3857:
3084:. Nevertheless, these young men had no idea that they had been brought from San Francisco by the superintendent of the shoe factory to act as strikebreakers at their destination. This incident provided the trade unions with propaganda, later repeatedly cited, calling for the immediate and total exclusion of the Chinese. This particular controversy slackened somewhat as attention focused on the economic crises in 1875 when the majority of cigar and boots manufacturing companies went under. Mainly, just the textile industry still employed Chinese workers in large numbers. In 1876, in response to the rising anti-Chinese hysteria, both major political parties included Chinese exclusion in their campaign platforms as a way to win votes by taking advantage of the nation's industrial crisis. Rather than directly confronting the divisive problems such as class conflict, economic depression, and rising unemployment, this helped put the question of Chinese immigration and contracted Chinese workers on the national agenda and eventually paved way for the era's most racist legislation, the
6113:, 169 U.S. at 705. "The evident intention, and the necessary effect, of the submission of this case to the decision of the court upon the facts agreed by the parties were to present for determination the single question stated at the beginning of this opinion, namely, whether a child born in the United States, of parent "" of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China, becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States. For the reasons above stated, this court is of opinion that the question must be answered in the affirmative."
2552:
2141:
few were women. In 1850, the
Chinese community of San Francisco consisted of 4,018 men and only seven women. By 1855, women made up only two percent of the Chinese population in the United States, and even by 1890 this had only increased to 4.8 percent. The lack of visibility of Chinese women in general was due partially to the cost of making the voyage when there was a lack of work opportunities for Chinese women in America. This was exacerbated by the harsh working conditions and the traditional female responsibility of looking after the children and extended family back in China. The only women who did go to America were usually the wives of merchants. Other factors were cultural in nature, such as having
3974:, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), applied to a person of Chinese ancestry, born in and a citizen of the United States. The court held that Miss Lum was not denied equal protection of the law because she was given the opportunity to attend a school which "receive only children of the brown, yellow or black races". However, Chinese Americans in the Mississippi Delta began to identify themselves with whites and ended their friendship with the black community in Mississippi. By the late 1960s, Chinese American children attended white schools and universities. They joined Mississippi's infamous White citizen's councils, became members of white churches, were defined as white on driver's licenses, and could marry whites.
2767:. Just as with the railway construction, there was a dire manpower shortage in the expanding Californian agriculture sector, so the white landowners began in the 1860s to put thousands of Chinese migrants to work in their large-scale farms and other agricultural enterprises. Many of these Chinese laborers were not unskilled seasonal workers, but were in fact experienced farmers, whose vital expertise the Californian fruit, vegetables and wine industries owe much to this very day. Despite this, the Chinese immigrants could not own any land on account of the laws in California at the time. Nevertheless, they frequently pursued agricultural work under leases or profit-sharing contracts with their employers.
2529:
California, the taxes were primarily aimed at them and tax revenue was therefore generated almost exclusively by the
Chinese. This tax required a payment of three dollars each month at a time when Chinese miners were making approximately six dollars a month. Tax collectors could legally take and sell the property of those miners who refused or could not pay the tax. Fake tax collectors made money by taking advantage of people who could not speak English well, and some tax collectors, both false and real, stabbed or shot miners who could not or would not pay the tax. During the 1860s, many Chinese were expelled from the mine fields and forced to find other jobs. The Foreign Miner's Tax existed until 1870.
6101:, 169 U.S. at 653. "The question presented by the record is whether a child born in the United States, of parents of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China, becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States by virtue of the first clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, 'All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.'"
1962:, with the choice usually being decided by distance of either city. Only merchants were able to take their wives and children overseas. The vast majority of Chinese immigrants were peasants, farmers and craftsmen. Young men, who were usually married, left their wives and children behind since they intended to stay in America only temporarily. Wives also remained behind to fulfill their traditional obligation to care for their husbands' parents. The men sent a large part of the money they earned in America back to China. Because it was usual at that time in China to live in confined social nets, families, unions, guilds, and sometimes whole village communities or even regions (for instance,
3469:
3535:
5641:
against the exploitation of
Chinese labor by the Central Pacific Railroad, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson. Monopsonists are buyers whose share of the market is large enough to affect prices, or whose supply curves are not completely elastic. By setting different wages for whites and Chinese – each having different elasticities of supply – and using Chinese in the menial and dangerous jobs, with whites in the better positions, the two groups were complementary rather than interchangeable. Calculations thus prove higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than in previous studies.
3041:
3028:, a federal U.S. law adopted in 1888, established that the Chinese migrants, even when they had entered and were living the United States legally, could not re-enter after having temporarily left U.S. territory. The Chinese fishermen, in effect, could therefore not leave with their boats the 3-mile (4.8 km) zone of the west coast. Their work became unprofitable, and gradually they gave up fishing. The only area where the Chinese fishermen remained unchallenged was shark fishing, where they stood in no competition to the European Americans. Many former fishermen found work in the salmon
2090:
1926:
4263:
2242:
2576:
2513:
individuals or in small groups, the
Chinese formed large teams, which protected them from attacks and, because of good organization, often gave them a higher yield. To protect themselves even further against attacks, they preferred to work areas that other gold seekers regarded as unproductive and had given up on. Because much of the gold fields were exhaustingly gone over until the beginning of the 20th century, many of the Chinese remained far longer than the European miners. In 1870, one-third of the men in the Californian gold fields were Chinese.
2686:. However construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, then by the mountains themselves and most importantly by winter snowstorms. Consequently, the Central Pacific expanded its efforts to hire immigrant laborers (many of whom were Chinese). The immigrants seemed to be more willing to tolerate the horrible conditions, and progress continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling then began to slow progress of the line yet again. To combat this, Central Pacific began to use the newly invented and very unstable
2695:
4125:
to a white woman. At the start of the 20th century there was a 55% rate of
Chinese men in New York engaging in interracial marriage, which was maintained in the 1920s, but by the 1930s it had fallen to 20%. It is after the migration of Chinese females in equal number to Chinese males that intermarriage became more balanced. The 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men. The census also showed 300 Chinese men married black women and 100 black men married Chinese women.
3807:
2402:
2319:
1988:
3581:
1831:
3097:
2744:
4153:, and child quieters. However, many 19th century doctors and opium experts, such as Dr. H.H. Kane and Dr. Leslie E. Keeley, made a distinction between opium used for smoking and that used for medicinal purposes, though they found no difference in addictive potential between them. As part of a larger campaign to rid the United States of Chinese influence, white American doctors claimed that opium smoking led to increased involvement in prostitution by young white women and to genetic contamination via
2906:
4032:. Slummers often frequented the brothels and opium dens of Chinatown in the late 1880s and early 1890s. However, by the mid-1890s, slummers rarely participated in Chinese brothels or opium smoking, but instead were shown fake opium joints where Chinese actors and their white wives staged illicit and exaggerated scenes for their audiences. Quite often such shows, which included gunfights that mimicked those of local tongs, were staged by professional guides or "lobbygows"—often
4533:
2449:
37:
1500:
1461:
1510:
82:
2547:... a race of people whom nature has marked as inferior, and who are incapable of progress or intellectual development beyond a certain point, as their history has shown; differing in language, opinions, color, and physical conformation; between whom and ourselves nature has placed an impassable difference" and as such had no right " to swear away the life of a citizen" or participate" with us in administering the affairs of our Government.
3508:" whose work caused wage dumping and thereby prevented American men from "gaining work". After the 1893 economic downturn, measures adopted in the severe depression included anti-Chinese riots that eventually spread throughout the West from which came racist violence and massacres. Most of the Chinese farm workers, which by 1890 comprised 75% of all Californian agricultural workers, were expelled. The Chinese found refuge and shelter in the
4412:
4175:
1703:
3554:
to physically threaten foreigners' mines or gold diggings. Most, after being forcibly driven from the mines, settled in
Chinese enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low end wage labor such as restaurant work and laundry. A few settled in towns throughout the west. With the post Civil War economy in decline by the 1870s, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader (and famous anti-Chinese advocate)
3461:
3761:, 66 Cal. 473 (1885) was a landmark court case in the California Supreme Court in which the Court found the exclusion of a Chinese American student, Mamie Tape, from public school based on her ancestry unlawful. However, state legislation passed at the urging of San Francisco Superintendent of Schools Andrew J. Moulder after the school board lost its case enabled the establishment of a segregated school.
4324:, of the 237,293 Chinese Americans (immigrants and natural-born citizens) who lived in the United States in 1960, three-fourths resided in California (40% of the 237,293), New York (16%), and Hawaii (16%). This shows how concentrated Chinese American populations remained during the second wave of immigration and illustrates how most people of Chinese descent stayed close to Chinese American communities.
2707:
better working conditions, their share of the workforce was never more than 10%. As the
Chinese railroad workers lived and worked tirelessly, they also managed the finances associated with their employment, and Central Pacific officials responsible for employing the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the hiring policy, came to appreciate the cleanliness and reliability of this group of laborers.
6054:
2655:, hiring Chinese as opposed to whites kept labor costs down by a third, since the company would not pay their board or lodging. This type of steep wage inequality was commonplace at the time. Crocker overcame shortages of manpower and money by hiring Chinese immigrants to do much of the back-breaking and dangerous labor. He drove the workers to the point of exhaustion, in the process
2440:. This immigration may have been as high as 90% male as most immigrated with the thought of returning home to start a new life. Those that stayed in America faced the lack of suitable Chinese brides as Chinese women were not allowed to emigrate in significant numbers after 1872. As a result, the mostly bachelor communities slowly aged in place with very low Chinese birth rates.
2186:, documents show that only 24 percent of 3,171 Chinese women in California were classified as prostitutes, many of whom married Chinese Christians and formed some of the earliest Chinese American families in mainland America. Nevertheless, American legislation used the prostitution issue to make immigration far more difficult for Chinese women. On March
7251:
4091:, those purchased for high-class Chinese brothels catering exclusively to Chinese men, or those purchased for prostitution in lower-class establishments frequented by a mixed clientele. In late-19th century San Francisco, most notably Jackson Street, prostitutes were often housed in rooms 10×10 or 12×12 feet and were often beaten or
5413:
2508:, 金山). Because anarchic conditions prevailed in the gold fields, the robbery by European miners of Chinese mining area permits were barely pursued or prosecuted and the Chinese gold seekers themselves were often victim to violent assaults. At that time, "Chinese immigrants were stereotyped as degraded, exotic, dangerous, and
2086:. Historically, to the Manchus, the policy was both an act of submission and, in practical terms, an identification aid to tell friend from foe. Because Chinese immigrants returned as often as they could to China to see their family, they could not cut off their often hated braids in America and then legally re-enter China.
4432:, and there is often very little contact between these Chinese and those higher-educated Chinese professionals. Quantification of the magnitude of this modality of immigration is imprecise and varies over time, but it appears to continue unabatedly on a significant basis. In the 1980s, there was widespread concern by the
3553:
At first, when surface gold was plentiful, the
Chinese were well tolerated and well received. As the easy gold dwindled and competition for it intensified, animosity to the Chinese and other foreigners increased. Organized labor groups demanded that California's gold was only for Americans, and began
2718:
led the expansion of the railway network further into the
American West, and many of the Chinese who had built the transcontinental railroad remained active in building the railways. After several projects were completed, many of the Chinese workers relocated and looked for employment elsewhere, such
2674:
mountains — where long tunnels had to be bored through solid granite using only hand tools and black powder. The explosions had caused many of the
Chinese laborers to lose their lives. Due to the wide expanse of the work, the construction had to be carried out at times in the extreme heat and also in
2662:
The Central Pacific track was constructed primarily by Chinese immigrants. Even though at first they were thought to be too weak or fragile to do this type of work, after the first day in which Chinese were on the line, the decision was made to hire as many as could be found in California (where most
2516:
However, their displacement had begun already in 1869 when white miners began to resent the Chinese miners, feeling that they were discovering gold that the white miners deserved. Eventually, protest rose from white miners who wanted to eliminate the growing competition. From 1852 to 1870 (ironically
2202:
that forbade the entry of all Chinese women considered "obnoxious" by representatives of U.S. consulates at their origins of departure. In effect, this led to American officials erroneously classifying many women as prostitutes, which greatly reduced the opportunities for all Chinese women wishing to
2140:
women who worked as prostitutes for foreigners also commonly kept a "nursery" of Tanka girls specifically to export them to overseas Chinese communities in Australia or America for prostitution work, or to serve as a Chinese or foreigner's concubine. Of the first wave of Chinese who moved to America,
2125:
who had already been converted in China where foreign Christian missionaries (who had first come in mass in the 19th century) had strived for centuries to wholly Christianize the nation with relatively minor success. Christian missionaries had also worked in the Chinese communities and settlements in
2069:
into mainstream American society. This in turn led to the creation, cohesion, and cooperation of many Chinese benevolent associations and societies whose existence in the United States continued far into the 20th century as a necessity both for support and survival. There were also many other factors
4507:
is seen to be a main point of entry for Chinese immigrants with both India and China dominating this visa category over the last ten years. Unsurprisingly, Chinese immigrants entering the United States via the diversity lottery are low. This means of entry prioritises those entering into the US from
4502:
As pursuant to the Department of Homeland security 2016 immigration report the major class of admission for those Chinese immigrants entering into the US is through Immediate Relatives of US citizens. Just over a third (30,456) of those immigrants gained entry via this means. As legislation in the
4124:
6, 1906 that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabiting. Research carried out in 1900 by Liang showed that of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married
3666:
had collected five million dollars from the Chinese. Another anti-Chinese law was "An Act to Discourage Immigration to this State of Persons Who Cannot Become Citizens Thereof", which imposed on the master or owner of a ship a landing tax of fifty dollars for each passenger ineligible to naturalized
3070:
mines, as seamen on board the ships of American shipping companies or in the consumer goods industry, especially in the cigar, boots, footwear and textile manufacturing. During the economic crises of the 1870s, factory owners were often glad that the immigrants were content with the low wages given.
2033:
The entry of the Chinese into the United States was, to begin with, legal and uncomplicated and even had a formal judicial basis in 1868 with the signing of the Burlingame Treaty between the United States and China. But there were differences compared with the policy for European immigrants, in that
7249:
4082:
Between 1850 and 1875, the most frequent complaint against Chinese residents was their involvement in prostitution. There was a great excess of Chinses men in America, which was caused by coolie trade and anti-miscegenation law against Chinese men. High demand in sex inevitably led to prostitution.
3079:
thereby running counter to the interests of the trade unions. In fact, many employers used the threat of importing Chinese strikebreakers as a means to prevent or break up strikes, which caused further resentment against the Chinese. A notable incident occurred in 1870, when 75 young men from China
2787:
for agricultural production. Chinese workers were used to construct hundreds of miles of levees throughout the delta's waterways in an effort to reclaim and preserve farmland and control flooding. These levees therefore confined waterflow to the riverbeds. Many of the workers stayed in the area and
2774:
Region in southern China, where they had learned how to develop fertile farmland in inaccessible river valleys. This know-how was used for the reclamation of the extensive valleys of the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. During the 1870s, thousands of Chinese laborers played an indispensable role
2690:
explosives—which accelerated both the rate of construction and the mortality of the Chinese laborers. Appalled by the losses, the Central Pacific began to use less volatile explosives, and developed a method of placing the explosives in which the Chinese blasters worked from large suspended baskets
2528:
In 1852, a special foreign miner's tax aimed at the Chinese was passed by the California legislature that was aimed at foreign miners who were not U.S. citizens. Given that the Chinese were ineligible for citizenship at that time and constituted the largest percentage of the non-white population of
3726:
Wong Kim Ark, who was born in San Francisco in 1873, was denied re-entry to the United States after a trip abroad, under a law restricting Chinese immigration and prohibiting immigrants from China from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens. However, he challenged the government's refusal to recognize
5640:
Ong, Paul M. "The Central Pacific Railroad and Exploitation of Chinese Labor." Journal of Ethnic Studies 1985 13(2): 119–124. ISSN 0091-3219. – Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and
4128:
It was far more common for Chinese males to marry non-white females in many states. One of the U.S. censuses of Louisiana alone in 1880 showed 57% Chinese American men were married to African American women, and 43% to White American women. As a result of miscegenation laws against Chinese males.
3959:
Chinese carved out a distinct role in the predominantly biracial society of the Mississippi Delta. In a few communities, Chinese children were able to attend white schools, while others studied under tutors, or established their own Chinese schools. In 1924, a nine-year-old Chinese American named
4427:
In addition to students and professionals, a third wave of recent immigrants consisted of people who are living in or entered the country without documentation, who went to the United States in search of lower-status manual jobs. These undocumented immigrants tend to concentrate in heavily urban
4335:
as the sole legitimate government of all of China, and immigration from Taiwan was counted under the same quota as that for mainland China, which had little immigration to the United States from 1949 to 1977. In the late 1970s, the opening up of the People's Republic of China and the breaking of
3447:
Manufacturers depended on the Chinese workers because they had to reduce labor cost to save money and the Chinese labor was cheaper than the Caucasian labor. The labor from the Chinese was cheaper because they did not live like the Caucasians, they needed less money because they lived with lower
3075:, and so they formed their own Chinese organizations (called "guilds") that represented their interests with the employers. The American trade unionists were nevertheless still wary as the Chinese workers were willing to work for their employers for relatively low wages and incidentally acted as
2706:
The well organized Chinese teams still turned out to be highly industrious and exceedingly efficient; at the peak of the construction work, shortly before completion of the railroad, more than 11,000 Chinese were involved with the project. Although the white European workers had higher wages and
1974:
until 1882—when an American federal law ended the Chinese influx—approximately 300,000 Chinese arrived in the United States. Because the chances to earn more money were far better in America than in China, these migrants often remained considerably longer than they had planned initially, despite
4297:
by demanding that these Chinese students be prevented from returning to "Red China". It was feared by these politicians (and no small amount of their constituents) that, if they were allowed to return home to the PRC, they would furnish America's newfound Cold War enemy with valuable scientific
3443:
Supporters and opponents of Chinese immigration affirm that Chinese labor was indispensable to the economic prosperity of the west. The Chinese performed jobs which could be life-threatening and arduous, for example working in mines, swamps, construction sites and factories. Many jobs that the
4095:
for not attracting enough business or refusing to work for any reason. In San Francisco, "highbinders" (various Chinese gangs) protected brothel owners, extorted weekly tributes from prostitutes and caused general mayhem in Chinatown. However, many of San Francisco's Chinatown whorehouses were
2512:
who could not assimilate into civilized western culture, regardless of citizenship or duration of residency in the USA". In response to this hostile situation these Chinese miners developed a basic approach that differed from the white European gold miners. While the Europeans mostly worked as
4141:
in Manhattan Chinatown, while in San Francisco, by 1876, Chinatown supported over 200 opium dens, each with a capacity of between five and fifteen people. After the Burlingame Commercial Treaty of 1880, only American citizens could legally import opium into the United States, and thus Chinese
2022:" meant that the money advanced by the agencies to cover the cost of the passage was to be paid back by wages earned by the laborers later during their time in the U.S. The credit-ticket system had long been used by indentured migrants from South China who left to work in what Chinese called
2663:
were gold miners or in service industries such as laundries and kitchens). Many more were imported from China. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, but the workers from China received much less. Eventually, they went on strike and gained small increases in salary.
