268:: The primary use of gustation as a type of chemoreception is for the detection of tasteants. Aqueous chemical compounds come into contact with chemoreceptors in the mouth, such as taste buds on the tongue, and trigger responses. These chemical compounds can either trigger an appetitive response for nutrients, or a defensive response against toxins depending on which receptors fire. Fish and crustaceans, who are constantly in an aqueous environment, use their gustatory system to identify certain chemicals in the mixture for the purpose of localization and ingestion of food.
334:
others are rigid and do not bend with contact. They are mostly found in the mouthparts, but can also occur on the antennae or legs of some insects. There is a collection of dendrites located near the pores of the receptors, yet the distribution of these dendrites changes depending on the organism being examined. The method of transduction of the signal from the dendrites differs depending on the organism and the chemical it is responding to.
318:. GPCR's are intramembrane proteins than bind to an extracellular ligand- in this case chemicals from food- and begin a diverse array of signaling cascades that can result in an action potential registering as input in an organism's brain. Large quantities of chemoreceptors with discrete ligand-binding domains provide for the five basic tastes: sour, salty, bitter, sweet, and
249:(VNO). It was initially thought that the MOE is responsible for the detection of odorants, while the VNO detects pheromones. The current view, however, is that both systems can detect odorants and pheromones. Olfaction in invertebrates differs from olfaction in vertebrates. For example, in insects, olfactory sensilla are present on their antennae.
271:
Insects use contact chemoreception to recognize certain chemicals such as cuticular hydrocarbons and chemicals specific to host plants. Contact chemoreception is more commonly seen in insects but is also involved in the mating behavior of some vertebrates. The contact chemoreceptor is specific to one
548:
and coronary vasodilation through vagal stimulation and systemic vasoconstriction by sympathetic stimulation. In normal cases, if there is reflexive increase in respiratory activity in response to chemoreceptor activation, the increased sympathetic activity on the cardiovascular system would act to
540:
and a decreased pH is relayed to cardiac centers by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the medulla of the brainstem. This increases the sympathetic nervous stimulation on the heart and a corresponding increase in heart rate and contractility in most cases. These factors include activation of
333:
Contact
Chemoreception: Contact chemoreception is dependent on the physical contact of the receptor with the stimulus. The receptors are short hairs or cones that have a single pore at, or close to the tip of the projection. They are known as uniporous receptors. Some receptors are flexible, while
313:
serves as the primary gustatory sensory organ. As a muscle located in the mouth, it acts to manipulate and discern the composition of food in the initial stages of digestion. The tongue is rich in vasculature, allowing the chemoreceptors located on the top surface of the organ to transmit sensory
296:
often referred to as OSNs. Embedded in the olfactory epithelium are three types of cells: supporting cells, basal cells, and OSNs. While all three types of cells are integral to normal function of the epithelium, only OSN serve as receptor cells, i.e. responding to the chemicals and generating an
305:
act as distance chemoreceptors. For example, antennae on moths are made up of long feathery hairs that increase sensory surface area. Each long hair from the main antenna also has smaller sensilla that are used for volatile olfaction. Since moths are mainly nocturnal animals, the development of
346:
Chemoreception is important for the detection of food, habitat, conspecifics including mates, and predators. For example, the emissions of a predator's food source, such as odors or pheromones, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air
190:
receptors can either be integrated in plant cells or situate outside the cell, in order to facilitate chemical structure and composition. There are 5 major categories of hormones that are unique to plants which once bound to the receptor, will trigger a response in target cells. These include
330:.Gustatory chemosensors are not just present on the tongue but also on different cells of the gut epithelium where they communicates the sensory information to several effector systems involved in the regulation of appetite, immune responses, and gastrointestinal motility.
531:
The response to stimulation of chemoreceptors on the heart rate is complicated. Chemoreceptors in the heart or nearby large arteries, as well as chemoreceptors in the lungs, can affect heart rate. Activation of these peripheral chemoreceptors from sensing decreased
342:
it is natural that detection and passing on of the external input will involve chemical events. The chemistry of the environment is, of course, relevant to survival, and detection of chemical input from the outside may well articulate directly with cell chemicals.
