,906 4781:248,709,873 4767:226,542,199 4753:203,302,031 4739:179,323,175 4725:151,325,798 4711:132,164,569 4697:123,202,624 4683:106,021,537 4547: 4510: 4501: 4450: 4426: 4381: 4359:and his son 4346: 4326: 4319: 4314: 4313:founded the 4308: 4284: 4272:World War II 4269: 4229:Magnuson Act 4226: 4211: 4202: 4191:Please help 4186:verification 4183: 4151:cough syrups 4144: 4139:Mott Streets 4131: 4127: 4117: 4115: 4081: 4042: 3997:prostitution 3983: 3981: 3971: 3965: 3958: 3943: 3911: 3907:Pancho Villa 3884: 3879: 3867: 3828: 3817: 3812:Wong Kim Ark 3769:Walter Wyman 3763: 3756: 3755: 3739:U.S. citizen 3728: 3725: 3712: 3706: 3703:Chinese race 3691: 3672: 3661: 3648:anti-Chinese 3641: 3610:Magnuson Act 3595: 3552: 3541: 3482:anti-Chinese 3479: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3110: 3091: 3090: 3073:trade unions 3053: 3047: 3007: 2965:, they used 2915: 2880: 2879: 2871:USS Hartford 2870: 2864:USS Hartford 2863: 2838: 2837: 2830: 2794: 2769: 2754: 2725:anti-Chinese 2709: 2705: 2681: 2665: 2661: 2645: 2625:golden spike 2586: 2562: 2546: 2538: 2531: 2527: 2515: 2505: 2494: 2455: 2411: 2405: 2365:, including 2359: 2355:Qing dynasty 2336: 2329: 2304:anti-Chinese 2285: 2262: 2248: 2198:enacted the 2190:3, 1875, in 2180:Presbyterian 2173: 2138:Tanka people 2136: 2119:Christianity 2099:Confucianism 2096: 2072:Qing dynasty 2067:assimilation 2048: 2032: 2009: 1943:Ming dynasty 1940: 1908: 1878:) province ( 1849: 1841: 1835: 1795: 1790:Panama Canal 1767: 1713: 1673: 1660:Magnuson Act 1652:World War II 1649: 1630: 1590: 1582:Yellow Peril 1553: 1551: 1042: 1035: 1016: 977: 970: 956: 897: 860: 853: 846: 799: 785: 780:Social class 778: 771: 732: 706:Marine Corps 693: 686: 679: 643:Debt ceiling 628:Civil rights 610: 603: 589: 575: 561: 532: 520:Civil unrest 518: 513:Antisemitism 511: 504: 486:2008–present 474:2008–present 472: 450: 428: 395: 362: 353:World War II 307: 263: 241: 208: 175: 142: 132:Colonial Era 130: 118: 112: 62: 26: 8816:Cathay Bank 8632:Terminology 8430:New Orleans 8379:Los Angeles 8086:Legislation 8038:Puerto Rico 7974:Los Angeles 7970:California 7964:by location 7645:China Blues 7547:Huping Ling 7467:Erika Lee, 7317:(Nachdruck) 7305:. Penguin. 6739:Tsai, p.41. 6699:Ahmad, p.3. 6621:Tsai, p.39. 6544:Heap, p.34. 6323:19 December 4669:92,228,496 4655:76,212,168 4641:62,979,766 4627:50,189,209 4613:38,558,371 4599:31,443,321 4585:23,191,876 4571:17,069,453 4563:Percentage 4538:U.S. states 4511:Drawing on 4438:brain drain 4423:since 1980. 4377:Bai Chongxi 4365:Los Angeles 4249:naturalized 4069:sweepstakes 4049:Pell Street 3967:Lum v. Rice 3948:during the 3909:in Mexico. 3895:World War I 3606:citizenship 3564:John Bigler 3448:standards. 3176:Launderers 3123:Population 3120:Occupation 3105: 1920 2813:Los Angeles 2749:Bing cherry 2739:Agriculture 2721:paper mills 2627:" event at 2434:New England 2391:Los Angeles 2213:U.S. census 2169:patriarchal 2164:prostitutes 2156:trafficking 2123:Protestants 2076:Han Chinese 1975:increasing 1880:Bill Bryson 1837:The Graphic 1804:. In 1854, 1782:New England 1751:John Meares 1724:Philippines 1637:Philippines 1633:citizenship 1614:U.S. census 1406:Territories 1127:New England 807:Agriculture 726:Coast Guard 721:Space Force 569:Immigration 419:Vietnam War 320:World War I 114:Prehistoric 8474:Pittsburgh 8412:New Jersey 8332:Richardson 8247:Chinatowns 8030:New York ( 8023:Missouri ( 8009:Michigan ( 7995:Illinois ( 7082:2023-05-11 7052:(2): 139. 6423:2018-11-24 6402:2012-01-01 6353:2012-01-01 6298:25 October 6260:25 October 6233:2009-03-06 6180:2007-09-01 5992:2014-02-05 5966:2008-11-11 5711:2013-01-25 5630:. 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8442:Manhattan 8368:Las Vegas 8312:Cleveland 8273:Baltimore 8118:Cable Act 8108:Geary Act 8025:St. Louis 7825:"Chinese" 7649:Eio Books 7564:Judy Yung 6855:Page 123. 5090:August 6, 4505:H1-B visa 4461:Hong Kong 4392:Hong Kong 4355:Generals 4300:Tsou Tang 4255:that any 4147:medicines 4085:kidnapped 4057:lotteries 4038:commodity 4013:indecency 3930:Cable Act 3743:precedent 3662:By then, 3586:Uncle Sam 3400:Peddlers 3088:in 1882. 3030:canneries 3026:Scott Act 2999:East Asia 2916:From the 2901:Fisheries 2589:gold rush 2517:when the 2502:Cantonese 2486:Guangdong 2482:Cantonese 2387:Cleveland 2383:tong wars 2367:extortion 2292:cremation 2217:Louisiana 2176:Methodist 2152:sex trade 2028:Australia 1956:Hong Kong 1896:Civil War 1890:, worked 1876:Guangdong 1868:Guangzhou 1864:Afong Moy 1806:Yung Wing 1786:Cape Horn 1763:Vancouver 1722:over the 1694:by 2012. 1618:Louisiana 1598:Geary Act 1132:The South 716:Air Force 591:Education 467:1991–2008 452:1991–2008 445:1981–1991 430:1980–1991 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