4112:
was passed in 1875, which placed restrictions on female Chinese immigration. Those who supported the Page Act were attempting to protect American family values, while those who opposed the Act were concerned that it might hinder the efficiency of the cheap labor provided by Chinese males.
4402:
subgroups. Immigration from Mainland China was almost non-existent until 1977 when the PRC removed restrictions on emigration leading to the immigration of college students and professionals. These recent groups of Chinese tended to cluster in suburban areas and avoided urban Chinatowns.
3512:
of large cities. The vacant agricultural jobs subsequently proved to be so unattractive to the unemployed white Europeans that they avoided the work; most of the vacancies were then filled by Japanese workers, after whom in the decades later came Filipinos, and finally Mexicans. The term
2018:(founded 1874). The money to fund their journey was mostly borrowed from relatives, district associations or commercial lenders. In addition, American employers of Chinese laborers sent hiring agencies to China to pay for the Pacific voyage of those who were unable to borrow money. This "
3451:
The Chinese were often in competition with African Americans in the labor market. In July 1869, in the Southern United States, at an immigration convention at Memphis, a committee was formed to consolidate schemes for importing Chinese laborers into the South like the African Americans.
2567:. The Chinese living in California were with this decision left practically in a legal vacuum, because they had now no possibility to assert their rightful legal entitlements or claims—possibly in cases of theft or breaches of agreement—in court. The ruling remained in force until 1873.
1591:
Newspapers condemned employers who were initially pro-Chinese. When clergy ministering to the Chinese immigrants in California supported the Chinese, they were severely criticized by the local press and populace. So hostile was the opposition that in 1882, the U.S. Congress passed the
3024:, which, finally, expelled the Chinese fishermen with a whole array of taxes, laws and regulations. They had to pay special taxes (Chinese Fisherman's Tax), and they were not allowed to fish with traditional Chinese nets nor with junks. The most disastrous effect occurred when the
2646:
Since there was a lack of white European construction workers, in 1865 a large number of Chinese workers were recruited from the silver mines, as well as later contract workers from China. The idea for the use of Chinese labor came from the manager of the Central Pacific Railroad,
1666:
lifted national origin quotas. After World War II, anti-Asian prejudice began to decrease, and Chinese immigrants, along with other Asians (such as Japanese, Koreans, Indians and Vietnamese), have adapted and advanced. Currently, the Chinese constitute the largest ethnic group of
3936:. Under all this persecution, almost half of the Chinese Americans born in the United States moved to China seeking greater opportunities. Even to this day, discrimination is still talked about, especially for matters like Xenophobia that we still experience in the 21st century.
2166:
as an occupation. The existence of Chinese prostitution was detected early, after which the police, legislature and popular press singled out Chinese prostitutes for criticism. This was seen as further evidence of the depravity of the Chinese and the repression of women in their
1780:, Chinese came into contact with American sailors and merchants at the commercial port of Canton (Guangzhou). There, local individuals heard about opportunities and became curious about America. The main trade route between the United States and China then was between Canton and
4340:, which placed Taiwan under a separate immigration quota from the People's Republic of China. Emigration from Hong Kong was also considered a separate jurisdiction for the purpose of recording such statistics, and this status continued until the present day as a result of the
2432:. The Chinese population rose from 2,716 in 1851 to 63,000 by 1871. In the decade 1861–1870, 64,301 were recorded as arriving, followed by 123,201 in 1871–1880 and 61,711 in 1881–1890. 77% were located in California, with the rest scattered across the West, the South, and
3671:, 1862), and it imposed a $ 2.50 tax per month on all Chinese residing in the state, except Chinese operating businesses, licensed to work in mines, or engaged in the production of sugar, rice, coffee or tea. In 1886, the Supreme Court struck down a Californian law, in
3650:
laws was the Foreign Miners' License tax, which required a monthly payment of three dollars from every foreign miner who did not desire to become a citizen. Foreign-born Chinese could not become citizens because they had been rendered ineligible to citizenship by the
4142:
businessmen had to rely on non-Chinese importers to maintain opium supply. Ultimately, it was European Americans who were largely responsible for the legal importation and illegal smuggling of opium via the port of San Francisco and the Mexican border, after 1880.
2360:
The members of the tongs were marginalized, poor, had lower educational levels and lacked the opportunities available to wealthier Chinese. Their organizations formed without any clear political or benevolent motives and soon found themselves involved in lucrative
1792:
did not exist). These Chinese were mainly merchants, sailors, seamen, and students who wanted to see and acquaint themselves with a strange foreign land they had only heard about. However, their presence was mostly temporary and only a few settled permanently.
1953:
with the United States in 1868 effectively lifted any former restrictions and large-scale immigration to the United States began. In order to avoid difficulties with departure, most Chinese gold-seekers embarked on their transpacific voyage from the docks of
4107:
was passed in 1865, Chinese women brought to the United States for prostitution signed a contract so that their employers would avoid accusations of slavery. Many Americans believed that Chinese prostitutes were corrupting traditional morality, and thus the
2377:, and prostitution. Prostitution proved to be an extremely profitable business for the tongs, due to the high male-to-female ratio among the early immigrants. The tongs would kidnap or purchase females (including babies) from China and smuggle them over the
4103:, who took a percentage of the proceeds in exchange for protection from prosecution. From the 1850s to the 1870s, California passed numerous acts to limit prostitution by all races, yet only Chinese were ever prosecuted under these laws. After the
3700:
had made it unlawful for Chinese laborers to enter the United States for the next 10 years and denied naturalized citizenship to Chinese already here. Initially intended for Chinese laborers, it was broadened in 1888 to include all persons of the
2424:. The Chinese laborers worked out well and thousands more were recruited until the railroad's completion in 1869. Chinese labor provided the massive labor needed to build the majority of the Central Pacific's difficult railroad tracks through the
4519:
notes that 54% of Asian immigrants ages five and over who have been in the United States for five years or less say they speak English proficiently. This means that some of the main challenges Asian immigrants face in the United States today are
2315:, birthplace of the CCBA, formed in 1882, the CCBA had effectively assumed the function of an unofficial local governing body, which even used privately hired police or guards for protection of inhabitants at the height of anti-Chinese excesses.
2835:. Of the approximately 200 Chinese people in the eastern United States at the time, fifty-eight are known to have fought in the Civil War, many of them in the Navy. Most fought for the Union, but a small number also fought for the Confederacy.
4010:
language and culture to sell newspapers, exploit Chinese labor and promote Americans of European birth. The press in particular greatly exaggerated the prevalence of opium smoking and prostitution in New York's Chinatown, and many reports of
2130:, less than 20% of Chinese immigrants had accepted Christian teachings. Their difficulties with integration were exemplified by the end of the first wave in the mid-20th century when only a minority of Chinese living in the U.S. could speak
7205:
Noe-Bustamante, Luis, Lauren Mora, and Neil G. Ruiz. “In Their Own Words: Asian Immigrants' Experiences Navigating Language Barriers in the United States.” Pew Research Center Race & Ethnicity. Pew Research Center, December 19, 2022.
3492:. The party took particular aim against Chinese immigrant labor and the Central Pacific Railroad that employed them. Its famous slogan was "The Chinese must go!" Kearney's attacks against the Chinese were particularly virulent and openly
2542:
in 1854 that the Chinese were not allowed to testify as witnesses before the court in California against white citizens, including those accused of murder. The decision was largely based upon the prevailing opinion that the Chinese were:
2279:(also known as the "Chinese Six Companies" because of the original six founding associations). It quickly became the most powerful and politically vocal organization to represent the Chinese not only in San Francisco but in the whole of
4129:
Many Chinese males either cohibited their relationship in secret or married with black females. Of the Chinese men who lived in Mississippi, 20% and 30% of the Chinese males had married black women in many different years before 1940.
2635:. This network caused the wagon trains of previous decades to become obsolete, exchanging it for a modern transportation system. The building of the railway required enormous labor in the crossing of plains and high mountains by the
3990:
called the Chinese of New York "a constant and terrible menace to society", "in no sense a desirable element of the population". Riis referred to the reputation of New York's Chinatown as a place full of illicit activity, including
2271:, lodgings and job finding services for newcomers. In 1849, the first Chinese merchants' association was formed, but it did not last long. In less than a few years it petered out as its role was gradually replaced by a network of
7751:"Carved in Silence" (Producer/Director/Writer of National Endowment for the Humanities funded documentary with dramatic re-creations about the impact of detention on Chinese immigrants at Angel Island Immigration Station), 1987
1913:. In regard to their legal situation, the Chinese immigrants were far more imposed upon by the government than most other ethnic minorities in these regions. Laws were made to restrict them, including exorbitant special taxes (
2651:, who at first had trouble persuading his business partners of the fact that the mostly weedy, slender looking Chinese workers, some contemptuously called "Crocker's pets", were suitable for the heavy physical work. For the
2145:
and not leaving the home. Another important consideration was that most Chinese men were worried that by bringing their wives and raising families in America they too would be subjected to the same racial violence and
3733:, 169 U.S. 649 (1898), the Court ruled regarding him that "a child born in the United States, of parents of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent
4347:
Chinese Muslims have immigrated to the United States and lived within the Chinese community rather than integrating into other foreign Muslim communities. Two of the most prominent Chinese American Muslims are the
7223:
4019:
were simply fictitious. Casual observers of Chinatown believed that opium use was rampant since they constantly witnessed Chinese smoking with pipes. In fact, local Chinatown residents often were instead smoking
1874:. 323 more immigrants came in 1849, 450 in 1850 and 20,000 in 1852 (2,000 in 1 day). By 1852, there were 25,000; over 300,000 by 1880: a tenth of the Californian population—mostly from six districts of Canton (
3924:, which prohibited Chinese from occupying a sleeping room with less than 500 cubic feet (14 m) of breathing space between each person, the Queue Ordinance, which forced Chinese with long hair worn in a
2499:
was only a transit station on the way to the gold fields in the Sierra Nevada. According to estimates, there were in the late 1850s 15,000 Chinese mine workers in the "Gold Mountains" or "Mountains of Gold"
1601:
4278:, which set immigration from an allowed country at 2% of the number of people of that nationality who already lived in the United States in 1890. Chinese immigration later increased with the passage of the
4132:
Another major concern of European Americans in relation to Chinatowns was the smoking of opium, even though the practice of smoking opium in America long predated Chinese immigration to the United States.
2920:
Region also came countless numbers of experienced Chinese fishermen. In the 1850s they founded a fishing economy on the Californian coast that grew exponentially, and by the 1880s extended along the whole
3878:, which he had co-written, and prohibited "aliens ineligible for citizenship" (i.e. all Asian immigrants) from owning land or property. The law was struck down by the Supreme Court of California in 1946 (
3856:
5827:"Chinese Fishermen, Monterey, California. 1875": From Monterey County Photographs: Chinese Fishing Village Images. California Historical Society. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
2310:
to fight discriminatory legislation and treatment. The associations also took their cases to the press and worked with government institutions and Chinese diplomatic missions to protect their rights. In
1608:. These laws not only prevented new immigration but also the reunion of the families of thousands of Chinese men already living in the United States who had left China without their wives and children.
1742:
belonged to Mexico until 1848, and historians have asserted that a small number of Chinese had already settled there by the mid-18th century. Also later, as part of expeditions in 1788 and 1789 by the
1658:
begin to improve, as restrictions on entry into the country, naturalization, and mixed marriage were lessened. In 1943, Chinese immigration to the United States was once again permitted—by way of the
2290:, lending, health, and education and funeral services. The latter became especially significant for the Chinese community because for religious reasons many of the immigrants laid value to burial or
6123:
2026:(South Seas), the region to the south of China that included the Philippines, the former Dutch East Indies, the Malay Peninsula, and Borneo, Thailand, Indochina, and Burma. The Chinese who left for
6060:
3667:
citizenship. "To Protect Free White Labor against competition with emigrant Chinese Labor and to Discourage the Immigration of Chinese into the State of California" was another such law (aka the
3071:
The Chinese took the bad wages, because their wives and children lived in China where the cost of living was low. As they were classified as foreigners they were excluded from joining American
4087:, purchased from poor families, or lured to ports like San Francisco with the promise of marriage. Prostitutes fell into three categories, namely, those sold to wealthy Chinese merchants as
2306:
repression. By resisting overt discrimination enacted against them, the local chapters of the national CCBA helped to bring a number of cases to the courts from the municipal level to the
7207:
2267:") to help immigrants to relocate others from their native towns, socialize, receive monetary aid and raise their voices in community affairs. At first, these organizations only provided
3932:
of 1922, which terminated citizenship for white American women who married an Asian man. The majority of these laws were not fully overturned until the 1950s, at the dawn of the modern
3737:
and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China", automatically became a
3956:
was being developed. They gradually came to operate grocery stores in mainly African American neighborhoods. The Chinese population in the delta peaked in the 1870s, reaching 3000.
1917:), prohibiting them from marrying white European partners (so as to prevent men from marrying at all and increasing the population) and barring them from acquiring U.S. citizenship.
8856:
4083:
During this time, Hip Yee Tong, a secret society, imported over six-thousand Chinese women to serve as prostitutes. Most of these women came from southeastern China and were either
4051:
with rooms upstairs available for gambling and opium smoking. A few decades later, local tongs, which originated in the California goldfields around 1860, controlled most gambling (
3550:. Large numbers came from the Taishan area that proudly bills itself as the No. 1 Home of Overseas Chinese. An estimated half a million Chinese Americans are of Taishanese descent.
7947:
4499:
governments on Taiwan have served to split the older Chinese American community, as some pro-reunification Chinese Americans with ROC origins began to identify more with the PRC.
1909:
From the outset, they were met with the distrust and overt racism of settled European populations, ranging from massacres to pressuring Chinese migrants into what became known as
4274:, when China was a welcome ally to the United States. It limited Chinese immigrants to 105 visas per year selected by the government. That quota was supposedly determined by the
1612:
in many Western states also prohibited the Chinese men from marrying white women. In the South, many Chinese American men married African American women. For example, the tenth
7221:
6342:
4463:. However, instead of joining existing Chinese American associations, the recent immigrants formed new cultural, professional, and social organizations which advocated better
1539:
2065:. The racism they experienced from the European Americans from the outset increased continuously until the turn of the 20th century, and with lasting effect prevented their
4503:
US is seen to favour this point of entry. Furthermore, employment based preferences is seen to be the third largest. This means of entry accounts for 23% of the total. The
3677:; this was the first case where the Supreme Court ruled that a law that is race-neutral on its face, but is administered in a prejudicial manner, is an infringement of the
2261:, respectable Chinese merchants—the most prominent members of the Chinese community of the time—made the first efforts to form social and welfare organizations (Chinese: "
5033:
Gabriel J. Chin, "The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965," 75 North Carolina Law Review 273(1996)
4079:
in exchange for weekly payoffs of around five dollars per week. Such gambling-houses were frequented by as many whites as Chinamen, though whites sat at separate tables.
4285:
Many of the first Chinese immigrants admitted in the 1940s were college students who initially sought simply to study in, not immigrate to, America. However, during the
1678:, there are more than 4.2 million Chinese in the United States, above 1.2% of the total population. The influx continues, where each year ethnic Chinese people from the
3608:
to those already settled in the country. Renewed in 1892 and extended indefinitely in 1902, the Chinese population declined until the act was repealed in 1943 by the
8711:
5580:
Wu, Y., Sun, I. Y., & Smith, B. W. (2011). Race, Immigration, and Policing: Chinese Immigrants' Satisfaction with Police. JQ: Justice Quarterly, 28(5), 745–774.
4161:
believed America faced a dual dilemma: opium smoking was ruining moral standards, and Chinese labor was lowering wages and taking jobs away from European Americans.
4036:—with paid actors. Especially in New York, the Chinese community was unique among immigrant communities in so far as its illicit activity was turned into a cultural
3480:
In the 1870s, several economic crises came about in parts of the United States, and many Americans lost their jobs, from which arose throughout the American West an
3032:, which until the 1930s were major employers of Chinese migrants, because white workers were less interested in such hard, seasonal and relatively unrewarding work.
2759:
was the primary crop grown in California. The favorable climate allowed the beginning of the intensive cultivation of certain fruits, vegetables and flowers. In the
1945:
from establishing bases overseas. However, these decrees were widely ignored. Large-scale immigration of Chinese laborers began after China began to receive news of
800:
352:
5454:
3719:" doctrine. Despite this, Chinese laborers and other migrants still entered the United States illegally through Canada and Latin America, in a path known as the
3639:, proclaimed the Chinese "an element ignorant of our constitution and laws, impossible of assimilation with our people and dangerous to our peace and welfare."
7264:
4104:
3796:
3750:
3682:
3444:
Caucasians did not want to do were left to the Chinese. Some believed that the Chinese were inferior to the white people and so should be doing inferior work.
2563:
The ruling effectively made white violence against Chinese Americans unprosecutable, arguably leading to more intense white-on-Chinese race riots, such as the
662:
519:
7769:, founded in 1987 as a non-profit organization to promote and preserve Chinese American and Chinese history and culture through community outreach activities.
7072:
6041:
4043:
Perhaps the most pervasive illicit activity in Chinatowns of the late-19th century was gambling. In 1868, one of the earliest Chinese residents in New York,
3521:" came to symbolize the unfairness Chinese experienced in the American justice system as some were murdered largely due to hatred of their race and culture.