421:
Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation. In adult tissues, these cilia regulate cell proliferation in response to external stimuli, such as tissue damage. In humans, improper functioning of primary cilia is associated with important diseases known as
126:
Bacteria utilize complex long helical proteins as chemoreceptors, permitting signals to travel long distances across the cell's membrane. Chemoreceptors allow bacteria to react to chemical stimuli in their environment and regulate their movement accordingly. In
166:
Plants have various mechanisms to perceive danger in their environment. Plants are able to detect pathogens and microbes through surface level receptor kinases (PRK). Additionally, receptor-like proteins (RLPs) containing
504:, decreased O2), and eventually desensitize, partly due to redistribution of bicarbonate out of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and increased renal excretion of bicarbonate. These are sensitive to pH and CO
314:
information to the brain. Salivary glands in the mouth allow for molecules to reach chemoreceptors in an aqueous solution. The chemoreceptors of the tongue fall into two distinct superfamilies of
347:
passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions. It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the
544:
However, if respiratory activity is arrested (e.g. in a patient with a high cervical spinal cord injury), then the primary cardiac reflex to transient hypercapnia and hypoxia is a profound
135:
comprise only 57% of chemoreceptors, while in bacteria the percentage rises to 87%. This is an indicator that chemoreceptors play a heightened role in the sensing of
182:
Plant receptor kinases are also used for growth and hormone induction among other important biochemical processes. These reactions are triggered by a series of
338:
When inputs from the environment are significant to the survival of the organism, the input must be detected. As all life processes are ultimately based on
621:
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of the blood. This can be a direct consequence of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration, because aqueous carbon dioxide in the presence of
245:
in the nasal cavity. Within the olfactory system there are two anatomically distinct organs: the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) and the
500:
and detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid. They have also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia (elevated CO
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Berk, James L.; Levy, Matthew N. (1977). "Profound Reflex
Bradycardia Produced by Transient Hypoxia or Hypercapnia in Man".
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detects all three. They do not desensitize. Their effect on breathing rate is less than that of the central chemoreceptors.
2615:
176:
237:: Olfaction involves the ability to detect chemicals in the gaseous state. In vertebrates, the olfactory system detects
3243:
3098:
1118:
R. Mitchell, David (10 April 2012). "The
Evolution of Eukaryotic Cilia and Flagella as Motile and Sensory Organelles".
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1424:
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718:
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1262:
Shi, P.; Zhang, J. (2009). "Extraordinary
Diversity of Chemosensory Receptor Gene Repertoires Among Vertebrates".
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Nurse, Colin A.; Piskuric, Nikol A. (January 2013). "Signal processing at mammalian carotid body chemoreceptors".
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Haffani, Yosr Z.; Silva, Nancy F.; Goring, Daphne R. (2 February 2011). "Receptor kinase signalling in plants".
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322:. The salty and sour tastes work directly through the ion channels, the sweet and bitter taste work through
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Samanta, Dipanjan; P. Borbat, Peter; Dzikovski, Boris; H. Freed, Jack; R. Crane, Brian (9 February 2015).
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960:"Bacterial chemoreceptor dynamics correlate with activity state and are coupled over long distances"
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Chemoreceptors that regulate the depth and rhythm of breathing are broken down into two categories.
86:, a chemoreceptor detects changes in the normal environment, such as an increase in blood levels of
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Haupt, S. Shuichi; Sakurai, Takeshi; Namiki, Shigehiro; Kazawa, Tomoki; Kanzaki, Ryohei (2010).
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stretch receptors due to increased ventilation and the release of circulating catecholamines.
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Saunders, Cecil J.; Christensen, Michael; Finger, Thomas E.; Tizzano, Marco (22 April 2014).
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486:, respectively, to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during inhalation.