1090:
7772:
7028:
5981:
7954:
6169:
3826:" and "Paper Daughters" was allegedly introduced. Chinese would declare themselves to be United States citizens whose records were lost in the earthquake.
1941:
Decrees by the Qing dynasty issued in 1712 and 1724 forbade emigration and overseas trade and were primarily intended to prevent remnant supporters of the
4394:. During the late 1960s and early and mid-1970, Chinese immigration into the United States came almost exclusively from Hong Kong and Taiwan creating the
2275:
when more immigrants came in greater numbers. Eventually some of the more prominent district associations banded together under one umbrella known as the
1796:
American missionaries in China also sent small numbers of Chinese boys to the United States for schooling. From 1818 to 1825, five students stayed at the
5318:
3052:, many Chinese migrants made their living as domestic servants, housekeepers, running restaurants, laundries (leading to the 1886 Supreme Court decision
826:
816:
7208:
https://www.pewresearch.org/race-ethnicity/2022/12/19/in-their-own-words-asian-immigrants-experiences-navigating-language-barriers-in-the-united-states/
4067:
left under a cup after a pile of cards had been counted off four at a time. Most popular, however, was the lottery. Players purchased randomly assigned
3885:
One of the few cases in which Chinese immigration was allowed during this era were "Pershing's Chinese", 527 people who were allowed to immigrate from
1891:
1532:
1059:
622:
8759:
5524:
4944:
Chin, Gabriel J., (1998) UCLA Law Review vol. 46, at 1 "Segregation's Last Stronghold: Race Discrimination and the Constitutional Law of Immigration"
4480:
4137:
established opium regulation, and in 1842 opium was taxed at seventy-five cents per pound. In New York, by 1870, opium dens had opened on Baxter and
1662:—thereby repealing 61 years of official racial discrimination against the Chinese. Large-scale Chinese immigration did not occur until 1965 when the
1464:
7780:
2476:, which saw many Chinese emigrate to other countries to flee the fighting. As a result, many Chinese made the decision to emigrate from the chaotic
4298:
knowledge. Therefore, Chinese students were heavily encouraged to undergo naturalization. One famous Chinese immigrant of the 1940s generation was
1017:
647:
596:
5857:
3062:) and a wide spectrum of shops, such as food stores, antique shops, jewelers, and imported goods stores. In addition, the Chinese often worked in
2820:
2381:
to work in brothels and similar establishments. There were constant internecine battles over territory, profits, and women in feuds known as the
657:
473:
6211:
5107:– harbor crowded with sampans. Jackson, William Henry, 1843–1942. World's Transportation Commission photograph collection (Library of Congress).
5002:
4006:. To some extent, Riis' characterization was true, though the sensational press quite often exploited the great differences between Chinese and
5047:
792:
6248:
4375:
is another Chinese Muslim writer who moved to the United States after fleeing from China to Taiwan, his father was the Chinese Muslim General
8561:
8521:
8171:
8092:
8010:
7978:
7044:
Liu, Qing (May 2020). "To Be an Apolitical Political Scientist: A Chinese Immigrant Scholar and (Geo)politicized American Higher Education".
4192:
1605:
1525:
7111:
5730:
5307:
Thomas W. Chinn, ed., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969), p.72.
1854:
began the history of Chinese Americans. At first only a handful of Chinese came, mainly as merchants, former sailors, to America. The first
7794:
7728:
5662:
Kraus, George. "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific." Utah Historical Quarterly 1969 37(1): 41–57. ISSN 0042-143X.
4382:
Ethnic Chinese immigration to the United States since 1965 has been aided by the fact that the United States maintains separate quotas for
2126:
America, but nevertheless their religious message found few who were receptive. It was estimated that during the first wave until the 1882
687:
627:
512:
451:
429:
396:
363:
308:
264:
242:
209:
176:
143:
5140:
3517:", originally coined as a self-referential term by the Chinese, came to be used as a term against the Chinese in America as the new term "
8754:
8075:
7973:
6202:, 617 (California Supr. 1952) ("...we hold that the alien land law is invalid as in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment.").
5510:
5473:
5289:
Robert Alan Nash, "The Chinese Shrimp Fishery in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1973), p. 182.
4962:
vol. 9 "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950"
4841:
4158:
3575:
2345:
associations, business guilds, or legitimate enterprises. As a result, they organized themselves into their own secret societies, called
2323:
2303:
2295:
2276:
2061:
and life; they often came from rural China and therefore had difficulty in adjusting to and finding their way around large towns such as
2039:
1825:
1573:
1481:
1438:
806:
568:
5480:
5478:
5476:
8384:
8325:
8047:
8017:
7866:
7073:"Championing the Causes of Chinese Americans: The William Yukon Chang Papers – News from Columbia's Rare Book & Manuscript Library"
1719:
1136:
1081:
1054:
632:
8774:
8042:
8024:
2015:
1834:
Chinese emigration to America: sketch on board the steam-ship Alaska, bound for San Francisco. From "Views of Chinese"" published in
705:
642:
637:
604:
590:
525:
6346:
8515:
7985:
4886:
4866:
2049:
Although the newcomers arrived in America after an already established small community of their compatriots, they experienced many
971:
957:
821:
772:
725:
720:
667:
617:
562:
17:
5700:
8726:
8555:
8127:
8060:
8052:
7996:
4279:
3617:
3613:
2763:
a strong demand for these products existed. However, the supply of these markets became possible only with the completion of the
2711:
1663:
1428:
1049:
652:
611:
582:
5166:
2294:(including the scattering of ashes) in China. In the 1880s many of the city and regional associations united to form a national
8627:
5497:
4846:
3964:, solely because she was of Chinese descent. The ensuing lawsuit eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. In
2780:
715:
554:
539:
6022:
4451:
Starting from the 1990s, the demographics of the Chinese American community have shifted in favor of immigrants with roots in
4071:
numbers from gambling-houses, with drawings held at least once a day in lottery saloons. There were ten such saloons found in
8734:
8701:
7490:
6992:
6902:
6803:
6677:
6526:
6446:
6417:
6152:
3928:
to pay a tax or to cut it, and Anti-Miscegenation Act of 1889 that prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women, and the
3784:
2236:
1929:
A tomb for some 400 Chinese laborers who died in 1852 during a rebellion aboard a ship that was carrying them to California.
1503:
1131:
1095:
1036:
944:
694:
576:
533:
341:
131:
7799:
5675:
4317:
newspaper in 1955 to provide a venue through which Chinese American communities could read and write about their own lives.
8485:
8303:
8289:
5878:
3765:
5596:
Takaki, Ronald. Strangers from a Different Shore. A History of Indian Americans. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989.
3559:
3485:
2174:
Laws passed by the California state legislature in 1866 to curb the brothels worked alongside missionary activity by the
1647:, and prevented from owning land. In many Western states, Asian immigrants were even prevented from marrying Caucasians.
1491:
978:
733:
113:
5653:
Saxton, Alexander. "The Army of Canton in the High Sierra" Pacific Historical Review 1966 35(2): 141–151. ISSN 0030-8684
5451:
2886:
Christopher Wren Bunker and Stephen Decatur Bunker (Siam-born of partial Chinese ancestry), the sons of conjoined twins
8739:
8547:
8037:
6924:
Yee, Mark Gregory. "Opium in America and the Chinese". Chinese America: History and Perspectives, Online Journal, 1997.
6083:
5817:
Chinese serving in the Confederate arm force – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War
2807:
were predominantly Chinese in the turn of the 20th century. Also Chinese farmers contributed to the development of the
2675:
other times in the bitter winter cold. So harsh were the conditions that sometimes even entire camps were buried under
2307:
1914:
1486:
1043:
811:
672:
544:
1761:, several Chinese sailors and craftsmen contributed to building the first European-designed boat that was launched in
8877:
8789:
7684:
7670:
7656:
7635:
7618:
7601:
7575:
7558:
7532:
7518:
7504:
7476:
7462:
7428:
7414:
7400:
7386:
7370:
7346:
7329:
7310:
7295:
6967:
6841:
6767:
6724:
6603:
6572:
6480:
6290:
5934:
Aarim-Heriot, Najia, "Chinese immigrants, African Americans, and racial anxiety in the United States, 1848–82", p.123
5423:
5234:
4464:
4303:
4214:
3875:
3686:
3566:, both of whom blamed Chinese "coolies" for depressed wage levels and causing European Americans to lose their jobs.
1851:
710:
700:
101:
7261:
8784:
8537:
8398:
8214:
6631:
Light, Ivan (1974). "From Vice District to Tourist Attraction: The Moral Career of American Chinatown, 1880–1940".
6368:
5521:
Roy D. Graves pictorial collection: Chinese and Chinatown. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
5437:
or among Chinese residents as their concubines, or to be sold for export to Singapore, San Francisco, or Australia.
4861:
3738:
3501:
2643:, the two privately chartered federally backed enterprises that built the line westward and eastward respectively.
2551:
2035:
1004:
779:
418:
2631:. It created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the
1866:
became the first female Chinese immigrant to the United States; she was brought to New York City from her home of
8435:
8246:
8031:
7744:(a three-part documentary film by Bill Moyers about the history of the Chinese immigration into the USA), 2003. (
7025:
5985:
4548:
The table shows the ethnic Chinese population of the United States (including persons with mixed-ethnic origin).
3916:
banned all immigration from many parts of Asia, including parts of China (see map on left), and foreshadowed the
2922:
2760:
2596:
2580:
2457:
2257:
and guilds, where people had a duty to protect and help one another. Soon after the first Chinese had settled in
1887:
1197:
939:
890:
6173:
8779:
8542:
7859:
6282:
5369:
4441:
4196:
4059:) in New York's Chinatown. One of the most popular games of chance was fan-tan where players guessed the exact
3868:
3629:
3496:, and found considerable support among white people in the American West. This sentiment led eventually to the
3100:
Chinese American miners in the Colorado School of Mines' Edgar Experimental Mine near Idaho Springs, Colorado,
3008:
Again, this initial success was met with a hostile reaction. Since the late 1850s, European migrants—above all
2011:
1631:
In 1924, the law barred further entries of Chinese. Those already in the United States had been ineligible for
680:
549:
6877:
5954:
5916:
LI, Peter S."Occupational mobility and kinship assistance: a study of Chinese immigrants in Chicago", p. 35–37
5325:
4976:
4444:. However, since the start of the 21st century, there have been an increasing number of returnees producing a
4231:, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943, was proposed by U.S. Representative (later Senator)
4024:
through such pipes. In the late 19th century, many European Americans visited Chinatown to experience it via "
3111:
This table describes the occupation partitioning among Chinese males in the twenty most reported occupations.
8764:
8706:
8422:
8207:
7990:
7832:
4488:
4472:
3819:
3811:
3791:(1899–1903) and local businesses, fought the quarantine through numerous federal court battles, claiming the
3729:
3589:
3584:
A political cartoon by cartoonist L. M. Glackens criticizing the United States government (portrayed here as
3059:
2715:
2331:
1691:
1382:
999:
984:
914:
904:
875:
865:
2330:
Following a law enacted in New York, in 1933, in an attempt to evict Chinese from the laundry business, the
2253:
Chinese society was distinctively collectivist and composed of close networks of extended families, unions,
8685:
8458:
4876:
4496:
4416:
4028:", wherein guided groups of affluent New Yorkers explored vast immigrant districts of New York such as the
3720:
3021:
2522:
2034:
if the Chinese migrants had children born in the United States, those children would automatically acquire
1862:
around 1815. Subsequent immigrants that came from the 1820s up to the late 1840s were mainly men. In 1834,
989:
963:
949:
919:
909:
786:
319:
69:
6009:
2555:
Adobe building constructed in the 1870s by Chinese workers living in the railroad-adjacent mining town of
2468:, while southern China suffered from severe political and economic instability due to the weakness of the
2436:. Most came from Southern China looking for a better life; escaping a high rate of poverty left after the
1726:(1565–1815), during which they had established themselves as fishermen, sailors, and merchants on Spanish
1564:
to the United States, beginning in the 19th century. Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked in the
8579:
8003:
7777:
6124:"Donald Trump meet Wong Kim Ark, the Chinese American Cook who is the father of 'birthright citizenship'"
5538:
5075:
4871:
4512:
4352:
3961:
3960:
Martha Lum, daughter of Gong Lum, was prohibited from attending the Rosedale Consolidated High School in
3810:
1910 decision denying an application for admission to the U.S. by Wong Yoke Fun (eldest son of U.S.-born
2533:
2097:
The first Chinese immigrants usually remained faithful to traditional Chinese beliefs, which were either
1816:
of the 1870s-'80s continued this tradition, sending some 120 boys to be educated in New England schools.
1813:
1413:
1307:
880:
870:
7246:
8696:
8478:
8262:
8158:
6313:
6199:
5925:
Saxton, Alexander, "The indispensable enemy; labor and the anti-Chinese movement in California", p. 5–6
5854:
4508:
countries with historically low number of immigrants. As such, China does not fall into this category.
4360:
4252:
3652:
3081:
2994:
2564:
1769:
1009:
994:
854:
5193:
8851:
8820:
8510:
8148:
7852:
7356:
6633:
5010:
4309:
With the rise in immigration and expansion of communities, newspaper and media outlets grew as well.
2764:
2699:
2421:
2204:
2183:
2159:
1899:
1886:. The Chinese did not, however, only come for the gold rush in California, but also helped build the
1675:
1588:
between the U.S. and China, political and labor organizations rallied against "cheap Chinese labor".
1418:
1347:
1312:
885:
374:
5116:
5055:
3849:
of the Sailor's Union. The League was almost immediately successful in pressuring the San Francisco
3468:
2349:, for mutual support and protection of their members. These first tongs modeled themselves upon the
8749:
8619:
8527:
8500:
8311:
8153:
7942:
7815:
3830:
3772:
3621:
3473:
2800:
2656:
2652:
2640:
2518:
2417:
2312:
1870:
by Nathaniel and Frederick Carne, who exhibited her as "the Chinese Lady". By 1848, there were 325
1569:
1387:
1292:
1252:
847:
90:
4116:
In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese lived in New York City, of which 11 married Irish women. The
1596:
prohibiting immigration from China for the following ten years. This law was then extended by the
8744:
8690:
8592:
8463:
8225:
8112:
7724:
7108:
6716:
6710:
6595:
6589:
5727:
4917:(1). University of California Press: Pacific Historical Review Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 49-66: 49–66.
4341:
4275:
4185:
3917:
3913:
3902:
3861:
3792:
3678:
3534:
2350:
2298:(CCBA), an umbrella organization, which defended the political rights and legal interests of the
2268:
1609:
1352:
1342:
1337:
1317:
52:
8267:
7511:
In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America
2150:
they had faced. With the heavily uneven gender ratio, prostitution grew rapidly and the Chinese
8835:
8648:
8585:
8473:
8446:
8429:
8405:
8378:
8231:
5254:
5144:
3647:
3481:
3040:
2804:
2724:
2636:
2620:
2556:
2195:
2102:
2038:. However, the immigrants themselves would legally remain as foreigners "indefinitely". Unlike
1797:
1454:
1433:
1267:
1182:
1126:
198:
30:
7166:
Department of Human Services Immigration and Citizenship. (2018). Yearbook 2016. Available at:
6892:
6864:
6831:
6023:"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875"
5226:
5218:
5127:
2623:, and the two sections were merged and ceremonially completed on May 10, 1869, at the famous "
2089:
1958:, a major trading port in the region. Less frequently, they left from the neighboring port of
8495:
8360:
8200:
8176:
8102:
7894:
7483:
Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917
6793:
6276:
6045:
5400:
4492:
4244:
3933:
3697:
3636:
3601:
3497:
3092:
Statistics on Employed Male Chinese in the Twenty, Most Frequently Reported Occupations, 1870
3085:
2632:
2604:
2127:
2066:
1925:
1801:
1593:
1302:
1297:
1172:
898:
462:
407:
385:
5757:
Edward Day Cohota – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War
3642:
Many Western states also enacted discriminatory laws that made it difficult for Chinese and
2416:, with 40,400 being recorded as arriving from 1851 to 1860, and again in the 1860s when the
1987:
8825:
8799:
8716:
8635:
8505:
8451:
8441:
8367:
8272:
8187:
7589:
7240:
7167:
6959:
6223:
5816:
5778:
5768:
Antonio Dardelle – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War
4445:
4437:
4420:
4337:
4048:
3518:
3049:
2910:
2887:
2792:, until they were driven out during an outbreak of anti-Chinese violence in the mid-1890s.
2465:
2413:
2337:
A minority of Chinese immigrants did not join the CCBA as they were outcasts or lacked the
2287:
2212:
2019:
1971:
1946:
1883:
1613:
1565:
1513:
1392:
1357:
1262:
1237:
934:
924:
231:
220:
165:
6314:"Xenophobia in America: How we got here and what's at stake | Erika Lee | TEDxMinneapolis"
5790:
Thomas Sylvanus – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War
5627:
5484:
4262:
3538:
1892 certificate of residence for Hang Jung: From Papers relating to Chinese in California
2241:
8:
8769:
8669:
8661:
8348:
8317:
8182:
7924:
7919:
7824:
6253:
6227:
5864:, Hans Konrad Van Tilburg, University of Hawaiêi at Manoa; Brownstone, p.74; McCunn, p.47
5534:
5083:
4516:
4399:
4395:
3693:
3505:
2795:
Chinese immigrants settled a few small towns in the Sacramento River delta, two of them:
2575:
2509:
2346:
2082:
customs including shaving the front of their heads and combing the remaining hair into a
1377:
1327:
1282:
1272:
1257:
1247:
1232:
1212:
1187:
1177:
1167:
929:
754:
744:
154:
6396:
5779:
Hong Neok Woo – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War
5745:
4527:
8573:
8532:
8490:
8468:
8417:
8354:
8343:
8297:
8193:
7789:
6650:
6373:
6048:
6036:
5390:
California Historical Society. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
5280:"Chinese Fisheries in California," Chamber's Journal, Vol. L (January 21, 1954), p. 48.
4926:
4851:
4236:
4097:
3970:(1927), the Supreme Court affirmed that the separate-but-equal doctrine articulated in
3949:
3921:
3850:
3746:
3716:
3707:
3673:
3054:
2832:
2808:
2224:
1963:
1895:
1842:
1625:
1561:
1397:
1372:
1277:
1217:
1192:
1162:
1152:
764:
759:
749:
739:
275:
253:
44:
7192:
USCIS. (2018). Green Card Through the Diversity Immigrant Visa Program. Available at:
5789:
5767:
4286:
3020:—moved into fishing off the American West Coast too, and they exerted pressure on the
2420:
recruited large labor gangs, many on five-year contracts, to build its portion of the
8566:
8372:
8338:
8331:
8283:
7889:
7875:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7680:
7666:
7652:
7631:
7614:
7597:
7571:
7554:
7528:
7514:
7500:
7486:
7472:
7458:
7447:
7424:
7410:
7396:
7382:
7366:
7342:
7325:
7306:
7291:
6988:
6963:
6898:
6837:
6799:
6763:
6720:
6673:
6599:
6568:
6522:
6476:
6442:
6286:
6148:
6079:
5959:
5746:
John Tommy – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War
5419:
5230:
5170:
4881:
4076:
3945:
3925:
3597:
3067:
2917:
2796:
2771:
2683:
2473:
2437:
2299:
2220:
2083:
1996:
1950:
1930:
1903:
1871:
1655:
1621:
1585:
1584:" rhetoric. Despite provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868
1509:
1332:
1287:
1227:
1202:
1157:
1100:
119:
41:
6170:"A Chinese American immigration secret emerges from the dark days of discrimination"
5907:
1870 U.S. census, Population and social Statistics, Volume I, Table XXIX, pp 704–715
5756:
2219:
showed that 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese American men were to
1635:
since the previous year. Also by 1924, all Asian immigrants (except people from the
8277:
8219:
8132:
7904:
7836:
7551:
Surviving on the Gold Mountain. A History of Chinese American Women and Their Lives
7053:
6985:
The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth Century American West
6670:
The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth Century American West
6642:
5581:
5411:
4918:
4856:
4521:
4440:
as graduate students were not returning to the PRC. This exodus worsened after the
4310:
4247:
of 1882, and permitted Chinese nationals already residing in the country to become
4109:
4007:
3898:
3806:
3632:
3604:
of 1882. This act outlawed all Chinese immigration to the United States and denied
3025:
2969:, which were built in large numbers on the American west coast. The catch included
2628:
2532:
The position of the Chinese gold seekers also was complicated by a decision of the
2401:
2374:
2318:
2199:
2191:
2155:
2131:
2054:
2023:
1773:
1758:
1643:
by the United States in 1898) were utterly excluded by law, denied citizenship and
1557:
1362:
1242:
1207:
1105:
1028:
1023:
505:
330:
86:
4336:
diplomatic relations with the Republic of China led to the passage in 1979 of the
3822:
allowed a critical change to Chinese immigration patterns. The practice known as "
3580:
2694:
8097:
7914:
7909:
7809:
7784:
7193:
7134:
7115:
7032:
6952:
6128:
5861:
5734:
5679:
5671:
5585:
5458:
4232:
4033:
4029:
3871:
3846:
3842:
3668:
3643:
3514:
2990:
2816:
2732:
2648:
2616:
2385:, which began in the 1850s and lasted until the 1920s, notably in San Francisco,
2342:
2283:. In other large cities and regions in America similar associations were formed.
2250:
2179:
2058:
1992:
1809:
1668:
1423:
1367:
1322:
1222:
297:
5895:
5882:
2856:
Hong Neok Woo, 50th Regiment Infantry, Pennsylvania Volunteer Emergency Militia.
2207:
of 1863, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly
1830:
8830:
8794:
8656:
8164:
7899:
7234:
4907:"Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California, 1856-1892"
4468:
4452:
4383:
4372:
4248:
4134:
3834:
3780:
3757:
3734:
3656:
3625:
3096:
2905:
2847:
Corporal John Tomney/Tommy, 70th Regiment Excelsior Brigade, New York Infantry.
2600:
2592:
2537:
2286:
The Chinese associations mediated disputes and soon began participating in the
2147:
2043:
1934:
1855:
1735:
1687:
1644:
1110:
187:
4483:
is now celebrated in some Chinatowns, and flag raising ceremonies feature the
2182:
Churches to help reduce the number of Chinese prostitutes. By the time of the
8871:
7640:
7255:
7227:
4484:
4429:
4321:
4154:
4150:
4072:
3953:
3890:
3838:
3555:
3547:
3489:
3076:
2789:
2687:
2671:
2612:
2496:
2461:
2425:
2378:
2258:
2162:
show that 61 percent of 3,536 Chinese women in California were classified as
2122:
2079:
2062:
2050:
2000:
1859:
1715:
1577:
81:
48:
7180:
1650:
Only since the 1940s, when the United States and China became allies during
8122:
7469:
At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943
7334:
7179:
Workpermit.com. (2018). US H-1B visa for specialty workers. Available at:
7130:
6827:
4271:
4228:
4100:
4025:
3996:
3906:
3814:). The immigration board concluded that he was not really his father's son.
3768:
3609:
2946:
2783:
in California. These levees opened up thousands of acres of highly fertile
2743:
2624:
2469:
2354:
2163:
2151:
2142:
2137:
2118:
2114:
2098:
2071:
2003:
1942:
1789:
1777:
1707:
1659:
1651:
1581:
1572:
in the 1860s. They also worked as laborers in Western mines. They suffered
7844:
7322:
The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium
5350:
California Historical Society. Library of Congress (The Bancroft Library).
3692:
However, this Supreme Court decision was only a temporary setback for the
2659:
and finishing the project seven years ahead of the government's deadline.
2591:
wound down in the 1860s, the majority of the work force found jobs in the
8815:
7546:
6116:
5701:"Historian Recounts Role of Chinese Americans Who Fought in US Civil War"
5250:
4532:
4376:
4364:
4240:
4138:
4088:
3977:
3966:
3894:
3702:
3605:
3563:
3072:
2966:
2942:
2812:
2748:
2501:
2433:
2390:
2338:
2254:
2075:
1879:
1836:
1781:
1750:
1743:
1723:
1636:
1632:
7745:
7444:
American Exodus: Second-Generation Chinese Americans in China, 1901-1949
7057:
6836:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Rutgers University Press. p. 123.
4145:
Since the early 19th century, opium was widely used as an ingredient in
2488:
province to the United States to find work, with the added incentive of
2448:
2070:
that hindered their assimilation, most notably their appearance. Under
36:
8411:
7731:. Compiled by Waverly B. Lowell. Reference Information. Paper 99. 1996.
7497:
Remaking Chinese America: Immigration, Family, and Community, 1940–1965
6654:
6519:
Slumming: Sexual and Racial Encounters in American Nightlife, 1885–1940
6278:
American Exodus Second-Generation Chinese Americans in China, 1901–1949
4930:
4906:
4537:
4356:
4302:, who would eventually become the leading American expert on China and
4199: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4146:
4084:
4068:
4064:
3987:
3823:
3788:
3776:
3663:
2720:
2608:
2489:
2477:
2280:
2168:
1976:
1967:
1739:
1640:
440:
286:
7804:
5605:
2751:
owes its development to the Chinese American horticulturalist Ah Bing.
8640:
8117:
8107:
7648:
7563:
5104:
4541:
4528:
Statistics of the Chinese population in the United States (1840–2010)
4504:
4460:
4391:
4299:
4037:
3929:
3742:
3585:
3543:
3509:
2998:
2962:
2676:
2588:
2485:
2481:
2386:
2382:
2366:
2291:
2216:
2175:
2027:
1955:
1910:
1875:
1867:
1863:
1805:
1785:
1762:
1754:
1747:
1617:
1597:
7377:
7339:
Becoming Chinese American. A History of Communities and Institutions
6646:
5032:
4943:
4922:
4411:
4289:, conservative American politicians reacted to the emergence of the
4174:
3612:. (Chinese immigration later increased more with the passage of the
7623:
5805:
4957:
4294:
4016:
3992:
3803:
against Kinyoun, director of the San Francisco Quarantine Station.
3017:
3013:
2954:
2370:
2357:, and adopted their codes of brotherhood, loyalty, and patriotism.
2208:
2106:
1819:
1702:
7260:
Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population
6890:
6145:
Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague: 1894–1901
6078:(Pbk. ed.). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p. 31.
3689:. The law aimed in particular against Chinese laundry businesses.
3460:
29:"Chinese in America" redirects here. For the Iris Chang book, see
8857:
List of U.S. cities with significant Chinese-American populations
8392:
7606:
6878:"Chinese blacks in the Americas - Americas - ColorQ's Color Club"
4092:
4056:
4052:
4044:
4021:
4012:
4003:
3800:
3029:
2986:
2978:
2938:
1727:
7568:
Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco
6343:"Chinese in Mississippi: An Ethnic People in a Biracial Society"
3628:
extended to the highest levels of the U.S. government: in 1888,
2698:
1969 Plaque to honor the Chinese railroad workers who built the
2595:
industry. Chinese labor was integral to the construction of the
1882:, p. 143)—who wanted to make their fortune in the 1849-era
7698:
Chinese Immigration Pamphlets in the California State Library.
7525:
Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act
5005:
Asian Pacific Americans-enriching the evolving American culture
4476:
4456:
4387:
4368:
4349:
4332:
4328:
3886:
3493:
3009:
3002:
2982:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2667:
2429:
2272:
2263:
2110:
1731:
1683:
5559:
Strangers From A Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans
5485:
The Chinese in California, 1850–1925 – Business & Politics
5447:
5445:
5412:
Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew; Katharine Caroline Bushnell (2006).
2456:
The last major immigration wave started around the 1850s. The
2353:, underground organizations dedicated to the overthrow of the
7948:
U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China
7455:
Chinese in the Post-Civil War South: A People Without History
6441:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 99.
4433:
4290:
4000:
3063:
2958:
2784:
2776:
2756:
2691:
that were rapidly pulled to safety after the fuses were lit.
2362:
2230:
1959:
1679:
7129:
4266:
A resident in San Francisco serves tea to a visitor in 1977.
2719:
as in farming, manufacturing firms, garment industries, and
2615:
coast. Construction began in 1863 at the terminal points of
2412:
The Chinese moved to California in large numbers during the
1808:
became the first Chinese graduate from an American college,
5442:
4415:
The Chinese American experience has been documented at the
4256:
4060:
3616:, which abolished direct racial barriers, and later by the
2974:
2970:
2728:
2464:
was being rapidly settled by European Americans during the
2396:
2117:
doctrines. The number of Chinese migrants who converted to
2010:
Chinese immigrants booked their passages on ships with the
7805:
Chinese-American Contribution to transcontinental railroad
7244:
Comparison of Asian Populations during the Exclusion Years
7099:, edited by Howard R. Lamar. Yale University Press, 1998.
6249:"Why China should recognize that dissent can be patriotic"
5470:
Ethnic Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley
2093:
Portrait of a married Chinese American woman in the 1870s.
5855:
Vessels of Exchange: the Global Shipwright in the Pacific
5529:
5527:
5319:"The Right to Leave and Return and Chinese Migration Law"
2950:
1706:
Canton (Guangzhou) was the trade center of China in that
7725:
Chinese Immigration and the Chinese in the United States
7168:
https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2016
6795:
Asian American children: a historical handbook and guide
6061:
public domain material from this U.S government document
4544:
of the USA – (click to enlarge). Source: US Census 2000.
2078:
men were forced under the threat of beheading to follow
7766:
7761:
7378:
Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans
5500:, By Ji Hyun Lim, AsianWeek Staff Writer, Mar 07, 2003.
2993:. They sold their catch in local markets or shipped it
2539:
The People of the State of California v. George W. Hall
1772:, as the United States had recently begun transpacific
6894:
Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media
6891:
Susan Dente Ross; Paul Martin Lester (19 April 2011).
5728:
Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the U.S. Army
5452:
Prostitution in the Early Chinese Community, 1850–1900
3978:
Chinatown: Slumming, gambling, prostitution, and opium
2053:. The Chinese immigrants neither spoke nor understood
1620:
alone showed 57% Chinese American men were married to
7594:
The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts
7393:
Chinese Immigrants (Immigration to the United States)
5898:; McCunn, p.28, 54–57; Brownstone, p.75–79; Gyory p.4
5571:
Illustration: From Roy D. Graves pictorial collection
5169:. The National Women's History Museum. Archived from
4239:
and signed into law on December 17, 1943. It allowed
3488:
labor organization, which was led by the Californian
2989:—all of which, including shark, formed the staple of
2815:
area, followed by other Asian nationalities like the
7955:
One Hundred Years: History of the Chinese in America
5649:
5647:
4495:, growing prosperity in the PRC, and successive pro-
3829:
A year before, more than 60 labor unions formed the
3542:
Across the country, Chinese immigrants clustered in
3504:. Their propaganda branded the Chinese migrants as "
2666:
The route laid not only had to go across rivers and
2006:
emperor. Photo in San Francisco Chinatown from 1910.
1995:
in 1911 Chinese living abroad were forced to wear a
5896:
Chinese Workers Arrive in North Adams, Jun 13, 1870
5141:"The Life Experiences of Chinese Women in the U.S."
4971:
4969:
3646:immigrants to own land and find work. One of these
2727:discrimination and violence from whites, including
2472:, along with massive devastation brought on by the
1560:in the United States includes three major waves of
7679:, Kensington Publishing Corporation (Neuausgabe),
7421:Coming to America. The Chinese-American Experience
7391:Teitelbaum, Michael and Robert Asher, eds. (2004)
6951:
6369:"Neither Black Nor White in the Mississippi Delta"
5982:"The Chinese-American Experience: An Introduction"
5324:. Sydney: University of Technology. Archived from
4164:
3741:at birth. This decision established an important
2844:Corporal Joseph Pierce, 14th Connecticut Infantry.
2682:The Central Pacific made great progress along the
8760:Chinese Historical Society of Southern California
6760:Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border
6418:"The "Race" Notion's Role in Ethnic Assimilation"
6340:
5644:
5265:
3592:while excluding Chinese immigration domestically.
2775:in the construction of a vast network of earthen
8869:
7831:. Chicago Public Library Omnibus Project of the
7527:, The University of North Carolina Press, 1998,
7471:: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006,
7363:An Illustrated History of the Chinese in America
7248:; Estimation of the US-Census for the year 2004
7026:The Chinese-American Experience: An Introduction
6142:
6104:
6092:
4966:
4280:Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965
3874:(1902–1939) put great effort into enforcing the
2670:, which had to be bridged, but also through the
2158:became a lucrative business. Documents from the
1820:First wave: the beginning of Chinese immigration
1600:in 1892. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the only
7141:. University of Illinois Press. pp. 49–51.
6494:
6492:
4251:citizens. This marked the first time since the
3727:his citizenship, and in the Supreme Court case
3080:were hired to replace striking shoe workers in
2850:Edward Day Cohota, 23rd Massachusetts Infantry.
2408:, an engraving made in 1870 by Leavitt Burnham.
2245:Member Certificate card of Sam Yup Association.
1982:
1580:. Many Americans were stirred to anger by the "
7419:Wu, Dana Ying-Hui and Jeffrey Dao-Sheng Tung,
7194:https://www.uscis.gov/greencard/diversity-visa
6936:
6934:
6932:
6930:
6825:
6695:
6693:
6691:
6689:
6617:
6615:
5167:"The First Chinese Women in the United States"
4481:National Day of the People's Republic of China
4406:
3464:"Chinese Must Go" pistol from the 19th century
8172:Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885
7860:
7423:, Brookfield, CT (The Millbrook Press) 1993,
7151:
6762:. University of Minnesota Press. p. 33.
6540:
6538:
6224:"Chinese Immigration: Legislative Harassment"
5801:
5799:
5797:
5672:The Chinese and the Transcontinental Railroad
4958:Chin, Gabriel and Hrishi Karthikeyan, (2002)
4327:Until 1979, the United States recognized the
4320:According to historian of the American West,
2579:Chinese workers in the snow constructing the
1533:
7795:A History of Chinese Americans in California
7729:National Archives and Records Administration
7553:: State University of New York Press, 1998,
7219:US Census: Race and Hispanic or Latino: 2000
6798:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 38–.
6489:
5498:"New President of the Chinese Six Companies"
3837:(mayor of San Francisco from 1910 to 1912),
2853:Antonio Dardelle, 27th Connecticut Regiment.
2831:A small number of Chinese fought during the
2570:
8755:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association
7874:
7816:Teachinghistory.org review of web resource
7365:, San Francisco (Design Enterprises) 1979,
7303:The Chinese in America. A Narrative History
6927:
6791:
6686:
6612:
6521:. University of Chicago Press. p. 17.
5723:
5721:
5194:"The Chinese Lady and China for the Ladies"
4842:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States
3939:
3841:(first president of the organization), and
3787:. Chinese residents, supported by governor
3596:The flow of immigration (encouraged by the
3576:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States
2406:Chinese Coolies Crossing the Missouri River
2296:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association
2277:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association
1999:, as an expression of their loyalty to the
1826:19th-century Chinese immigration to America
7963:
7867:
7853:
7727:, Records in the Regional Archives of the
7457:: Louisiana State University Press, 1984,
6987:. University of Nevada Press. p. 38.
6954:Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898
6567:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 143.
6565:Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York
6535:
6475:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 144.
6473:Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York
6167:
5872:
5870:
5794:
5080:Pew Social and Demographic Trends: reports
5048:"Chinese communities shifting to Mandarin"
4096:located on property owned by high-ranking
3860:The Asiatic Barred Zone as defined by the
3833:in San Francisco, including labor leaders
3438:
3372:Employees of manufacturing establishments
2881:Confederate soldiers with Chinese heritage
2495:For most Chinese immigrants of the 1850s,
2231:Formation of Chinese American associations
1902:and fisheries. Many were also fleeing the
1540:
1526:
7841:(Selected newspaper articles, 1855–1938).
7742:Becoming American. The Chinese Experience
7181:http://workpermit.com/immigration/usa/us-
7097:The New Encyclopedia of the American West
6672:. University of Nevada Press. p. 3.
6394:
6147:. Sacramento: New York University Press.
5552:
5550:
5548:
5546:
5316:
4904:
4243:immigration for the first time since the
4215:Learn how and when to remove this message
3044:A Chinese cigar factory in San Francisco.