8:
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211:. Once bound, hormones can induce, inhibit, or maintain function of the target response.
179:(DAMPS) which consequently initiates the plant's innate immunity for a defense response.
975:
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158:. The motile function of these cilia is lost in favour of their sensory specialization.
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744:"Cholinergic neurotransmission links solitary chemosensory cells to nasal inflammation"
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1122:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 607. pp. 130–140.
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or induced) to generate a biological signal. This signal may be in the form of an
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Steensels, S.; Depoortere, I. (10 February 2018). "Chemoreceptors in the Gut".
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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71:
39:
1266:. Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation. Vol. 47. pp. 57–75.
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Hazelbauer, Gerald L.; Falke, Joseph J.; Parkinson, John S. (January 2008).
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838:"Bacterial chemoreceptors: high-performance signaling in networked arrays"
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and H ion concentration. They also sense decrease in partial pressure of O
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641:"Peripheral Chemoreceptors: Function and Plasticity of the Carotid Body"
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detects changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, but not pH, while
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1728:
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Armitage, Lynne; Leyser, Ottoline (2021). "Plant hormone receptors".
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359:) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.
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327:
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204:
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The response is that the respiratory centre (in the medulla), sends
288:. Volatile chemical stimuli enter the nose and eventually reach the
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2534:
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2001:
705:. Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. Vol. 63. pp. 23–43.
701:
Rawson, Nancy E.; Yee, Karen K. (2006). "Transduction and Coding".
415:
219:
There are two main classes of chemoreceptor: direct and distance.
208:
106:
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Zipfel, Cyril (July 2014). "Plant pattern-recognition receptors".
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1407:
Lumb, Andrew B.; Horner, Deborah (2013). "Pulmonary
Physiology".
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957:
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136:
128:
1019:"Exploring the (Almost) Unknown: Archaeal Two-Component Systems"
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1982:
1972:
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456:
310:
284:
Olfaction: In terrestrial vertebrates, olfaction occurs in the
91:
59:
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2010:
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1918:
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1602:
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609:
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which are initiated by plant chemically sensitive receptors.
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in the blood. To do this, they monitor the concentration of
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403:
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238:
67:
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1334:
835:
448:
1264:
Chemosensory
Systems in Mammals, Fishes, and Insects
306:
greater olfaction aids them in navigating the night.
70:
if the chemoreceptor is a specialized cell, such as
1371:
639:Kumar, Prem; Prabhakar, Nanduri R. (January 2012).
622:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
109:, chemoreceptors are essential in the mediation of
1203:
94:(hypoxia), and transmits that information to the
3273:
1314:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 636–654.
1068:
309:Gustation: In many terrestrial vertebrates, the
90:(hypercapnia) or a decrease in blood levels of
1238:
696:
694:
638:
292:which houses the chemoreceptor cells known as
2800:
1562:
895:"Bacterial chemoreceptors and chemoeffectors"
800:
1576:
1069:Satir, Peter; Christensen, Søren T. (2008).
803:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
496:are located on the ventrolateral surface of
1337:"Olfactory information processing in moths"
1117:
1071:"Structure and function of mammalian cilia"
1064:
1062:
691:
326:, and the savory sensation is activated by
2814:
2807:
2793:
1569:
1555:
1409:Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia
1406:
893:Bi, Shuangyu; Lai, Luhua (February 2015).
116:
1533:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
1145:
1094:
1042:
993:
983:
926:
869:
777:
767:
700:
674:
514:: consists of aortic and carotid bodies.
1492:
1261:
1059:
98:which engages body responses to restore
1540:Association of Chemoreception Sciences
1305:
549:increase heart rate and contractility.