2755:Up until the middle of the 19th century,
2334:was founded as a competitor to the CCBA.
2016:Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company
7513:, University of California Press, 1996,
7095:Barth, Gunther. "Chinese Americans." In
6757:
6336:
6334:
6029:
5718:
5138:
5000:
4887:History of Chinese immigration to Canada
4867:Illegal immigration to the United States
4531:
4410:
4261:
4075:in 1876, which received protection from
4047:, opened a fruit and vegetable store on
3944:Chinese immigrants first arrived in the
3855:
3805:
3751:Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution
3579:
3533:
3467:
3459:
3455:
3246:Employees of railroad co., (not clerks)
3095:
3039:
2904:
2859:Thomas Sylvanus, 42nd New York Infantry.
2770:Many of these Chinese men came from the
2742:
2693:
2574:
2550:
2490:being able to aid their family back home
2447:
2400:
2397:Fields of work for first wave immigrants
2317:
2302:community, particularly during times of
2240:
2121:remained at first low. They were mainly
2088:
1986:
1966:) sent nearly all of their young men to
1924:
1829:
1730:that sailed between the Philippines and
1701:
35:
8128:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
7767:Chinese Historical and Cultural Project
7446:(University of California Press, 2019)
7139:Chinese American Transnational Politics
7125:
7123:
7037:
6949:
6865:Love's revolution: interracial marriage
6826:Steven Gregory (1994). Steven Gregory;
5952:
5867:
4892:
4282:, but was in fact set ten times lower.
3618:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
3614:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
3472:Chinese immigrants murdered during the
2443:
1920:
1664:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
63:This article is part of a series on the
14:
8870:
8775:Chinese Staff and Workers' Association
7570:University of California Press, 1995,
7353:The Making of Asian America: A History
7109:Washingtonpost: A Brain Gain for China
6366:
6274:
6246:
6073:
5556:
5543:
5487:, American Memory, Library of Congress
5185:
5159:
4540:(Year 2000); locations of the largest
4485:Flag of the People's Republic of China
3764:At the beginning of the 20th century,
3484:movement and its main mouthpiece, the
2273:Chinese district and clan associations
1784:, where the first Chinese arrived via
1690:move to the United States, surpassing
8735:List of Chinese American associations
8702:Chinese Historical Society of America
7848:
7829:Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey
7762:Chinese Historical Society of America
7300:
6982:
6667:
6630:
6562:
6470:
6415:
6331:
6247:Brooks, Charlotte (23 October 2019).
5876:
5298:D Ying-Hui Wu, J Dao-Sheng Tung, p.35
4898:
4847:History of Asian American immigration
3952:as cheap laborers when the system of
3853:to segregate Asian school children.
3795:was violating their rights under the
3232:Traders & dealers(not specified)
3058:and then to the 1933 creation of the
2933:. With entire fleets of small boats (
2237:List of Chinese American associations
1697:
7156:. Taylor & Francis. p. 115.
7120:
6715:. Indiana University Press. p.
6708:
6594:. Indiana University Press. p.
6587:
6516:
6436:
6216:
5946:
5509:McCunn, p.113; Brownstone, p.52–56;
5216:
5042:
5040:
5028:
5026:
5001:Bernfeld, Beatrice (May–June 2000),
4953:
4951:
4197:adding citations to reliable sources
4168:
3035:
2937:; 舢舨), the Chinese fishermen caught
2839:Union soldiers with Chinese heritage
2211:, to work on plantations. The tenth
2030:also used the credit-ticket system.
1947:deposits of gold found in California
1602:U.S. law ever to prevent immigration
7070:
7064:
7043:
6958:. Oxford University Press. p.
6416:Sweet, Frank W. (3 November 2011).
5415:Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers
4905:Seager II, Robert (February 1959).
3918:Immigration Restriction Act of 1924
2893:John Fouenty, draftee and deserter.
2890:. 37th Battalion, Virginia Cavalry.
2203:enter the United States. After the
1898:, and participated in establishing
24:
8740:Chinese American Citizens Alliance
7800:The History of Chinese Immigration
7499:: Rutgers University Press, 2002,
7409:, Indiana University Press, 1986,
7272:
5674:Brownstone, p.65–68; McCunn, p.32
5249:
5225:. Little, Brown & Co. p.
5191:
2781:Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta
2113:, while others adhered to various
483: Modern Era
25:
8889:
8790:Organization of Chinese Americans
7773:The Chinese Experience: 1857–1892
7755:
7407:The Chinese Experience in America
7279:Introductions and general history
6712:The Chinese Experience in America
6591:The Chinese Experience in America
6397:"Origins of Chinese in the Delta"
5943:Brownstone, p.68–74; McCunn, p.39
5617:Brownstone, p.59–64; McCunn, p.27
5037:
5023:
4948:
4442:Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
3785:San Francisco plague of 1900–1904
3569:
2876:John Akomb, steward on a gunboat.
2788:made a living as farm workers or
2452:Chinese gold miners in California
8215:Pacific Coast race riots of 1907
7818:Chinese in California, 1850–1925
7735:
7691:Contemporary pamphlet literature
7212:
7199:
7186:
7173:
7160:
7145:
7102:
7089:
7019:
7010:
7001:
6976:
6943:
6918:
6884:
6870:
6858:
6819:
6785:
6776:
6751:
6742:
6733:
6702:
6661:
6624:
6581:
6195:Sei Fujii v. State of California
6076:The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940
6052:
5608:1854, Ancestors in the Americas.
5221:The West: An Illustrated History
4862:Immigration to the United States
4173:
3880:Sei Fujii v. State of California
3546:. The largest population was in
3524:
3502:Angel Island Immigration Station
2657:setting records for laying track
1508:
1499:
1498:
1460:
1459:
80:
7481:Matthew Frye Jacobson. (2000).
7238:US Census: Population 1790–1990
6556:
6547:
6510:
6501:
6464:
6455:
6430:
6409:
6388:
6367:Estrin, James (13 March 2018).
6360:
6306:
6268:
6240:
6205:
6187:
6161:
6136:
6067:
6015:
5999:
5979:
5973:
5937:
5928:
5919:
5910:
5901:
5889:
5848:
5839:
5830:
5821:
5810:
5783:
5772:
5761:
5750:
5739:
5693:
5684:
5665:
5656:
5634:
5620:
5611:
5599:
5590:
5574:
5565:
5515:
5503:
5490:
5464:
5405:
5393:
5384:
5375:
5362:
5353:
5344:
5335:
5310:
5301:
5292:
5283:
5274:
5243:
5210:
5132:
5121:
5110:
4270:The Magnuson Act passed during
4184:needs additional citations for
4165:Second wave (1949 to the 1980s)
3982:In his book published in 1890,
3799:, and in the process, launched
2923:West Coast of the United States
2761:East Coast of the United States
2597:first transcontinental railroad
2581:first transcontinental railroad
2046:was withheld from the Chinese.
1915:Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1850
1888:First Transcontinental Railroad
1692:Hispanic and Latino immigration
8780:Chinese for Affirmative Action
8707:Kam Wah Chung & Co. Museum
7835:of Illinois. 1942 – via
7154:Chinese Transnational Networks
7046:History of Education Quarterly
6709:Tsai, Shin-shan Henry (1986).
6588:Tsai, Shin-shan Henry (1986).
6283:University of California Press
5955:"Taishan's U.S. well runs dry"
5836:Brownstone, p.74; McCunn, p.44
5461:; Teitelbaum; Asher, pp. 70–73
5399:McCunn, pp. 109–111; see also
5370:Pacific Mail Steamship Company
5098:
5068:
4994:
4981:Chinese blacks in the Americas
4937:
4259:were permitted to naturalize.
3344:Mill & factory operatives
2738:
2012:Pacific Mail Steamship Company
13:
1:
8765:Chinese Society Halls on Maui
8208:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
7833:Works Progress Administration
7665:. 1903, (HarperTrophy) 1977,
7596:, Vintage 1989 (Neuausgabe),
7288:The Chinese-American Heritage
7077:Columbia University Libraries
7071:Gao, Hong Deng (2019-09-23).
5953:Pierson, David (2007-05-11).
5877:Gyory, Andrew (Summer 2000).
5806:Chinese In The U.S. Civil War
5076:"The Rise of Asian Americans"
4536:Chinese population % in
4473:simplified Chinese characters
3820:1906 San Francisco earthquake
3745:in its interpretation of the
3730:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
3529:
3101:
3060:Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance
2803:located 15–20 miles south of
2731:and murders, drove many into
2716:Northwestern Pacific Railroad
2536:, which decided, in the case
2332:Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance
8686:Museum of Chinese in America
6867:by Maria P.P. Root. Page 180
6172:. L.A. Times. Archived from
6074:Romero, Robert Chao (2011).
5586:10.1080/07418825.2010.535009
5418:. Echo Library. p. 13.
5054:, 2003-12-29, archived from
4877:History of the United States
4417:Museum of Chinese in America
4367:after fleeing from China to
3721:Chinese Underground Railroad
3600:of 1868) was stopped by the
2961:. To catch larger fish like
2900:
2525:enforced a series of taxes.
1983:Arrival in the United States
1979:and hostility towards them.
1970:. From the beginning of the
1906:that affected their region.
1858:of this wave arrived in the
1554:history of Chinese Americans
958:Hispanic and Latino American
7:
7661:Laurence Yep, Dragonwings.
7183:h-1b-visa-specialty-workers
6897:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 144–.
5879:"A Reply to Stanford Lyman"
5561:. New York: Back Bay Books.
4872:Racism in the United States
4835:
4513:United States Census Bureau
4407:Third wave (1980s to today)
4353:National Revolutionary Army
3962:Bolivar County, Mississippi
3869:California Attorney General
3590:exclusion of Jews in Russia
3413:Sub-Total (20 occupations)
3316:Barbers & hairdressers
3218:Gardeners & nurserymen
2826:
2057:and were not familiar with
1814:Chinese Educational Mission
10:
8894:
8697:Chinese American Museum DC
8159:San Francisco riot of 1877
7663:Golden Mountain Chronicles
7582:Autobiographies and novels
6950:Burrows, Edwin G. (1999).
6275:Brooks, Charlotte (2019).
6059:This article incorporates
6025:. The Library of Congress.
5984:. HarpWeek. Archived from
5368:Brownstone, pp.37–44; see
4291:People's Republic of China
4253:Naturalization Act of 1790
3920:. Other laws included the
3783:; the early stages of the
3779:because of an outbreak of
3653:Naturalization Act of 1790
3573:
3358:Physicians & surgeons
3302:Fishermen & oystermen
3082:North Adams, Massachusetts
2869:William Hang, landsman on
2234:
2014:(founded in 1848) and the
1823:
1770:American Revolutionary War
1680:People's Republic of China
1604:and naturalization on the
28:
8852:List of Chinese Americans
8844:
8821:United International Bank
8808:
8725:
8678:
8609:
8258:
8254:
8245:
8149:1867 Chinese Labor Strike
8141:
8085:
8074:
7933:
7882:
7812:, by Patrick Radden Keefe
7790:The Chinese in California
7031:January 26, 2014, at the
6758:Luibheid, Eithne (2002).
6634:Pacific Historical Review
6143:Echenberg, Myron (2007).
4911:Pacific Historical Review
3773:San Francisco's Chinatown
3659:to "free white persons".
3386:Carpenters & joiners
3148:Laborers (not specified)
2765:transcontinental railroad
2712:Southern Pacific Railroad
2700:Transcontinental Railroad
2571:Transcontinental railroad
2422:transcontinental railroad
2341:to join more prestigious
2313:San Francisco's Chinatown
2205:Emancipation Proclamation
1686:, and to a lesser extent
8878:Chinese-American history
8750:Chinese Community Centre
8620:American Chinese cuisine
8496:Providence, Rhode Island
8154:Chinese massacre of 1871
8093:Anti-Chinese legislation
7943:Chinese American history
7381:. (Random House, 2007).
7341:: AltaMira Press, 2004,
7324:, AltaMira Press, 2002,
6983:Ahmad, Diane L. (2007).
6668:Ahmad, Diane L. (2007).
6439:How The Other Half Lives
5341:Brownstone, pp.26–35, 57
4517:Pew Research Data Center
3984:How The Other Half Lives
3940:Segregation in the South
3831:Asiatic Exclusion League
3622:National Origins Formula
3474:Chinese massacre of 1871
3426:Total (all occupations)
2862:John Earl, cabin boy on
2801:Walnut Grove, California
2653:Central Pacific Railroad
2641:Central Pacific Railroad
2534:California Supreme Court
2519:Civil Rights Act of 1866
2418:Central Pacific Railroad
1852:Sino–U.S. maritime trade
1654:, did the situation for
1570:Central Pacific Railroad
461:
439:
417:
406:
384:
373:
351:
340:
329:
318:
296:
285:
274:
252:
230:
219:
197:
186:
164:
153:
91:Chinatown, San Francisco
18:Chinese American history
8745:Chinese American church
8691:Chinese American Museum
8528:San Francisco Chinatown
8226:Killing of Vincent Chin
8113:Immigration Act of 1924
7876:Chinese American topics
7810:China's Great Migration
7405:Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry.
7290:(Facts on File, 1988),
6341:Charles Reagan Wilson.
6012:. Retrieved 2008-03-01.
5678:August 4, 2008, at the
5557:Takaki, Ronald (1998).
5381:Lai Him Mark, pp. 23–31
5317:Guofu Liu (July 2005).
5217:Ward, Geoffrey (1997).
4465:Sino-American relations
4428:areas, particularly in
4342:Immigration Act of 1990
4304:Sino-American relations
4276:Immigration Act of 1924
3914:Immigration Act of 1917
3862:Immigration Act of 1917
3793:Marine Hospital Service
3696:movement. In 1882, the
3679:Equal Protection Clause
3657:naturalized citizenship
3562:as well as by Governor
3439:Indispensable workforce
3288:Farmers & planters
2702:, Promontory Point, UT.
2629:Promontory Summit, Utah
2565:1877 San Francisco riot
1788:(the only route as the
1610:Anti-miscegenation laws
979:Middle Eastern American
801:Technology and industry
8628:American Chinese films
8406:Montville, Connecticut
8232:Killing of Akai Gurley
7778:The Chinese in America
7630:, Vintage Books 1996,
7361:McCunn, Ruthanne Lum.
7152:Chee Beng Tan (2007).
5331:on September 18, 2007.
4557:Total U.S. population
4545:
4424:
4315:Chinese-American Times
4267:
4159:Anti-Chinese advocates
3897:as they aided General
3876:Alien Land Law of 1913
3865:
3835:Patrick Henry McCarthy
3815:
3620:, which abolished the
3593:
3539:
3477:
3465:
3260:Boot & shoemakers
3190:Agricultural laborers
3108:
3045:
3022:California legislature
2913:
2752:
2723:. However, widespread
2703:
2637:Union Pacific Railroad
2621:Sacramento, California
2584:
2560:
2549:
2523:California legislature
2453:
2409:
2327:
2246:
2196:United States Congress
2094:
2007:
1938:
1900:California agriculture
1847:
1798:Foreign Mission School
1711:
1091:Admission to the Union
56:
31:The Chinese in America
8201:Hells Canyon Massacre
8177:Rock Springs massacre
8103:Chinese Exclusion Act
7895:American-born Chinese
7675:Teresa Le Yung Ryan,
7613:, Putnam Adult 1989,
7286:Brownstone, David M.
7114:May 29, 2009, at the
5885:on November 26, 2010.
5860:June 6, 2008, at the
5511:Chinese Six Companies
5401:Christianity in China
5359:Cohen, LM. pp. 40–44.
4535:
4421:Manhattan's Chinatown
4414:
4306:during the Cold War.
4265:
4245:Chinese Exclusion Act
3934:Civil Rights Movement
3859:
3809:
3715:, by supporting the "
3711:effectively canceled
3698:Chinese Exclusion Act
3637:Chinese Exclusion Act
3602:Chinese Exclusion Act
3583:
3537:
3498:Chinese Exclusion Act
3471:
3463:
3456:Anti-Chinese movement
3099:
3086:Chinese Exclusion Act
3043:
2909:Chinese fishermen in
2908:
2746:
2697:
2605:Eastern United States
2578:
2554:
2545:
2451:
2428:mountains and across
2404:
2321:
2244:
2128:Chinese Exclusion Act
2092:
2042:, the possibility of
1990:
1928:
1850:In the 19th century,
1833:
1802:Cornwall, Connecticut
1720:Spanish colonial rule
1705:
1594:Chinese Exclusion Act
1574:racial discrimination
1568:of the 1850s and the
1082:Territorial evolution
375:Post-World War II Era
39:
8826:Global Commerce Bank
8800:Hip Sing Association
8188:Seattle riot of 1886
7590:Maxine Hong Kingston
7509:Charles J. McClain.
7301:Chang, Iris (2004).
6792:Benson Tong (2004).
6437:Riis, Jacob (2010).
6200:242 P.2d 718
6176:on February 12, 2019
5173:on September 5, 2014
5128:Brownstone, pp.2, 25
4893:Notes and references
4338:Taiwan Relations Act
4193:improve this article
4105:Thirteenth Amendment
3797:Fourteenth Amendment
3683:Fourteenth Amendment
3635:, who supported the
3506:perpetual foreigners
3500:and the creation of
3050:California Gold Rush
2911:Monterey, California
2888:Chang and Eng Bunker
2510:perpetual foreigners
2466:California Gold Rush
2444:California Gold Rush
2414:California Gold Rush
2288:hospitality industry
2036:American citizenship
2020:credit-ticket system
1972:California Gold Rush
1921:Departure from China
1892:Southern plantations
1884:California Gold Rush
1714:The Chinese reached
1566:California Gold Rush
1005:Palestinian American
221:Era of Good Feelings
166:Confederation period
103:Timeline and periods
8770:Ying On Association
8670:Chinatown bus lines
8662:Confucius Institute
8586:Rockville, Maryland
8574:Spokane, Washington
8183:Tacoma riot of 1885
7925:Hyphenated American
7920:Hong Kong Americans
7442:Charlotte Brooks,.
7320:Cassel, Susan Lan.
7058:10.1017/heq.2020.10
6563:Sante, Luc (2003).
6517:Heap, Chad (2009).
6471:Sante, Luc (2003).
6254:The Washington Post
6228:Library of Congress
6010:Chinese immigration
5690:Brownstone, p.68–74
5606:The People Vs. Hall
5535:Tong (organization)
5084:Pew Research Center
4977:"The United States"
4497:Taiwan independence
4455:, rather than from
4293:as a player in the
4135:Tariff acts of 1832
3922:Cubic Air Ordinance
2896:Charles K. Marshall
2599:, which linked the
2484:-speaking areas in
2363:criminal activities
2339:clan or family ties
2040:European immigrants
1562:Chinese immigration
940:Lithuanian American
891:Vietnamese American
155:American Revolution
55:in hand, June 1942.
47:posing alongside a
8593:Winnemucca, Nevada
8385:San Gabriel Valley
8304:West Argyle Street
8194:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
8059:Washington State (
7783:2021-02-28 at the
7677:Love Made of Heart
6374:The New York Times
6132:. August 31, 2015.
6037:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
5733:2011-06-24 at the
5533:Brownstone, p.56;
5457:2014-12-02 at the
4852:Chinese emigration
4560:Of Chinese origin
4546:
4425:
4400:Taiwanese American
4396:Hong Kong American
4268:
4233:Warren G. Magnuson
4120:reported on August
3972:Plessy v. Ferguson
3950:Reconstruction Era
3866:
3851:Board of Education
3816:
3747:Citizenship Clause
3717:separate but equal
3713:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
3708:Plessy v. Ferguson
3674:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
3594:
3560:Workingman's Party
3540:
3486:Workingman's Party
3478:
3466:
3162:Domestic servants
3109:
3055:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
3046:
2914:
2833:American Civil War
2809:San Gabriel Valley
2753:
2704:
2585:
2561:
2454:
2410:
2328:
2251:1911 revolutionary
2247:
2223:women, and 43% to
2095:
2008:
1939:
1848:
1768:Shortly after the
1718:during the era of
1712:
1710:. Photo from 1895.
1698:Transpacific trade
1624:women, and 43% to
1576:at every level of
1556:or the history of
1060:Transgender people
623:Capital punishment
276:Reconstruction Era
57:
8865:
8864:
8636:Chinaman's chance
8605:
8604:
8601:
8600:
8538:Richmond District
8522:San Francisco Bay
8399:North Miami Beach
8373:Locke, California
8326:Dallas-Fort Worth
8241:
8240:
8070:
8069:
8048:Dallas-Fort Worth
8018:Mississippi Delta
7890:Chinese Americans
7611:The Joy Luck Club
7491:978-0-8090-1628-0
7485:. Hill and Wang,
6994:978-0-87417-844-9
6904:978-0-313-37892-8
6805:978-0-313-33042-1
6679:978-0-87417-844-9
6528:978-0-226-32244-5
6448:978-0-674-04932-1
6154:978-0-8147-2232-9
5960:Los Angeles Times
5628:"Charles Crocker"
4960:Asian Law Journal
4833:
4832:
4522:language barriers
4491:. The effects of
4350:Republic of China
4329:Republic of China
4225:
4224:
4217:
4098:European American
4077:corrupt policemen
3946:Mississippi Delta
3771:requested to put
3687:U.S. Constitution
3598:Burlingame Treaty
3588:) protesting the
3519:Chinaman's chance
3436:
3435:
3330:Clerks in stores
3036:Other occupations
2918:Pearl River Delta
2797:Locke, California
2772:Pearl River Delta
2684:Sacramento Valley
2521:was passed), the
2474:Taiping Rebellion
2438:Taiping Rebellion
2326:in San Francisco.
2255:clan associations
2225:European American
2171:cultural values.
2103:ancestral worship
1993:Xinhai Revolution
1951:Burlingame Treaty
1904:Taiping Rebellion
1872:Chinese Americans
1656:Chinese Americans
1639:, which had been
1626:European American
1586:Burlingame Treaty
1550:
1549:
1472:
1471:
1101:American frontier
1000:Lebanese American
985:Egyptian American
915:Estonian American
905:Albanian American
899:European American
876:Japanese American
866:Filipino American
490:
489:
463:Post-Cold War Era
120:Pre-Columbian Era
72:
16:(Redirected from
8885:
8785:Committee of 100
8712:Wing Luke Museum
8580:Washington, D.C.
8491:Portland, Oregon
8256:
8255:
8252:
8251:
8220:Bellingham riots
8133:China Initiative
8083:
8082:
7961:
7960:
7905:Fuzhou Americans
7869:
7862:
7855:
7846:
7845:
7840:
7837:Newberry Library
7628:On Gold Mountain
7375:Pfaelzer, Jean.
7316:
7267:
7216:
7210:
7203:
7197:
7190:
7184:
7177:
7171:
7164:
7158:
7157:
7149:
7143:
7142:
7135:Hsu, Madeline Y.
7127:
7118:
7106:
7100:
7093:
7087:
7086:
7084:
7083:
7068:
7062:
7061:
7041:
7035:
7023:
7017:
7014:
7008:
7007:Ahmad, p. 47–48.
7005:
6999:
6998:
6980:
6974:
6973:
6957:
6947:
6941:
6938:
6925:
6922:
6916:
6915:
6913:
6911:
6888:
6882:
6881:
6874:
6868:
6862:
6856:
6854:
6852:
6850:
6823:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6812:
6789:
6783:
6780:
6774:
6773:
6755:
6749:
6746:
6740:
6737:
6731:
6730:
6706:
6700:
6697:
6684:
6683:
6665:
6659:
6658:
6628:
6622:
6619:
6610:
6609:
6585:
6579:
6578:
6560:
6554:
6551:
6545:
6542:
6533:
6532:
6514:
6508:
6505:
6499:
6496:
6487:
6486:
6468:
6462:
6459:
6453:
6452:
6434:
6428:
6427:
6425:
6424:
6413:
6407:
6406:
6404:
6403:
6392:
6386:
6385:
6383:
6381:
6364:
6358:
6357:
6355:
6354:
6345:. Archived from
6338:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6324:
6310:
6304:
6303:
6301:
6299:
6272:
6266:
6265:
6263:
6261:
6244:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6220:
6214:
6209:
6203:
6197:
6191:
6185:
6184:
6182:
6181:
6168:Ching-Ching Ni.
6165:
6159:
6158:
6140:
6134:
6133:
6120:
6114:
6108:
6102:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6071:
6065:
6056:
6055:
6033:
6027:
6026:
6019:
6013:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5994:
5993:
5977:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5967:
5950:
5944:
5941:
5935:
5932:
5926:
5923:
5917:
5914:
5908:
5905:
5899:
5893:
5887:
5886:
5881:. Archived from
5874:
5865:
5852:
5846:
5843:
5837:
5834:
5828:
5825:
5819:
5814:
5808:
5803:
5792:
5787:
5781:
5776:
5770:
5765:
5759:
5754:
5748:
5743:
5737:
5725:
5716:
5715:
5713:
5712:
5705:Voice of America
5697:
5691:
5688:
5682:
5669:
5663:
5660:
5654:
5651:
5642:
5638:
5632:
5631:
5624:
5618:
5615:
5609:
5603:
5597:
5594:
5588:
5578:
5572:
5569:
5563:
5562:
5554:
5541:
5531:
5522:
5519:
5513:
5507:
5501:
5494:
5488:
5482:
5471:
5468:
5462:
5449:
5440:
5439:
5434:
5432:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5382:
5379:
5373:
5366:
5360:
5357:
5351:
5348:
5342:
5339:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5323:
5314:
5308:
5305:
5299:
5296:
5290:
5287:
5281:
5278:
5272:
5271:Brownstone, p.26
5269:
5263:
5262:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5214:
5208:
5207:
5205:
5203:
5198:
5189:
5183:
5182:
5180:
5178:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5152:
5147:on July 24, 2014
5136:
5130:
5125:
5119:
5117:Brownstone, p.25
5114:
5108:
5102:
5096:
5095:
5093:
5091:
5072:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5044:
5035:
5030:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5018:
5009:, archived from
4998:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4988:
4973:
4964:
4955:
4946:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4902:
4882:Chinese Canadian
4857:Overseas Chinese
4551:
4550:
4311:William Y. Chang
4287:Second Red Scare
4220:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4200:
4177:
4169:
4123:
3899:John J. Pershing
3705:". And in 1896,
3633:Grover Cleveland
3114:
3113:
3106:
3103:
2710:After 1869, the
2375:people smuggling
2322:Officers of the
2300:Chinese American
2221:African American
2192:Washington, D.C.
2189:
2184:1880 U.S. census
2160:1870 U.S. census
1846:. April 29, 1876
1759:Vancouver Island
1676:2020 U.S. census
1622:African American
1542:
1535:
1528:
1512:
1502:
1501:
1463:
1462:
1106:Manifest destiny
1096:Historic regions
1078:
1077:
1018:Native Americans
990:Iranian American
964:Mexican American
950:Serbian American
935:Italian American
920:Finnish American
910:English American
861:Chinese American
848:African American
648:Direct democracy
638:The Constitution
597:Higher education
506:American Century
408:Civil Rights Era
386:Civil Rights Era
342:Great Depression
331:Roaring Twenties
199:Jeffersonian Era
109:
108:
104:
87:Chinese American
84:
70:
59:
58:
53:M1928A1 Thompson
42:Chinese American
21:
8893:
8892:
8888:
8887:
8886:
8884:
8883:
8882:
8868:
8867:
8866:
8861:
8840:
8804:
8721:
8674:
8597:
8543:Sunset District
8486:Portland, Maine
8237:
8137:
8098:Anti-Coolie Act
8077:
8066:
8002:Massachusetts (
7959:
7929:
7915:Hoklo Americans
7910:Hakka Americans
7878:
7873:
7823:
7785:Wayback Machine
7758:
7738:
7719:Primary sources
7716:
7495:Xiaojian Zhao,
7435:Specific topics
7313:
7275:
7273:Further reading
7270:
7232:US Census: 1990
7217:
7213:
7204:
7200:
7191:
7187:
7178:
7174:
7165:
7161:
7150:
7146:
7128:
7121:
7116:Wayback Machine
7107:
7103:
7094:
7090:
7081:
7079:
7069:
7065:
7042:
7038:
7033:Wayback Machine
7024:
7020:
7015:
7011:
7006:
7002:
6995:
6981:
6977:
6970:
6948:
6944:
6939:
6928:
6923:
6919:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6889:
6885:
6876:
6875:
6871:
6863:
6859:
6848:
6846:
6844:
6824:
6820:
6810:
6808:
6806:
6790:
6786:
6782:Luibheid, p.34.
6781:
6777:
6770:
6756:
6752:
6747:
6743:
6738:
6734:
6727:
6707:
6703:
6698:
6687:
6680:
6666:
6662:
6647:10.2307/3638262
6629:
6625:
6620:
6613:
6606:
6586:
6582:
6575:
6561:
6557:
6552:
6548:
6543:
6536:
6529:
6515:
6511:
6506:
6502:
6497:
6490:
6483:
6469:
6465:
6460:
6456:
6449:
6435:
6431:
6422:
6420:
6414:
6410:
6401:
6399:
6395:John Thornell.
6393:
6389:
6379:
6377:
6365:
6361:
6352:
6350:
6339:
6332:
6322:
6320:
6312:
6311:
6307:
6297:
6295:
6293:
6273:
6269:
6259:
6257:
6245:
6241:
6232:
6230:
6222:
6221:
6217:
6210:
6206:
6193:
6192:
6188:
6179:
6177:
6166:
6162:
6155:
6141:
6137:
6129:Washington Post
6122:
6121:
6117:
6109:
6105:
6097:
6093:
6086:
6072:
6068:
6053:
6034:
6030:
6021:
6020:
6016:
6004:
6000:
5991:
5989:
5978:
5974:
5965:
5963:
5951:
5947:
5942:
5938:
5933:
5929:
5924:
5920:
5915:
5911:
5906:
5902:
5894:
5890:
5875:
5868:
5862:Wayback Machine
5853:
5849:
5844:
5840:
5835:
5831:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5811:
5804:
5795:
5788:
5784:
5777:
5773:
5766:
5762:
5755:
5751:
5744:
5740:
5735:Wayback Machine
5726:
5719:
5710:
5708:
5699:
5698:
5694:
5689:
5685:
5680:Wayback Machine
5670:
5666:
5661:
5657:
5652:
5645:
5639:
5635:
5626:
5625:
5621:
5616:
5612:
5604:
5600:
5595:
5591:
5579:
5575:
5570:
5566:
5555:
5544:
5532:
5525:
5520:
5516:
5508:
5504:
5496:AsianWeek.com.
5495:
5491:
5483:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5459:Wayback Machine
5450:
5443:
5430:
5428:
5426:
5410:
5406:
5398:
5394:
5389:
5385:
5380:
5376:
5367:
5363:
5358:
5354:
5349:
5345:
5340:
5336:
5328:
5321:
5315:
5311:
5306:
5302:
5297:
5293:
5288:
5284:
5279:
5275:
5270:
5266:
5257:Made In America
5248:
5244:
5237:
5215:
5211:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5190:
5186:
5176:
5174:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5150:
5148:
5137:
5133:
5126:
5122:
5115:
5111:
5103:
5099:
5089:
5087:
5086:. June 19, 2012
5074:
5073:
5069:
5061:
5059:
5046:
5045:
5038:
5031:
5024:
5016:
5014:
4999:
4995:
4986:
4984:
4983:. Color Q World
4975:
4974:
4967:
4956:
4949:
4942:
4938:
4923:10.2307/3636239
4903:
4899:
4895:
4838:
4530:
4487:as well as the
4469:Chinese schools
4409:
4221:
4210:
4204:
4201:
4190:
4178:
4167:
4121:
4034:Irish Americans
4030:Lower East Side
3980:
3942:
3893:shortly before
3872:Ulysses S. Webb
3847:Walter McCarthy
3843:Andrew Furuseth
3766:Surgeon General
3669:Anti-Coolie Act
3578:
3572:
3532:
3527:
3458:
3441:
3104:
3038:
2991:Chinese cuisine
2903:
2829:
2741:
2733:self-employment
2688:nitro-glycerine
2649:Charles Crocker
2617:Omaha, Nebraska
2603:network of the
2573:
2470:Qing government
2446:
2399:
2343:Chinese surname
2239:
2233:
2187:
2059:Western culture
1985:
1923:
1843:Harper's Weekly
1828:
1822:
1810:Yale University
1736:Manila galleons
1700:
1669:Asian Americans
1546:
1474:
1473:
1075:
1067:
1066:
972:Jewish American
945:Polish American
925:German American
881:Korean American
871:Indian American
842:
834:
833:
688:Merchant Marine
658:Law enforcement
526:Racial violence
500:
492:
491:
298:Progressive Era
106:
102:
94:
73:
71:History of the
34:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8891:
8881:
8880:
8863:
8862:
8860:
8859:
8854:
8848:
8846:
8842:
8841:
8839:
8838:
8833:
8831:East West Bank
8828:
8823:
8818:
8812:
8810:
8806:
8805:
8803:
8802:
8797:
8795:Bing Kong Tong
8792:
8787:
8782:
8777:
8772:
8767:
8762:
8757:
8752:
8747:
8742:
8737:
8731:
8729:
8723:
8722:
8720:
8719:
8717:Wo Hing Museum
8714:
8709:
8704:
8699:
8694:
8688:
8682:
8680:
8676:
8675:
8673:
8672:
8667:
8666:Transportation
8664:
8659:
8657:Chinese school
8654:
8651:
8646:
8643:
8638:
8633:
8630:
8625:
8622:
8617:
8613:
8611:
8607:
8606:
8603:
8602:
8599:
8598:
8596:
8595:
8590:
8589:
8588:
8576:
8571:
8570:
8569:
8564:
8556:Seattle-Tacoma
8552:
8551:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8518:
8513:
8511:Salt Lake City
8508:
8503:
8498:
8493:
8488:
8483:
8482:
8481:
8471:
8466:
8461:
8456:
8455:
8454:
8449:
8444:
8432:
8427:
8426:
8425:
8420:
8408:
8403:
8402:
8401:
8389:
8388:
8387:
8375:
8370:
8365:
8364:
8363:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8335:
8334:
8322:
8321:
8320:
8308:
8307:
8306:
8294:
8293:
8292:
8280:
8275:
8270:
8265:
8259:
8249:
8243:
8242:
8239:
8238:
8236:
8235:
8229:
8223:
8217:
8212:
8204:
8198:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8174:
8169:
8165:Tape v. Hurley
8161:
8156:
8151:
8145:
8143:
8139:
8138:
8136:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8120:
8115:
8110:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8089:
8087:
8080:
8078:discrimination
8072:
8071:
8068:
8067:
8065:
8064:
8057:
8056:
8055:
8050:
8040:
8035:
8028:
8021:
8014:
8007:
8000:
7993:
7988:
7983:
7982:
7981:
7976:
7967:
7965:
7958:
7957:
7952:
7951:
7950:
7939:
7937:
7931:
7930:
7928:
7927:
7922:
7917:
7912:
7907:
7902:
7900:Asian American
7897:
7892:
7886:
7884:
7883:Related groups
7880:
7879:
7872:
7871:
7864:
7857:
7849:
7843:
7842:
7821:
7813:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7775:
7770:
7764:
7757:
7756:External links
7754:
7753:
7752:
7749:
7737:
7734:
7733:
7732:
7721:
7720:
7715:
7714:
7695:
7694:
7692:
7688:
7687:
7673:
7659:
7638:
7621:
7604:
7586:
7585:
7583:
7579:
7578:
7561:
7543:
7542:
7540:
7536:
7535:
7523:Andrew Gyory.
7521:
7507:
7493:
7479:
7465:
7453:Lucy M Cohen.
7451:
7439:
7438:
7436:
7432:
7431:
7417:
7403:
7389:
7373:
7359:
7349:
7332:
7318:
7311:
7298:
7283:
7282:
7280:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7268:
7254:2020-02-12 at
7226:2020-02-12 at
7211:
7198:
7185:
7172:
7159:
7144:
7119:
7101:
7088:
7063:
7036:
7018:
7009:
7000:
6993:
6975:
6968:
6942:
6926:
6917:
6903:
6883:
6869:
6857:
6842:
6818:
6804:
6784:
6775:
6768:
6750:
6741:
6732:
6725:
6701:
6685:
6678:
6660:
6641:(3): 367–394.