430:
398:in the brain that receives inputs from
297:action potential that travels down the
161:
27:Sensory receptor that detects chemicals
14:
3274:
1168:
173:pathogen-associated molecular patterns
2788:
1787:Somatosensory system (sense of touch)
1550:
1386:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021317-121332
1120:Eukaryotic Membranes and Cytoskeleton
1016:
892:
383:, but to a lesser degree than for pCO
355:. The resulting output from the CNS (
150:, present in many types of mammalian
3173:oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
1772:Vestibular system (sense of balance)
899:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
632:
177:damage-associated molecular patterns
1312:The Insects: Structure and Function
24:
3099:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
1767:Auditory system (sense of hearing)
1417:10.1016/B978-1-4377-1679-5.00025-9
1343:. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.
435:Particular chemoreceptors, called
25:
3313:
1782:Gustatory system (sense of taste)
1777:Olfactory system (sense of smell)
1524:
447:in the blood, which decrease the
278:
121:
2034:Infrared sensing in vampire bats
301:to reach the brain. In insects,
142:
1762:Visual system (sense of vision)
1486:
1462:
1433:
1400:
1365:
1328:
1255:
1232:
1197:
1162:
1111:
1075:Histochemistry and Cell Biology
375:detect changes primarily in pCO
169:ligand binding receptor domains
1010:
951:
886:
842:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
829:
794:
735:
13:
1:
1904:Auditory perception (hearing)
1341:The Neurobiology of Olfaction
626:
526:
362:
2550:Olfactory reference syndrome
2327:Alice in Wonderland syndrome
1128:10.1007/978-0-387-74021-8_11
1017:Krell, Tino (1 April 2007).
815:10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.09.006
410:, and communicates with the
58:, if the chemoreceptor is a
7:
3131:Ventilation/perfusion ratio
2982:pulmonary stretch receptors
2749:Sensory processing disorder
1919:Gustation (taste or flavor)
1909:Equilibrioception (balance)
1374:Annual Review of Physiology
600:Solitary chemosensory cells
575:Diffuse chemosensory system
552:
324:G protein-coupled receptors
316:G protein-coupled receptors
10:
3318:
3163:alveolar–arterial gradient
2703:Supernumerary phantom limb
2039:Infrared sensing in snakes
1899:Visual perception (vision)
1495:European Surgical Research
1206:Canadian Journal of Botany
854:10.1016/j.tibs.2007.09.014
570:Chemoreceptor trigger zone
414:(area postrema) to induce
392:chemoreceptor trigger zone
231:olfactory receptor neurons
214:
3236:
3112:
3086:
3044:respiratory minute volume
2997:
2956:ventral respiratory group
2915:
2822:
2766:
2711:
2680:
2649:
2601:
2568:
2520:
2482:
2454:Microwave auditory effect
2414:
2312:
2305:
2278:
2255:
2227:
2186:
2128:
2117:
2085:
2062:
2009:
2000:
1953:
1891:
1848:
1795:
1752:
1709:
1700:
1691:
1639:
1621:Transduction (physiology)
1601:
1588:
1087:10.1007/s00418-008-0416-9
911:10.1007/s00018-014-1770-5
512:peripheral chemoreceptors
294:olfactory sensory neurons
2951:dorsal respiratory group
2845:obligate nasal breathing
2459:Music-specific disorders
1815:Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
1535:Medical Subject Headings
1441:"Central Chemoreceptors"
1249:10.1036/1097-8542.900137
1183:10.1016/j.it.2014.05.004
645:Comprehensive Physiology
387:and H ion concentration.
76:peripheral chemoreceptor
3153:pulmonary gas pressures
2439:Auditory verbal agnosia
2293:Juxtacapillary receptor
1306:Chapman, R. F. (1998).