6623:
6611:
6604:
6580:
6573:
6555:
6546:
6534:
6527:
6509:
6500:
6488:
6481:
6463:
6454:
6447:
6429:
6408:
6387:
6359:
6330:
6305:
6291:
6267:
6239:
6215:
6212:Chinese Texans
6204:
6186:
6160:
6153:
6135:
6115:
6103:
6091:
6085:978-0816514601
6084:
6066:
6028:
6014:
6008:(06-19-2003).
5998:
5980:Wei, William.
5972:
5945:
5936:
5927:
5918:
5909:
5900:
5888:
5866:
5847:
5838:
5829:
5820:
5809:
5793:
5782:
5771:
5760:
5749:
5738:
5717:
5692:
5683:
5664:
5655:
5643:
5633:
5619:
5610:
5598:
5589:
5573:
5564:
5542:
5523:
5514:
5502:
5489:
5472:
5463:
5441:
5424:
5404:
5392:
5383:
5374:
5361:
5352:
5343:
5334:
5309:
5300:
5291:
5282:
5273:
5264:
5242:
5235:
5209:
5192:Haddad, John.
5184:
5158:
5143:Archived from
5139:Wei Chi Poon.
5131:
5120:
5109:
5097:
5067:
5036:
5022:
4993:
4965:
4947:
4936:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4890:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4837:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4827:
4824:
4821:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4802:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4789:
4788:
4785:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4774:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4761:
4760:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4732:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4705:
4704:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4690:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4677:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4667:
4663:
4662:
4659:
4656:
4653:
4649:
4648:
4645:
4642:
4639:
4635:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4625:
4621:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4611:
4607:
4606:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4586:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4575:
4574:not available
4572:
4569:
4565:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4529:
4526:
4489:older ROC flag
4453:mainland China
4408:
4405:
4384:Mainland China
4373:Pai Hsien-yung
4223:
4222:
4181:
4179:
4172:
4166:
4163:
4118:New York Times
4101:city officials
3979:
3976:
3941:
3938:
3781:bubonic plague
3758:Tape v. Hurley
3655:that reserved
3630:U.S. President
3626:discrimination
3574:Main article:
3571:
3570:Discrimination
3568:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3476:in Los Angeles
3457:
3454:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3296:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3268:
3267:
3264:
3261:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3226:
3225:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3212:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3077:strikebreakers
3037:
3034:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2867:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2828:
2825:
2740:
2737:
2572:
2569:
2445:
2442:
2398:
2395:
2269:interpretation
2232:
2229:
2148:discrimination
2115:ecclesiastical
2051:culture shocks
2044:naturalization
1984:
1981:
1935:Ryukyu Islands
1922:
1919:
1856:Chinese people
1824:Main article:
1821:
1818:
1774:maritime trade
1699:
1696:
1688:Southeast Asia
1671:(about 22%).
1645:naturalization
1558:ethnic Chinese
1548:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1530:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1506:
1495:
1494:
1492:Historiography
1489:
1484:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1457:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1137:The West Coast
1134:
1129:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1111:Indian removal
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1085:
1084:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1040:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1014:
1013:
1012:
1010:Saudi American
1007:
1002:
997:
995:Iraqi American
992:
987:
975:
968:
967:
966:
954:
953:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
930:Irish American
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
895:
894:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
855:Asian American
851:
843:
840:
839:
836:
835:
832:
831:
830:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
797:
796:
795:
793:Sexual slavery
783:
776:
769:
768:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
730:
729:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
691:
684:
677:
676:
675:
670:
665:
663:Postal service
660:
655:
653:Foreign policy
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
608:
601:
600:
599:
587:
586:
585:
573:
572:
571:
559:
558:
557:
552:
547:
542:
530:
529:
528:
516:
509:
501:
498:
497:
494:
493:
488:
487:
484:
480:
479:
477:
469:
468:
465:
458:
457:
455:
447:
446:
443:
436:
435:
433:
425:
424:
421:
414:
413:
410:
403:
402:
400:
392:
391:
388:
381:
380:
377:
370:
369:
367:
359:
358:
355:
348:
347:
344:
337:
336:
333:
326:
325:
322:
315:
314:
312:
304:
303:
300:
293:
292:
289:
282:
281:
278:
271:
270:
268:
260:
259:
256:
249:
248:
246:
238:
237:
234:
232:Jacksonian Era
227:
226:
223:
216:
215:
213:
205:
204:
201:
194:
193:
190:
188:Federalist Era
183:
182:
180:
172:
171:
168:
161:
160:
157:
150:
149:
147:
139:
138:
135:
127:
126:
123:
107:
100:
99:
96:
95:
85:
77:
76:
66:
65:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8890:
8879:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8849:
8847:
8843:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8813:
8811:
8807:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8771:
8768:
8766:
8763:
8761:
8758:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8732:
8730:
8728:
8727:Organizations
8724:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8698:
8695:
8693:(Los Angeles)
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8683:
8681:
8677:
8671:
8668:
8665:
8663:
8660:
8658:
8655:
8652:
8650:
8647:
8644:
8642:
8639:
8637:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8623:
8621:
8618:
8615:
8614:
8612:
8608:
8594:
8591:
8587:
8584:
8583:
8582:
8581:
8577:
8575:
8572:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8559:
8558:
8557:
8553:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8525:
8524:
8523:
8519:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8509:
8507:
8504:
8502:
8501:Salem, Oregon
8499:
8497:
8494:
8492:
8489:
8487:
8484:
8480:
8479:Squirrel Hill
8477:
8476:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8459:Oklahoma City
8457:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8445:
8443:
8440:
8439:
8438:
8437:
8436:New York City
8433:
8431:
8428:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8415:
8414:
8413:
8409:
8407:
8404:
8400:
8397:
8396:
8395:
8394:
8390:
8386:
8383:
8382:
8381:
8380:
8376:
8374:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8362:
8361:East Downtown
8359:
8358:
8357:
8356:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8333:
8330:
8329:
8328:
8327:
8323:
8319:
8316:
8315:
8314:
8313:
8309:
8305:
8302:
8301:
8300:
8299:
8295:
8291:
8288:
8287:
8286:
8285:
8281:
8279:
8276:
8274:
8271:
8269:
8266:
8264:
8261:
8260:
8257:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8244:
8233:
8230:
8227:
8224:
8221:
8218:
8216:
8213:
8210:
8209:
8205:
8202:
8199:
8196:
8195:
8191:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8181:
8178:
8175:
8173:
8170:
8167:
8166:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8146:
8144:
8140:
8134:
8131:
8129:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8114:
8111:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8090:
8088:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8073:
8062:
8058:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8045:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8033:
8032:New York City
8029:
8026:
8022:
8019:
8016:Mississippi (
8015:
8012:
8008:
8005:
8001:
7998:
7994:
7992:
7989:
7987:
7984:
7980:
7979:San Francisco
7977:
7975:
7972:
7971:
7969:
7968:
7966:
7962:
7956:
7953:
7949:
7946:
7945:
7944:
7941:
7940:
7938:
7936:
7932:
7926:
7923:
7921:
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7887:
7885:
7881:
7877:
7870:
7865:
7863:
7858:
7856:
7851:
7850:
7847:
7838:
7834:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7820:
7819:
7814:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7782:
7779:
7776:
7774:
7771:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7759:
7750:
7747:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7736:Documentaries
7730:
7726:
7723:
7722:
7718:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7705:
7701:
7697:
7696:
7693:
7690:
7689:
7686:
7685:0-7582-0217-2
7682:
7678:
7674:
7672:
7671:0-06-440085-9
7668:
7664:
7660:
7658:
7657:0-9759255-7-1
7654:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7641:Ki Longfellow
7639:
7637:
7636:9780307950390
7633:
7629:
7625:
7622:
7620:
7619:0-399-13420-4
7616:
7612:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7602:0-679-72188-6
7599:
7595:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7584:
7581:
7580:
7577:
7576:0-520-08867-0
7573:
7569:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7559:0-7914-3864-3
7556:
7552:
7548:
7545:
7544:
7541:
7538:
7537:
7534:
7533:0-8078-4739-9
7530:
7526:
7522:
7520:
7519:0-520-20514-6
7516:
7512:
7508:
7506:
7505:0-8135-3011-3
7502:
7498:
7494:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7478:
7477:0-8078-5448-4
7474:
7470:
7466:
7464:
7463:0-8071-2457-5
7460:
7456:
7452:
7449:
7448:online review
7445:
7441:
7440:
7437:
7434:
7433:
7430:
7429:1-56294-271-9
7426:
7422:
7418:
7416:
7415:0-253-31359-7
7412:
7408:
7404:
7402:
7401:0-8160-5687-0
7398:
7394:
7390:
7388:
7387:1-4000-6134-2
7384:
7380:
7379:
7374:
7372:
7371:0-932538-01-0
7368:
7364:
7360:
7358:
7354:
7350:
7348:
7347:0-7591-0458-1
7344:
7340:
7336:
7335:Lai, Him Mark
7333:
7331:
7330:0-7591-0001-2
7327:
7323:
7319:
7314:
7312:0-14-200417-0
7308:
7304:
7299:
7297:
7296:0-8160-1627-5
7293:
7289:
7285:
7284:
7281:
7278:
7277:
7266:
7263:
7262:
7257:
7256:archive.today
7253:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7241:
7239:
7235:
7233:
7229:
7228:archive.today
7225:
7222:
7220:
7215:
7209:
7202:
7195:
7189:
7182:
7176:
7169:
7163:
7155:
7148:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7126:
7124:
7117:
7113:
7110:
7105:
7098:
7092:
7078:
7074:
7067:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7040:
7034:
7030:
7027:
7022:
7013:
7004:
6996:
6990:
6986:
6979:
6971:
6969:0-19-514049-4
6965:
6961:
6956:
6955:
6946:
6937:
6935:
6933:
6931:
6921:
6906:
6900:
6896:
6895:
6887:
6879:
6873:
6866:
6861:
6845:
6843:0-8135-2109-2
6839:
6835:
6834:
6829:
6822:
6807:
6801:
6797:
6796:
6788:
6779:
6771:
6769:0-8166-3804-7
6765:
6761:
6754:
6748:Light, p.372.
6745:
6736:
6728:
6726:0-253-31359-7
6722:
6718:
6714:
6713:
6705:
6696:
6694:
6692:
6690:
6681:
6675:
6671:
6664:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6636:
6635:
6627:
6618:
6616:
6607:
6605:0-253-31359-7
6601:
6597:
6593:
6592:
6584:
6576:
6574:0-374-52899-3
6570:
6566:
6559:
6550:
6541:
6539:
6530:
6524:
6520:
6513:
6507:Sante, p.145.
6504:
6498:Sante, p.144.
6495:
6493:
6484:
6482:0-374-52899-3
6478:
6474:
6467:
6458:
6450:
6444:
6440:
6433:
6419:
6412:
6398:
6391:
6376:
6375:
6370:
6363:
6349:on 2012-04-01
6348:
6344:
6337:
6335:
6319:
6315:
6309:
6294:
6292:9780520302686
6288:
6284:
6280:
6279:
6271:
6256:
6255:
6250:
6243:
6229:
6225:
6219:
6213:
6208:
6201:
6196:
6190:
6175:
6171:
6164:
6156:
6150:
6146:
6139:
6131:
6130:
6125:
6119:
6112:
6107:
6100:
6095:
6087:
6081:
6077:
6070:
6064:
6062:
6051: (1886).
6050:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6038:
6032:
6024:
6018:
6011:
6007:
6006:The Economist
6002:
5988:on 2014-01-26
5987:
5983:
5976:
5962:
5961:
5956:
5949:
5940:
5931:
5922:
5913:
5904:
5897:
5892:
5884:
5880:
5873:
5871:
5863:
5859:
5856:
5851:
5845:Cassel, p.435
5842:
5833:
5824:
5818:
5813:
5807:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5791:
5786:
5780:
5775:
5769:
5764:
5758:
5753:
5747:
5742:
5736:
5732:
5729:
5724:
5722:
5706:
5702:
5696:
5687:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5668:
5659:
5650:
5648:
5637:
5629:
5623:
5614:
5607:
5602:
5593:
5587:
5583:
5577:
5568:
5560:
5553:
5551:
5549:
5547:
5540:
5536:
5530:
5528:
5518:
5512:
5506:
5499:
5493:
5486:
5481:
5479:
5477:
5467:
5460:
5456:
5453:
5448:
5446:
5438:
5427:
5425:1-4068-0431-2
5421:
5417:
5416:
5408:
5402:
5396:
5387:
5378:
5371:
5365:
5356:
5347:
5338:
5327:
5320:
5313:
5304:
5295:
5286:
5277:
5268:
5260:
5259:
5256:
5252:
5246:
5238:
5236:0-316-92236-6
5232:
5228:
5224:
5223:
5220:
5213:
5195:
5188:
5172:
5168:
5162:
5146:
5142:
5135:
5129:
5124:
5118:
5113:
5106:
5101:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5071:
5058:on 2004-06-04
5057:
5053:
5049:
5043:
5041:
5034:
5029:
5027:
5013:on 2006-05-07
5012:
5008:
5007:
5004:
4997:
4982:
4978:
4972:
4970:
4963:
4961:
4954:
4952:
4945:
4940:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4901:
4897:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4828:
4825:
4822:
4819:
4818:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4776:
4772:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4735:
4734:
4730:
4727:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4716:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4706:
4702:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4688:
4685:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4674:
4671:
4668:
4665:
4664:
4660:
4657:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4632:
4629:
4626:
4623:
4622:
4618:
4615:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4604:
4601:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4562:
4559:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4543:
4539:
4534:
4525:
4523:
4518:
4514:
4509:
4506:
4500:
4498:
4494:
4493:Taiwanization
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4471:which taught
4470:
4467:, as well as
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4448:for the PRC.
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4430:New York City
4422:
4418:
4413:
4404:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4363:who moved to
4362:
4358:
4354:
4351:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4334:
4330:
4325:
4323:
4322:Gunther Barth
4318:
4316:
4312:
4307:
4305:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4264:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4219:
4216:
4208:
4205:December 2014
4198:
4194:
4188:
4187:
4182:This section
4180:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4155:miscegenation
4152:
4148:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4114:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4073:San Francisco
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4009:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3968:
3963:
3957:
3955:
3954:sharecropping
3951:
3947:
3937:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3910:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3891:United States
3888:
3883:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3863:
3858:
3854:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3839:Olaf Tveitmoe
3836:
3832:
3827:
3825:
3821:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3767:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3690:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3658:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3624:. ) Official
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3556:Denis Kearney
3551:
3549:
3548:San Francisco
3545:
3536:
3525:Exclusion era
3522:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3490:Denis Kearney
3487:
3483:
3475:
3470:
3462:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3276:
3274:Woodchoppers
3273:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3209:
3206:
3204:Cigar-makers
3203:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3112:
3098:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3042:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2967:Chinese junks
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2912:
2907:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2834:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2791:
2790:sharecroppers
2786:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2750:
2745:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2678:
2673:
2672:Sierra Nevada
2669:
2664:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2633:American West
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2582:
2577:
2568:
2566:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2497:San Francisco
2493:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2462:North America
2459:
2450:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2426:Sierra Nevada
2423:
2419:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2379:Pacific Ocean
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2325:
2324:Six Companies
2320:
2316:
2314:
2309:
2308:Supreme Court
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2259:San Francisco
2256:
2252:
2243:
2238:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2091:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2063:San Francisco
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1980:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1860:United States
1857:
1853:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1838:
1832:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1716:North America
1709:
1704:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1606:basis of race
1603:
1599:
1595:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1578:White society
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1543:
1538:
1536:
1531:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1487:List of years
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1466:
1458:
1456:
1455:Urban history
1453:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1071:
1070:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
982:
981:
980:
976:
974:
973:
969:
965:
962:
961:
960:
959:
955:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
902:
901:
900:
896:
892:
889:
887:
886:Thai American
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
858:
857:
856:
852:
850:
849:
845:
844:
838:
837:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
804:
803:
802:
798:
794:
791:
790:
789:
788:
784:
782:
781:
777:
775:
774:
770:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
737:
736:
735:
734:Party Systems
731:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
698:
697:
696:
692:
690:
689:
685:
683:
682:
678:
674:
673:Voting rights
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
615:
614:
613:
609:
607:
606:
602:
598:
595:
594:
593:
592:
588:
584:
581:
580:
579:
578:
574:
570:
567:
566:
565:
564:
560:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
536:
535:
531:
527:
524:
523:
522:
521:
517:
515:
514:
510:
508:
507:
503:
502:
496:
495:
485:
482:
481:
478:
476:
475:
471:
470:
466:
464:
460:
459:
456:
454:
453:
449:
448:
444:
442:
438:
437:
434:
432:
431:
427:
426:
422:
420:
416:
415:
411:
409:
405:
404:
401:
399:
398:
394:
393:
389:
387:
383:
382:
378:
376:
372:
371:
368:
366:
365:
361:
360:
356:
354:
350:
349:
345:
343:
339:
338:
334:
332:
328:
327:
323:
321:
317:
316:
313:
311:
310:
306:
305:
301:
299:
295:
294:
290:
288:
284:
283:
279:
277:
273:
272:
269:
267:
266:
262:
261:
257:
255:
254:Civil War Era
251:
250:
247:
245:
244:
240:
239:
235:
233:
229:
228:
224:
222:
218:
217:
214:
212:
211:
207:
206:
202:
200:
196:
195:
191:
189:
185:
184:
181:
179:
178:
174:
173:
169:
167:
163:
162:
158:
156:
152:
151:
148:
146:
145:
141:
140:
136:
134:
133:
129:
128:
124:
122:
121:
116:
115:
111:
110:
105:
98:
97:
92:
88:
83:
79:
78:
75:
74:United States
68:
67:
64:
61:
60:
54:
50:
46:
43:
38:
32:
27:
19:
8578:
8554:
8520:
8464:Philadelphia
8434:
8410:
8391:
8377:
8353:
8324:
8310:
8296:
8282:
8206:
8192:
8163:
8123:Magnuson Act
8076:Anti-Chinese
7934:
7828:
7817:
7741:
7676:
7662:
7644:
7627:
7610:
7593:
7567:
7550:
7524:
7510:
7496:
7482:
7468:
7454:
7443:
7420:
7406:
7392:
7376:
7362:
7352:
7351:Lee, Erika.