1023:Journal of Bacteriology
985:10.1073/pnas.1414155112
769:10.1073/pnas.1402251111
439:, detect the levels of
225:distance chemoreceptors
133:transmembrane receptors
117:Cellular chemoreceptors
3297:Respiratory physiology
2907:mechanical ventilation
2816:Respiratory physiology
2434:Auditory hallucination
2044:Surface wave detection
1649:Multimodal integration
1542:http://www.achems.org/
494:central chemoreceptors
357:central nervous system
96:central nervous system
62:, or in the form of a
3158:alveolar gas equation
3094:pulmonary circulation
2693:Phantom limb syndrome
2641:Tactile hallucination
1830:Glossopharyngeal (IX)
1631:Active sensory system
565:Chemosensory clusters
560:Cell surface receptor
256:direct chemoreceptors
3292:Analytical chemistry
3213:respiratory quotient
3068:body plethysmography
2987:Hering–Breuer reflex
2862:pulmonary surfactant
2502:Labyrinthine fistula
2469:Spatial hearing loss
2168:Campaniform sensilla
1883:Somatosensory cortex
1411:. pp. 445–457.
1171:Trends in Immunology
657:10.1002/cphy.c100069
431:Control of breathing
290:olfactory epithelium
162:Plant chemoreceptors
139:signals in archaea.
66:that can activate a
3056:Lung function tests
2890:hyperresponsiveness
2288:Nociceptin receptor
2158:Merkel nerve ending
2143:Mechanotransduction
1445:pathwaymedicine.org
1035:10.1128/JB.00774-17
976:2015PNAS..112.2455S
760:2014PNAS..111.6075S
472:intercostal muscles
38:, is a specialized
3223:diffusion capacity
3218:arterial blood gas
3198:carbonic anhydrase
2932:pneumotaxic center
2650:Nociception (pain)
2242:Olfactory receptor
2194:Photoreceptor cell
2148:Lamellar corpuscle
2072:Photomorphogenesis
1934:nociception (pain)
1626:Sensory processing
1272:10.1007/400_2008_4
453:carbonic anhydrase
394:is an area of the
184:signaling pathways
48:chemical substance
3282:Sensory receptors
3269:
3268:
3177:Oxygen saturation
3143:zones of the lung
2882:airway resistance
2782:
2781:
2767:Biases and errors
2762:
2761:
2698:Somatoparaphrenia
2667:Pain dissociation
2512:Ménière's disease
2444:Cortical deafness
2322:Visual impairment
2301:
2300:
2163:Bulbous corpuscle
2153:Tactile corpuscle
2121:sensory receptors
2113:
2112:
1996:
1995:
1949:
1948:
1914:Olfaction (smell)
1868:Vestibular cortex
1850:Cerebral cortices
1687:
1686:
1674:Motion perception
1507:10.1159/000127928
1321:978-0-521-57890-5
1281:978-3-540-69918-7
1137:978-0-387-74020-1
754:(16): 6075–6080.
711:10.1159/000093749
666:978-0-470-65071-4
615:Vomeronasal organ
580:Haptic technology
498:medulla oblongata
480:intercostal nerve
455:reacts to form a
272:type of chemical.
247:vomeronasal organ
156:cellular antennae
74:, or an internal
16:(Redirected from
3309:
3078:nitrogen washout
2937:apneustic center
2852:respiratory rate
2809:
2802:
2795:
2786:
2785:
2429:Auditory agnosia
2361:Optic neuropathy
2310:
2309:
2178:Stretch receptor
2126:
2125:
2024:Magnetoreception
2019:Electroreception
2007:
2006:
1929:mechanoreception
1878:Gustatory cortex
1873:Olfactory cortex
1707:
1706:
1698:
1697:
1616:Sensory receptor
1599:
1598:
1571:
1564:
1557:
1548:
1547:
1519:
1518:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1480:
1474:www.columbia.edu
1466:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1447:. Archived from
1437:
1431:
1430:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1308:"Chemoreception"
1303:
1294:
1293:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1149:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1098:
1066:
1057:
1056:
1046:
1014:
1008:
1007:
997:
987:
970:(8): 2455–2460.
955:
949:
948:
930:
890:
884:
883:
873:
833:
827:
826:
798:
792:
791:
781:
771:
739:
733:
732:
698:
689:
688:
678:
636:
605:Sensory receptor
585:Molecular sensor
470:to the external
468:nervous impulses
266:gustatory system
235:olfactory system
64:neurotransmitter
56:action potential
40:sensory receptor
34:, also known as
21:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3256:oxygen toxicity
3232:
3120:ventilation (V)
3108:
3104:pulmonary shunt
3082:
3073:peak flow meter
2993:
2911:
2818:
2813:
2783:
2778:
2758:
2707:
2676:
2645:
2597:
2564:
2516:
2478:
2410:
2401:Stereoblindness
2342:Color blindness
2297:
2274:
2251:
2223:
2182:
2130:Mechanoreceptor
2119:
2109:
2105:Machine hearing
2100:Computer vision
2095:Robotic sensing
2081:
2058:
1992:
1945:
1887:
1863:Auditory cortex
1844:
1791:
1754:Sensory systems
1748:
1683:
1635:
1593:
1591:
1584:
1575:
1527:
1522:
1491:
1487:
1478:
1476:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1454:
1452:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1405:
1401:
1370:
1366:
1351:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1304:
1297:
1282:
1260:
1256:
1237:
1233:
1218:10.1139/b03-126
1202:
1198:
1167:
1163:
1138:
1116:
1112:
1067:
1060:
1015:
1011:
956:
952:
891:
887:
834:
830:
799:
795:
740:
736:
721:
703:Taste and Smell
699:
692:
667:
637:
633:
629:
619:
555:
539:
535:
529:
507:
503:
433:
412:vomiting center
386:
382:
378:
365:
299:olfactory nerve
281:
262:Taste receptors
217:
164:
145:
124:
119:
72:taste receptors
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3315:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3230:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3202:chloride shift
3195:
3192:Haldane effect
3189:
3184:
3179:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3122:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3049:FEV1/FVC ratio
3046:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3003:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2964:chemoreceptors
2960:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2921:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2872:elastic recoil
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2819:
2812:
2811:
2804:
2797:
2789:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2684:
2682:
2681:Proprioception
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2607:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2574:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2526:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2420:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2316:
2307:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2261:
2259:
2257:Thermoreceptor
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2237:Taste receptor
2233:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2123:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1963:Proprioception
1959:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1854:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1835:Trigeminal (V)
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1804:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1715:
1713:
1711:Sensory organs
1704:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1645:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1596:
1586:
1585:
1574:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1538:
1531:Chemoreceptors
1526:
1525:External links
1523:
1521:
1520:
1485:
1461:
1432:
1425:
1399:
1380:(1): 117–141.
1364:
1349:
1327:
1320:
1295:
1280:
1254:
1241:Access Science
1231:
1196:
1177:(7): 345–351.
1161:
1136:
1110:
1058:
1009:
950:
905:(4): 691–708.
885:
828:
793:
734:
719:
690:
665:
651:(1): 141–219.
630:
628:
625:
618:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
556:
554:
551:
537:
536:, increased CO
533:
528:
525:
524:
523:
509:
505:
501:
441:carbon dioxide
432:
429:
428:
427:
419:
388:
384:
380:
376:
369:Carotid bodies
364:
361:
336:
335:
331:
307:
280:
279:Sensory organs
277:
276:
275:
274:
273:
269:
252:
251:
250:
216:
213:
163:
160:
144:
141:
123:
122:In prokaryotes
120:
118:
115:
88:carbon dioxide
80:carotid bodies
78:, such as the
26:
18:Chemoreceptors
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3314:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3244:high altitude
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:Insufficiency
3235:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3208:oxyhemoglobin
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2905:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2877:hysteresivity
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2805:
2803:
2798:
2796:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2739:Hallucination
2737:
2735:
2734:Derealization
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2688:Asomatognosia
2686:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2626:Hyperesthesia
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2611:Astereognosis
2609:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2507:Labyrinthitis
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2229:Chemoreceptor
2226:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2187:Photoreceptor
2185:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2173:Slit sensilla
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2116:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1989:
1988:Visceral pain
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1940:
1939:thermoception
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1858:Visual cortex
1856:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1820:Olfactory (I)
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1802:spinal nerves
1799:
1794:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1659:Consciousness
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1560:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1549:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1451:on 2021-04-13
1450:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1428:
1426:9781437716795
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1350:9781420071979
1346:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1081:(6): 687–93.