7338:
7321:
7302:
7287:
7259:
7243:
7237:
7231:
7218:
7214:
7201:
7188:
7175:
7162:
7153:
7147:
7138:
7131:Him Mark Lai
7104:
7096:
7091:
7080:. Retrieved
7076:
7066:
7049:
7045:
7039:
7021:
7016:Ahmad, p.51.
7012:
7003:
6984:
6978:
6953:
6945:
6920:
6908:. Retrieved
6893:
6886:
6872:
6860:
6847:. Retrieved
6832:
6828:Roger Sanjek
6821:
6809:. Retrieved
6794:
6787:
6778:
6759:
6753:
6744:
6735:
6711:
6704:
6669:
6663:
6638:
6632:
6626:
6590:
6583:
6564:
6558:
6553:Heap, p.145.
6549:
6518:
6512:
6503:
6472:
6466:
6461:Riis, p.100.
6457:
6438:
6432:
6421:. Retrieved
6411:
6400:. Retrieved
6390:
6378:. Retrieved
6372:
6362:
6351:. Retrieved
6347:the original
6321:. Retrieved
6317:
6308:
6296:. Retrieved
6277:
6270:
6258:. Retrieved
6252:
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6218:
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6189:
6178:. Retrieved
6174:the original
6163:
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6138:
6127:
6118:
6111:Wong Kim Ark
6110:
6106:
6099:Wong Kim Ark
6098:
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6069:
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6035:
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5986:the original
5975:
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5939:
5930:
5921:
5912:
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5883:the original
5850:
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5707:. 2011-04-19
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5312:
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5255:
5251:Bryson, Bill
5245:
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5219:
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5202:September 5,
5200:. Retrieved
5187:
5177:September 5,
5175:. Retrieved
5171:the original
5161:
5151:September 5,
5149:. Retrieved
5145:the original
5134:
5123:
5112:
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5088:. Retrieved
5079:
5070:
5060:, retrieved
5056:the original
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5006:
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4980:
4959:
4939:
4914:
4910:
4900:
4823:331,449,281
4809:308,745,538
4795:281,421,906
4781:248,709,873
4767:226,542,199
4753:203,302,031
4739:179,323,175
4725:151,325,798
4711:132,164,569
4697:123,202,624
4683:106,021,537
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4359:and his son
4346:
4326:
4319:
4314:
4313:founded the
4308:
4284:
4272:World War II
4269:
4229:Magnuson Act
4226:
4211:
4202:
4191:Please help
4186:verification
4183:
4151:cough syrups
4144:
4139:Mott Streets
4131:
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4081:
4042:
3997:prostitution
3983:
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3965:
3958:
3943:
3911:
3907:Pancho Villa
3884:
3879:
3867:
3828:
3817:
3812:Wong Kim Ark
3769:Walter Wyman
3763:
3756:
3755:
3739:U.S. citizen
3728:
3725:
3712:
3706:
3703:Chinese race
3691:
3672:
3661:
3648:anti-Chinese
3641:
3610:Magnuson Act
3595:
3552:
3541:
3482:anti-Chinese
3479:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3110:
3091:
3090:
3073:trade unions
3053:
3047:
3007:
2965:, they used
2915:
2880:
2879:
2871:USS Hartford
2870:
2864:USS Hartford
2863:
2838:
2837:
2830:
2794:
2769:
2754:
2725:anti-Chinese
2709:
2705:
2681:
2665:
2661:
2645:
2625:golden spike
2586:
2562:
2546:
2538:
2531:
2527:
2515:
2505:
2494:
2455:
2411:
2405:
2365:, including
2359:
2355:Qing dynasty
2336:
2329:
2304:anti-Chinese
2285:
2262:
2248:
2198:enacted the
2190:3, 1875, in
2180:Presbyterian
2173:
2138:Tanka people
2136:
2119:Christianity
2099:Confucianism
2096:
2072:Qing dynasty
2067:assimilation
2048:
2032:
2009:
1943:Ming dynasty
1940:
1908:
1878:) province (
1849:
1841:
1835:
1795:
1790:Panama Canal
1767:
1713:
1673:
1660:Magnuson Act
1652:World War II
1649:
1630:
1590:
1582:Yellow Peril
1553:
1551:
1042:
1035:
1016:
977:
970:
956:
897:
860:
853:
846:
799:
785:
780:Social class
778:
771:
732:
706:Marine Corps
693:
686:
679:
643:Debt ceiling
628:Civil rights
610:
603:
589:
575:
561:
532:
520:Civil unrest
518:
513:Antisemitism
511:
504:
486:2008–present
474:2008–present
472:
450:
428:
395:
362:
353:World War II
307:
263:
241:
208:
175:
142:
132:Colonial Era
130:
118:
112:
62:
26:
8816:Cathay Bank
8632:Terminology
8430:New Orleans
8379:Los Angeles
8086:Legislation
8038:Puerto Rico
7974:Los Angeles
7970:California
7964:by location
7645:China Blues
7547:Huping Ling
7467:Erika Lee,
7317:(Nachdruck)
7305:. Penguin.
6739:Tsai, p.41.
6699:Ahmad, p.3.
6621:Tsai, p.39.
6544:Heap, p.34.
6323:19 December
4669:92,228,496
4655:76,212,168
4641:62,979,766
4627:50,189,209
4613:38,558,371
4599:31,443,321
4585:23,191,876
4571:17,069,453
4563:Percentage
4538:U.S. states
4511:Drawing on
4438:brain drain
4423:since 1980.
4377:Bai Chongxi
4365:Los Angeles
4249:naturalized
4069:sweepstakes
4049:Pell Street
3967:Lum v. Rice
3948:during the
3909:in Mexico.
3895:World War I
3606:citizenship
3564:John Bigler
3448:standards.
3176:Launderers
3123:Population
3120:Occupation
3105: 1920
2813:Los Angeles
2749:Bing cherry
2739:Agriculture
2721:paper mills
2627:" event at
2434:New England
2391:Los Angeles
2213:U.S. census
2169:patriarchal
2164:prostitutes
2156:trafficking
2123:Protestants
2076:Han Chinese
1975:increasing
1880:Bill Bryson
1837:The Graphic
1804:. In 1854,
1782:New England
1751:John Meares
1724:Philippines
1637:Philippines
1633:citizenship
1614:U.S. census
1406:Territories
1127:New England
807:Agriculture
726:Coast Guard
721:Space Force
569:Immigration
419:Vietnam War
320:World War I
114:Prehistoric
8474:Pittsburgh
8412:New Jersey
8332:Richardson
8247:Chinatowns
8030:New York (
8023:Missouri (
8009:Michigan (
7995:Illinois (
7082:2023-05-11
7052:(2): 139.
6423:2018-11-24
6402:2012-01-01
6353:2012-01-01
6298:25 October
6260:25 October
6233:2009-03-06
6180:2007-09-01
5992:2014-02-05
5966:2008-11-11
5711:2013-01-25
5630:. PBS.org.
5431:31 October
5062:2013-09-18
5017:2007-09-01
4987:2008-07-15
4826:5,400,000
4812:3,794,673
4798:2,432,585
4784:1,645,472
4542:Chinatowns
4515:data, the
4446:brain gain
4361:Ma Dunjing
4357:Ma Hongkui
4237:Washington
4089:concubines
4017:immorality
3988:Jacob Riis
3903:expedition
3824:Paper Sons
3789:Henry Gage
3777:quarantine
3664:California
3544:Chinatowns
3530:Settlement
3510:Chinatowns
3048:Since the
3018:Dalmatians
2995:salt-dried
2963:barracudas
2805:Sacramento
2785:marshlands
2677:avalanches
2609:California
2587:After the
2557:Dutch Flat
2478:Taishanese
2458:West Coast
2281:California
2235:See also:
2143:bound feet
1991:Until the
1977:xenophobia
1968:California
1911:Chinatowns
1894:after the
1748:fur trader
1740:California
1674:As of the
681:Journalism
633:Corruption
612:Government
563:Demography
550:Newspapers
441:Reagan Era
287:Gilded Age
125:until 1607
89:family in
49:half-track
8653:Education
8649:Love boat
8641:Jook-sing
8516:San Diego
8506:St. Louis
8442:Manhattan
8368:Las Vegas
8312:Cleveland
8273:Baltimore
8118:Cable Act
8108:Geary Act
8025:St. Louis
7825:"Chinese"
7649:Eio Books
7564:Judy Yung
6855:Page 123.
5090:August 6,
4505:H1-B visa
4461:Hong Kong
4392:Hong Kong
4355:Generals
4300:Tsou Tang
4255:that any
4147:medicines
4085:kidnapped
4057:lotteries
4038:commodity
4013:indecency
3930:Cable Act
3743:precedent
3662:By then,
3586:Uncle Sam
3400:Peddlers
3088:in 1882.
3030:canneries
3026:Scott Act
2999:East Asia
2916:From the
2901:Fisheries
2589:gold rush
2517:when the
2502:Cantonese
2486:Guangdong
2482:Cantonese
2387:Cleveland
2383:tong wars
2367:extortion
2292:cremation
2217:Louisiana
2176:Methodist
2152:sex trade
2028:Australia
1956:Hong Kong
1896:Civil War
1890:, worked
1876:Guangdong
1868:Guangzhou
1864:Afong Moy
1806:Yung Wing
1786:Cape Horn
1763:Vancouver
1722:over the
1694:by 2012.
1618:Louisiana
1598:Geary Act
1132:The South
716:Air Force
591:Education
467:1991–2008
452:1991–2008
445:1981–1991
430:1980–1991
423:1964–1975
412:1954–1968
397:1964–1980
390:1954–1968
379:1945–1964
364:1945–1964
357:1941–1945
346:1929–1941
335:1918–1929
324:1917–1918
309:1917–1945
302:1896–1917
291:1877–1896
280:1865–1877
265:1865–1917
258:1849–1865
243:1849–1865
236:1825–1849
225:1817–1825
210:1815–1849
203:1801–1817
192:1788–1801
177:1789–1815
170:1783–1788
159:1765–1783
144:1776–1789
137:1607–1765
8872:Category
8548:San Jose
8447:Brooklyn
8349:Honolulu
8318:Asiatown
7986:Colorado
7781:Archived
7624:Lisa See
7265:Archived
7252:Archived
7224:Archived
7137:(2010).
7112:Archived
7029:Archived
6830:(eds.).
6380:26 April
5858:Archived
5731:Archived
5676:Archived
5455:Archived
4836:See also
4770:812,178
4756:436,062
4742:237,292
4728:150,005
4714:106,334
4700:102,159
4658:118,746
4644:107,488
4630:105,465
4295:Cold War
4110:Page Act
4093:tortured
4055:, faro,
4026:slumming
4008:American
3993:gambling
3905:against
3801:lawsuits
3694:Nativist
3644:Japanese
3558:and his
3515:Chinaman
3014:Italians
2955:sturgeon
2827:Military
2817:Japanese
2593:railroad
2506:Gam Saan
2371:gambling
2209:Arkansas
2200:Page Act
2107:Buddhism
1931:Ishigaki
1744:explorer
1728:galleons
1504:Category
1055:Lesbians
1029:Comanche
1024:Cherokee
822:Medicine
773:Religion
695:Military
668:Taxation
618:Abortion
534:Cultural
51:with an
8679:Museums
8610:Culture
8562:Seattle
8533:Oakland
8469:Phoenix
8393:Florida
8355:Houston
8344:Detroit
8298:Chicago
8263:Atlanta
8061:Seattle
8053:Houston
8011:Detroit
7997:Chicago
7935:History
7746:Website
7607:Amy Tan
7357:excerpt
7355:(2016)
6910:2 March
6849:May 17,
6811:2 March
6655:3638262
6318:YouTube
4931:3636239
4686:85,202
4672:94,414
4616:64,199
4602:34,933
4436:over a
4241:Chinese
4053:fan-tan
4045:Wah Kee
4022:tobacco
4004:smoking
3901:in his
3889:to the
3749:of the
3735:domicil
3685:to the
3681:in the
3429:46,274
3416:43,822
3137:17,069
3134:Miners
3068:mercury
2987:seaweed
2979:abalone
2939:herring
2935:sampans
2925:, from
2821:Indians
2811:of the
2779:in the
2668:canyons
2613:Pacific
2611:on the
2601:railway
2227:women.
2132:English
2055:English
2024:Nanyang
1964:Taishan
1937:, Japan
1734:ports (
1732:Mexican
1641:annexed
1628:women.
1482:Outline
1119:Regions
1050:Gay men
827:Railway
787:Slavery
583:Banking
577:Economy
45:soldier
8836:Others
8645:Events
8567:Tacoma
8452:Queens
8423:Newark
8418:Edison
8339:Denver
8290:Quincy
8284:Boston
8268:Austin
8234:(2016)
8228:(1982)
8222:(1907)
8211:(1898)
8203:(1887)
8197:(1886)
8179:(1885)
8168:(1884)
8142:Events
8004:Boston
7991:Hawaii
7712:Vol. 4
7708:Vol. 3
7704:Vol. 2
7700:Vol. 1
7683:
7669:
7655:
7651:2012,
7634:
7617:
7600:
7574:
7557:
7531:
7517:
7503:
7489:
7475:
7461:
7427:
7413:
7399:
7385:
7369:
7345:
7328:
7309:
7294:
6991:
6966:
6901:
6840:
6802:
6766:
6723:
6676:
6653:
6602:
6571:
6525:
6479:
6445:
6289:
6198:,
6151:
6082:
6057:
6040:,
5422:
5233:
5105:Canton
4929:
4829:1.63%
4815:1.23%
4801:0.86%
4787:0.66%
4773:0.36%
4759:0.21%
4745:0.13%
4731:0.10%
4717:0.08%
4703:0.08%
4689:0.08%
4675:0.10%
4661:0.16%
4647:0.17%
4633:0.21%
4619:0.17%
4605:0.11%
4591:0.02%
4588:4,018
4479:. The
4477:pinyin
4457:Taiwan
4390:, and
4388:Taiwan
4369:Taiwan
4333:Taiwan
4257:Asians
4122:
3999:, and
3887:Mexico
3775:under
3494:racist
3432:100.0
3016:, and
3010:Greeks
3003:Hawaii
2985:, and
2983:salmon
2957:, and
2947:smelts
2931:Mexico
2927:Canada
2799:, and
2777:levees
2480:- and
2430:Nevada
2389:, and
2351:triads
2264:Kongsi
2194:, the
2188:
2111:Taoism
2080:Manchu
2001:Manchu
1949:. The
1812:. The
1755:Canton
1708:period
1684:Taiwan
1514:Portal
1465:Cities
1447:Cities
1145:States
1074:Places
841:Groups
817:Lumber
755:Fourth
745:Second
555:Sports
540:Cinema
499:Topics
8845:Lists
8809:Banks
8278:Boise
8043:Texas
7539:Women
6651:JSTOR
6044:
5539:Triad
5329:(PDF)
5322:(PDF)
5197:(PDF)
4927:JSTOR
4820:2020
4806:2010
4792:2000
4778:1990
4764:1980
4750:1970
4736:1960
4722:1950
4708:1940
4694:1930
4680:1920
4666:1910
4652:1900
4638:1890
4624:1880
4610:1870
4596:1860
4582:1850
4568:1840
4554:Year
4065:cards
4061:coins
4001:opium
3926:queue
3419:94.7
3207:1727
3193:1766
3179:3653
3168:11.7
3165:5420
3154:20.4
3151:9436
3140:36.9
3064:borax
2975:clams
2971:crabs
2959:shark
2943:soles
2757:wheat
2729:riots
2607:with
2347:Tongs
2109:, or
2084:queue
2074:law,
1997:queue
1960:Macau
1776:with
1753:from
1044:LGBTQ
1037:Women
812:Labor
765:Sixth
760:Fifth
750:Third
740:First
545:Music
8624:Film
8616:Food
7681:ISBN
7667:ISBN
7653:ISBN
7632:ISBN
7615:ISBN
7598:ISBN
7572:ISBN
7555:ISBN
7529:ISBN
7515:ISBN
7501:ISBN
7487:ISBN
7473:ISBN
7459:ISBN
7425:ISBN
7411:ISBN
7397:ISBN
7383:ISBN
7367:ISBN
7343:ISBN
7326:ISBN
7307:ISBN
7292:ISBN
6989:ISBN
6964:ISBN
6960:1130
6912:2012
6899:ISBN
6851:2014
6838:ISBN
6833:Race
6813:2012
6800:ISBN
6764:ISBN
6721:ISBN
6674:ISBN
6600:ISBN
6569:ISBN
6523:ISBN
6477:ISBN
6443:ISBN
6382:2018
6325:2023
6300:2019
6287:ISBN
6262:2019
6149:ISBN
6080:ISBN
6046:U.S.
5433:2011
5420:ISBN
5231:ISBN
5204:2014
5179:2014
5153:2014
5092:2012
4577:n/a
4475:and
4398:and
4227:The
4015:and
3912:The
3845:and
3818:The
3406:0.3
3403:152
3397:20.
3392:0.3
3389:155
3383:19.
3378:0.4
3375:166
3369:18.
3364:0.4
3361:193
3355:17.
3350:0.4
3347:203
3341:16.
3336:0.4
3333:207
3327:15.
3322:0.5
3319:243
3313:14.
3308:0.7
3305:310
3299:13.
3294:0.8
3291:366
3285:12.
3280:0.9
3277:419
3271:11.
3266:1.1
3263:489
3257:10.
3252:1.2
3249:568
3238:1.3
3235:604
3224:1.5
3221:676
3210:3.7
3196:3.8
3182:7.9
3066:and
3001:and
2819:and
2747:The
2714:and
2639:and
2619:and
2249:Pre-
2178:and
2154:and
2004:Qing
1840:and
1778:Qing
1746:and
1552:The
711:Navy
701:Army
605:Flag
117:and
93:1913
7054:doi
6940:Yee
6643:doi
6049:356
6042:118
5582:doi
5227:147
4919:doi
4524:.
4459:or
4434:PRC
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3229:8.
3215:7.
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1429:MP
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1419:AS
1414:DC
1398:WY
1393:WI
1388:WV
1383:WA
1378:VA
1373:VT
1368:UT
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1358:TN
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