1080:
1076:
1072:
1065:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1005:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
954:
946:
942:
938:
934:
929:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
889:
881:
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839:
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824:
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789:
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720:3-8055-8123-8
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677:
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547:
542:
521:
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510:
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484:phrenic nerve
481:
477:
473:
469:
464:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:hydrogen ions
442:
438:
425:
420:
417:
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401:
397:
393:
389:
374:
373:aortic bodies
370:
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221:
220:
212:
210:
206:
202:
198:
197:abscisic acid
194:
189:
188:Plant hormone
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
159:
157:
153:
149:
148:Primary cilia
143:In eukaryotes
140:
138:
134:
130:
114:
112:
108:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:chemoreceptor
19:
3148:gas exchange
3113:Interactions
3038:calculations
2999:Lung volumes
2963:
2962:
2943:
2924:
2895:constriction
2857:respirometer
2672:Phantom pain
2657:Hyperalgesia
2631:Hypoesthesia
2449:Hearing loss
2270:TRP channels
2247:Osmoreceptor
2228:
2214:Photopigment
2138:Baroreceptor
2077:Gravitropism
2049:Frog hearing
2029:Echolocation
1825:Facial (VII)
1501:(2): 75–84.
1498:
1494:
1488:
1477:. Retrieved
1473:
1464:
1453:. Retrieved
1449:the original
1444:
1435:
1408:
1402:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1340:
1330:
1311:
1263:
1257:
1240:
1234:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1119:
1113:
1078:
1074:
1026:
1022:
1012:
967:
963:
953:
902:
898:
888:
845:
841:
831:
809:(1): 22–30.
806:
802:
796:
751:
747:
737:
702:
648:
644:
634:
620:
543:
530:
520:carotid body
488:
465:
434:
424:ciliopathies
345:
337:
255:
254:Examples of
224:
223:Examples of
218:
181:
175:(PAMPS) and
165:
155:
146:
125:
104:
35:
31:
29:
3287:Gas sensors
3187:Bohr effect
3087:Circulation
2823:Respiration
2754:Synesthesia
2662:Hypoalgesia
2636:Paresthesia
2621:Formication
2616:CMT disease
2583:Hypergeusia
2406:Visual snow
2381:Photophobia
2376:Papilledema
2366:Oscillopsia
2352:Hemeralopia
2219:Aureochrome
2054:Toad vision
1978:Suffocation
1892:Perceptions
1470:"Chapter 4"
848:(1): 9–19.
546:bradycardia
516:Aortic body
461:bicarbonate
353:spinal cord
201:gibberellin
154:, serve as
100:homeostasis
68:nerve fiber
36:chemosensor
3276:Categories
3249:death zone
3168:hemoglobin
3063:spirometry
3022:dead space
2975:peripheral
2900:dilatation
2886:bronchial
2867:compliance
2840:exhalation
2835:inhalation
2774:Pareidolia
2729:Allochiria
2712:Multimodal
2593:Parageusia
2588:Hypogeusia
2560:Phantosmia
2540:Hyperosmia
2484:Vestibular
2464:Palinopsia
2424:Amblyaudia
2371:Palinopsia
2356:Nyctalopia
2280:Nociceptor
2087:Artificial
1810:Optic (II)
1641:Perception
1590:Processes
1582:perception
1479:2017-01-29
1455:2021-03-16
627:References
527:Heart rate
478:, via the
363:Physiology
243:pheromones
111:chemotaxis
84:physiology
52:endogenous
44:transduces
3125:Perfusion
2570:Gustatory
2522:Olfactory
2386:Photopsia
2332:Amaurosis
2306:Disorders
2199:Cone cell
2118:Types of
1729:Inner ear
1664:Cognition
1654:Awareness
1603:Sensation
1578:Sensation
919:1420-9071
862:0968-0004
595:Olfaction
476:diaphragm
340:chemistry
328:glutamate
258:include:
205:cytokinin
137:cytosolic
3302:Vomiting
3136:V/Q scan
2555:Parosmia
2545:Hyposmia
2535:Dysosmia
2474:Tinnitus
2416:Auditory
2391:Polyopia
2347:Diplopia
2204:Rod cell
2002:Nonhuman
1955:Internal
1796:Sensory
1702:External
1611:Stimulus
1594:concepts
1394:29029594
1359:21882429
1290:19145414
1226:53062169
1212:: 1–15.
1191:24946686
1156:17977465
1105:18365235
1053:29339416
1004:25675479
945:15976114
937:25374297
928:11113376
880:18165013
823:23022231
788:24711432
729:16733331
685:23728973
553:See also
482:and the
474:and the
416:vomiting
408:hormones
303:antennae
209:ethylene
171:capture
107:bacteria
3261:hypoxia
3182:2,3-BPG
2970:central
2945:medulla
2917:Control
2724:Agnosia
2603:Tactile
2578:Ageusia
2530:Anosmia
2492:Vertigo
2396:Scotoma
2337:Anopsia
1798:cranial
1669:Feeling
1147:3322410
1096:2386530
1044:5847645
995:4345563
972:Bibcode
871:2890293
779:4000837
756:Bibcode
676:3919066
402:-borne
396:medulla
264:in the
233:in the
215:Classes
129:archaea
2830:breath
2314:Visual
2265:Cilium
2011:Animal
1983:Nausea
1973:Thirst
1968:Hunger
1840:Spinal
1679:Qualia
1537:(MeSH)
1515:852474
1513:
1423:
1392:
1357:
1347:
1318:
1288:
1278:
1224:
1189:
1154:
1144:
1134:
1103:
1093:
1051:
1041:
1002:
992:
943:
935:
925:
917:
878:
868:
860:
821:
786:
776:
727:
717:
683:
673:
663:
459:and a
457:proton
320:savory
311:tongue
207:, and
92:oxygen
60:neuron
42:which
2209:ipRGC
2064:Plant
1924:Touch
1739:Mouth
1693:Human
1222:S2CID
1029:(7).
941:S2CID
610:Taste
463:ion.
437:ASICs
404:drugs
400:blood
349:brain
239:odors
227:are:
193:auxin
152:cells
82:. In
3227:DLCO
3127:(Q)
2926:pons
2744:HSAN
2719:Aura
2497:BPPV
2354:and
1800:and
1744:Skin
1734:Nose
1724:Ears
1719:Eyes
1592:and
1580:and
1511:PMID
1421:ISBN
1390:PMID
1355:PMID
1345:ISBN
1316:ISBN
1286:PMID
1276:ISBN
1187:PMID
1152:PMID
1132:ISBN
1101:PMID
1049:PMID
1000:PMID
933:PMID
915:ISSN
876:PMID
858:ISSN
819:PMID
784:PMID
725:PMID
715:ISBN
681:PMID
661:ISBN
590:Odor
390:The
371:and
286:nose
241:and
3032:PEF
3012:FRC
1503:doi
1413:doi
1382:doi
1268:doi
1245:doi
1214:doi
1179:doi
1142:PMC
1124:doi
1091:PMC
1083:doi
1079:129
1039:PMC
1031:doi
1027:200
990:PMC
980:doi
968:112
923:PMC
907:doi
866:PMC
850:doi
811:doi
774:PMC
764:doi
752:111
707:doi
671:PMC
653:doi
406:or
351:or
105:In
3278::
3027:CC
3017:Vt
3007:VC
1509:.
1497:.
1472:.
1443:.
1419:.
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1353:.
1339:.
1310:.
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1274:.
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1130:.
1099:.
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693:^
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643:.
449:pH
203:,
199:,
195:,
131:,
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